Geophysical investigation for Groundwater

Southern Gezira
(Central of Sudan)

By
Abdi Kadir Hersi Mohamed
B.Sc., Geology

A thesis submitted to the Graduate College in Fulfillment of the

requirement for the degree of Master of Science, in Geology

Department of Geology Faculty of Science

University of Khartoum
Sudan
2004/5
 ABSTRACT:-

A regional gravity survey and vertical electrical sounding measurements, in

addition to a hydrogeological study were carried out in the Gezira area
between latitudes 130 30’–140 48’ E and longitudes 320 18’ –330 36’ N.
The aim of the study is to investigate the geology of the area and subsurface
basinal structures and to indicate water-bearing zones and their
characteristic.
A Bouguer Anomaly map of scale 1: 400,000 was produced. The amplitude
of the area ranges from -27mgals to -72mgals. The Bouguer anomaly map of
the study area displays several anomalous zones, recognized as contour
closures of local gravity highs and lows. In the Bouguer map there is broad
zone of low gravity anomaly which is elongated in a general NE-SW
direction with maximum depth of 1900m and a length of 40m. Several
depression zones are shown on the map.
The interpretation of the observed Bouguer anomalies, totals of five profiles
are selected which approximately cover the most of the area. A density
contrast of (-0.47 g/cm3) between the Basement complex rocks and the
overlying sediments, and associated structures are assumed for the models.
The study area is surrounded by the White Nile rift to the west which is
formed by the junction of two major grabens; the Umm Rawaba graben
extending in a NW direction and the White Nile graben extending in N to
NW direction. The Basement rocks and the overlying Mesozoic deposits are
block-faulted at Rabak.
A total of 24 vertical electrical sounding points using a Schlumberger
configuration were made in the area. The quantitative interpretation of the

ii
VES data was performed using an automatic inversion computer
programme; Resix Version 3.08 interpex Limited 1994.
The result of the interpretation is given in form of geoelectric sections which
provide information about the geology down to depth of about 130 m.
According to the results of the vertical electrical sounding measurement, the
study area is characterized by rapid facies changes and thickness variation.
There are two main water – bearing formations in the Gezira. These are the
Nubian Sandstone and Gezira Formations. Both aquifers contain large
quantities of water. Where the Gezira Formation is thin and clayrich, the
main aquifer is in the underlying Nubian Sandstone Formation. Very often
the two aquifers are interconnected and their waters are mixed.
The standing water level is in general higher near the river Niles indicating
that the rivers are the main source of recharge to the Gezira area. The total
dissolved solids of he groundwater in the study area ranges between a 180
ppm at Umm Asalah well to 2184 ppm at El Burgan well. About 80% of the
wells tap water with a T.D.S of less than 500 ppm which indicates good
quality water.

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 Acknowledgements:-

I would like to express my deepest thanks and gratitude’s to Dr. A. G. Farwa

for his supervision and continuous encouragement’s, valuable advice,
guidance, suggestions and constructive criticism.
I am grateful to Prof. F.A. Mohamed for his continuous support, help, advice
and encouragement throughout the preparation of this thesis.
Thanks are also due to Prof. A. A. Mohammud Dean of the Faculty of
Science I.U of Africa for his keen interest in the problem, helping, patience
and encouragement.
The equipment used in the fieled work of this study are mainly provided by
the Geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS). The cooperation of
the staff of Department of Geophysics is fully acknowledged. Special thanks
are due to Mr. Hatim and Mr. I. Saror for their assistance during the field
survey and data analysis.
I wish to express my thanks to the non-Nile and Wadies Water Corporation
for their providing most of the information of borehole data. Especially to
Mr. M. khalafala, thanks are also due to Mr. A. Sh. Bashir and M. A. Boss
and A. J. Omer for their continuous help and encouragement during this
work.
My sincere thanks are also due to the Department of Geology, U of K and its
staff members specially Mr. M. El Mahdi for his cooperation and comments
during the preparation of this work.

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My thanks are also due to all my colleagues at the department of geology in
the I.U of Africa, and my friends anyone who helped me directly or
indirectly during this study.
My great appreciation and thanks extend to my wife and my children, my
family for their supports, patience and encouragement.
This work is financed by the I.U of Africa, which is fully appreciated and
gratefully acknowledged.

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List of figures:-
Fig (1) Location map……………………………………………………..3
Fig (2) Major physical features Central Sudan…………………………..5
Fig (3) Topographical map of the study area ……………………..……10
Fig (4) Geological map of the Gezira regional of central sudan………..16
Fig (5) Major structural trends map of Sudan…………………………..22
Fig (6) Location of the Gravity stations ………………………………..28
Fig (7) Scheme of Gravity Base station ……………………………… .33
Fig (7) Bueguer anomoly map of the study area ……………………….36
Fig (9) Profile I (a) residual and calculated gravity(b)Gravity model…..47
Fig (10) Profile II(a) residual and calculated gravity(b)Gravity model...39
Fig (11) ProfileIII(a) residual and calculated gravity(b)Gravity model...50
Fig (12) Profile IV(a) residual and calculated gravity(b)Gravity model..51
Fig (13) ProfileV(a) residual and calculated gravity(b)Gravity model…52
Fig (4.1) Ohmo’s law illustration ………………………………………55
Fig (4.2) Wenner array …………………………………………………58
Fig (4.3) Schlumberger array ………………………………………….59
Fig (4.4) Dipole- Dipole array ……………………………………….…60
Fig (4.5) The four commend types of apparent resistivity curves ……64
Fig (4.6) Location of VES profiles …………………………………….72
Fig (4.7a) Calibration between Ummassala B.H data and VES data…...74
Fig (4.7b) Calibration between Wad alamin B.H data and VES data…..75
Fig (4.7c) Calibration between Al Sheikh umra B.H data and VES data.76
Fig (4.7d) Calibration between Al Amara A/Bashir B.H data and VES
data……………………………………………………………………...77

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Fig (4.8a) Geoelcterical section along profile (A)……..………………..79
Fig (4.8b) Geoelcterical section along profile B…. ……………………80
Fig (4.8c) Geoelcterical section along profile C…… ………………….81
Fig (4.8d) Geoelcterical section along profile D ……………………….82
Fig (5.2) a map showing total depth …………………………………...93
Fig (5.3) a map showing the static water level ……………………..….95
Fig (5.4) map showing borehole data and lines section………………...97
Fig (5.4) Hydrolithological section along (a)…………………...……..100
Fig (5.4) Hydrolithological section along (b)……………………….....101
Fig (5.4) Hydrolithological section along (c)…………...……………..102
Fig (5.4) Hydrolithological section along (d)……………………...…..103
Fig (5.4) Hydrolithological section along (e)……………………….....104
Fig (5.4) Total dissolved solids map…………………………………..108

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List of Tables:-
Table (1) Absolute gravity value for the base stations………………….32
Table (2) summary of density information ………………………..……40
Table (4.1) Resistivity of some common rocks, soil materials…………76
Table (4.2) Resistivity of rock unity in the study area …………………73
Table (5.1) Boreholes informations ……………………………….……90
Table (5.2) Depth of wells in the study area ……………………………91

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 Contents

‫ﺍﳋﻼﺻﺔ‬..........………….…..…………………… ……..… i
Abstract ………………………………………………. ii
Acknowledgment …………………………………………………….. v
Lists of tables …..…………………………………………………..... vii
List of figures ...……………………………………………………… x

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 General ……………………...…………………………………….. 1
1.2 Climate and Vegetation ……...……………………………………... 1
1.3 Topography…………………………………………………………...4
1.4 Population …………………………………………………………... 4
1.5 Previous work ……………………………………………………......6
1.6 Present work …………………………………………………...…..7
1.7 Availability of the basic data ……………………………………...…8
1.7.1 Geology and hydrogeological data…………………………………8
1.7.2 Topographic data…………………………………………………..8
1.7.3 Geophysical data……………………………………………………9
1.8 Methodology …………………… …………………………………...9

Chapter Two: Regional Geology

2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………11
2.2 Precambrian Basement Complex ………………………………….11
2.3 Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone ……………………………………13

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2.4 Post Nubian Faulting ……………………………………………….17
2.5 Tertiary Volcanicity ………………………………………….. ……17
2.6 Quaternary Gezira ………………………………………….. ……18
2.7 Superficial Deposits ………………………………………….. …...20
2.8 Regional Structure and Tectonic setting ……………………………20
2.9 Conclusions………………………………………………………....23

Chapter Three: Gravity Fieldwork

3.1 Theoretical Background …………………………………………....24

3.2 Basics of the Gravity Method……………………………………… 25
3.2.1 Meter Drift Correction…………………………………………….25
3.2.2 Gravity Data Reduction…………………………………………...26
3.2.2.1 Elevation correction……………………………………………..27
3.2.2.2 Latitude correction………………………..……………………..28
3.2.2.3 Terrain correction……………………………………………….29
3.2.3 Bouguer Anomaly……………………………………………..…29
3.3 Gravity measurements………………………………………………30
3.3.1 Gravity stations……………………………………………………30
3.3.2 Station heights………………………………….…………………31
3.3.3 Gravity base stations………………………………………………31
3.3.4 Bouguer Anomaly of Southern Gezira…………………………....34
3.3.4.1 Density Variation………………………………………………..35
3.4 Gravity Interpretation…………………………………………...…..39
3.4.1 General …………………………………………………………39
3.4.2 Qualitatively interpretation …………………………………… 39

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3.4.3 Regional and residual …………………………………………….40
3.4.3.1 Graphical and smoothing techniques …………………… …… 41
3.4.3.2 Analytical techniques …………………………………………..41

3.4.4 Qualitative interpretation ………………………………………. 42

3.4.5 Modeling of gravity profiles ……………………………….. ….. .46
3.5 Conclusions……………………………………………………..…..53

Chapter Four: Resistivity Sounding Measurements

4.1introduction…………………………………………...54
4.2 Theorotical background …………………………………………….54
4.2.1 Apparent resistivity ……………………………………….……...56
4.2.2 Electrode configuration ………………………………….…….....57
4.3 survey method ……………………………………………………...60
4.3.1 Vertical electrical soundings (VES)……………………………....60
4.3.2 The constant separation technique (CST)………………………..61
4.4 Resistivity curves …………………………………………………..62
4.5 The resistivity of the earth materials …………………………….…66
4.6 limitation of the resistivity method ………………………………....67
4.6.1 Principle of Equivalence of K & H-type curves……………….….67
4.6.2 Principle of Suppression…………………………………………..68
4.6.3 Principle of Anisotropy ………………………………………..…68
4.7 interpretation of the VES data of the area ……………………….....70
4.7.1 Qualitative interpretation ……………………………………...….71
4.7.2 Invertion of resistivity data……………………………………….71
4.7.2.1 Calibration of VES data ………………………………………...72

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4.7.2.2 Geoelectric sections of the study area…………………………..72
4.8 Conclutions………………………………………………………….83

Chapter Five: Hydrogeology

5.1General ……………………………………………………………...84
5.2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………84
5.2.2 Occurrence of groundwater …………………………………85
5.2.3 water- bearing Formations ………………………………….86
5.2.3.1 Basement Complex ……………………………………….86
5.2.3.2 Nubian Sandstone Formations …………………………….86
5.2.3.3 The Gezira Formation ………………………….................87
5.2.4 Hydrogeologic characteristic and lithology ………………………91
5.2.4.1 Depth to Wells…………………………………………………..91
5.2.4.2 Depth to the water of the study area…………………………….92
5.2.4.3 Hydrolithological Characteristics of the study area………….…96
5.3 Hydrochemistry …………………………………………………...105
5.3.1 General ………………………………………………………….105
5.3.2 Water quality ……………………………………………………105
5.3.2.1 Suitability of groundwater……………………………………..109
5.4 conclusions. ……………………………….....................................110

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 Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendation:-
6.1 Conclusion ………………………………………………………...112
6.2 Recommendations……………………………………………..…..115
Reference………………………………………………………………116
Appendix …………………………………………………...................122

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODACTION: -

1.1 General: -
The Gezira area in Sudan forms a triangle of land bounded by the
Blue Nile to the east, the White Nile to the west and by the railway line to
the south. The study area constitutes the southern extension of Gezira area
lying between latitudes 130 30–140 48 E and longitudes 320 18’ –330 36’ N
and covers about 20,000 Km2 Fig (1).

1.2 Climate and Vegetation:-

The Gezira has semi-arid climate (Barbour 1961) with hot dry
summer (mean daily temperature 39 –420 C) and relatively cooler winter
(mean daily temperature 15-280 C). Erratic rainfalls are received in autumn
(July –August) commonly associated with thunderstorms and vary in amount
from 150 mm in the north to 450 mm in the south. Relative humidity during
this season is high (60%).
The Gezira area falls broadly within three major vegetation units outlined by
Harrison & Jackson (1958). A semi-desert shrub, semi-desert grassland and
Acacia mellifera. Their distribution is affected by the soil type, and the
biotic factor (animal and human).

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The semi-desert shrub community forms the northern most part of the
Gezira plain. Its mean annual rainfall varies from about 165 to about 300mm
(El-Tom 1972).
Semi-desert grassland is the natural vegetation observed in the central
Gezira without trees or shrub. Harrison & Jackson (1958) considered that
before the development of irrigation, part of the central Gezira was semi-
desert grassland. The mean annual rainfall increases southwards from about
250mm to about 360mm at Wad-Madani.

The Acacia community lies south of Wad- Madani and extends southwards
to the line joining Kosti, Jebel Moya and Sennar.The annual mean rainfall
ranges from about 280mm at Ed-Dueim to about 400mm at Sennar.

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xvii
1.3 Topography: -

The Gezira land is dominated by an extensive clay plain. The

thickness of the clays increases to the north. Minor irregularities in relief are
observed near the major drainage features (the Blue and the White Nile and
their tributaries). Few low scattered outcrops as well as fixed sand dunes are
exposed in the west and north of Gezira region Fig (2).

The general surface elevation of the Gezira plain decreases towards the
north, from (410m in the south to 380m in the north). The main rivers show
considerable terraces along their banks Fig (3).
The sediment fill of the palaeochannels exposed in several locations at the
Blue Nile banks may suggest the former presence of disconnected
meandering streams. These sediments contain Gastropods, which indicate
the Pleistocene Epoch (Williams, and Adamson 1982).
The Gezira soil is made of black loamy clays and silts with low
permeability.

1.4 Population: -
In the past, nomads dominated the country, but now peasants and seasonal
labourers constitute large part of the population. Most of the population lives
in small-scattered villages. Their main job is agriculture besides keeping
Cattle, Sheep, and Goats.
The area is accessible by a paved road from Khartoum to Ed-Duein to Kosti
parallel to the White Nile and another paved road from Khartoum to Wad

xviii
Madani to Senar.In the interior parts of the Gezira area only unpaved tracks
are available.

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1.5 Previous work: -
Many workers in different fields of geology studied the Gezira land.
Kheiralla (1966) studied the Nubian Formation (Mesozoic Sediments) in the
Nile valley with reference to groundwater. He classified the Formation into
five geological units.
Abdel Salam (1966) studied the hydrogeology of the Gezira area. He
indicated that the groundwater in the Nubian and the Gezira aquifers occur
under confined to semi confined conditions. Also he investigated the
relationship between geology and distribution of groundwater.
Berry (1969) discussed the evolution of the River Nile and origin of the clay
plain. Whiteman (1971) discussed the regional geology of the Sudan. Mula
(1971) conducted detailed gravity measurements on J, Aulia Cretaceous
Nubian sandstone. He indicated a major post Nubian fault trending south
which extends into the Gezira. El-Boushi (1972) studied the shallow
groundwater of the Gezira Formation at Khartoum Province and northern
Gezira.
Abdelatif (1976) studied the groundwater geology of the Blue Nile basin
between Abu Huggar and Wad Medani. He mentioned that the main aquifers
of the area occur under confined to semi-confined conditions. Farwa (1978)
carried out regional gravity traverses across the northern Gezira area. He
produced a Bouguer map and discovered thick sedimentary deposits of
Cretaceous sandstone and the Quaternary Gezira Formation filling basement
depressions. Ayed (1979) made extensive electrical resistivity measurements
in the present White Nile province.

xxi
Salih (1989) studied the sedimentology of Al Atshan Formation. He devided
the sediments into Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone Formation, Tertiary
ferruginous units, and the Quaternary Al Atshan Formation.
Magboul (1992) studied the hydrogeology of the northern region of the
Gezira. He indicated that the environment of the Nubian sediments could be
lacustrine and braided channels.
Awad El Karim (1994) studied the hydrogeology between Abu Qouta and
Managil. He constructed salinity maps for the Gezira and the Nubian
aquifers. Awad (1994) concluded stratigraphic, palynological, and
paleoecological studies of the area east central Sudan (Khartoum and Kosti
basins). He reclassified the Mesozoic sediments into several formations. He
produced palynostratigraphic range charts for the late Jurassic to middle
Tertiary subsurface sediments of the Khartoum and the Kosti basins in
central Sudan.
Bireir (1994) studied the sedimentology of the northern central part of the
Gezira.
El-Hadi (2001) studied the subsurface geology of southern Gezira and wrote
about the Gezira and Nubian aquifers. He mentioned that the Gezira aquifer
is affected by salinity at depths between 35-55m and 70-100m.

1.6 Present work: -

According to the results of previous works carried out in the Gezira area
which revealed several structural features and basinal depressions, having
considerable thickness of Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments, the present work
is a southward extension in the Gezira area to verify these findings and to
relate the presence of groundwater to the postulated sedimentary basins,

xxii
using gravity survey and vertical electrical sounding (VES) method with
geological information from selected boreholes in the study area.
The regional gravity measurements are used to investigate the geology of the
subsurface and the basinal structures in the area
In this research, vertical electrical sounding (VES) is used in selected area,
to indicate water-bearing zones and to delineate the depth of the Basement
Complex rocks in the shallow areas.
However, the result of the geophysical surveys should not be viewed in
isolation but rather integrated with the available geological and
hydrogeological information, for delimitation of promising water zones and
areas for more detailed geological and geophysical exploration, beside the
determination of the water condition and information about lithology of the
sedimentary succession in the area.

1.7 Availability of basic data: -

1.7.1 Geology and hydrogeological data
Regional geological information is available for the study area from the
Geological Map of Sudan scale: 1:2,000,000 for the whole country which is
prepared by the Geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS).
Hydrogeological informations are mainly obtained from the non-Nile Water
and Wadi Administration archives. The Hydrogeological Map of Sudan
scale 1:2,000,000 is produced by the formar National Corporation
Development of Rural water Resource, Sudan.

1.7.2 Topographic data

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Topographic maps of scale 1:250,000 are available at the Survey
Department in Khartoum. The area is included in the topographic sheets: F
55, G 55, J 55 and K 55. The topographic maps included altitude
measurement and benchmarks further tied with barometric measurements.
1.7.3 Geophysical data
This is available in unpublished reports (Geophysics & Strojoexport., 1977).
and the gravity survey carried out by Farwa (M.Sc-Thesis) helped in the
design and planning of the geophysical investigation conducted during the
course of this study.

1.8 Methodology.
The methodology followed has comprised three principal elements.
(i) Office work: this activity was concentrated on data collection,
review of literature and compilation of basic maps.
(ii) Field work: during this phase the field activities included :-
a- assessment of site geology at some locations
b- confirmation of borehole locations
c- geophysical survey (Regional gravity measurement and
Vertical electrical sounding (VES).
(iii) Laboratory work: analysis of field measurements.

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 CHAPTER TWO

GEOLOGY: -
2.1 Introduction: -

The geology of the study area is largely masked by the clays the plain, and
hence photogeological interpretation is of limited application in the
identification of the geological units. The available literature and the scanty
of the surface information, supplemented by the subsurface data obtained
from hand-dug wells, bore holes, field traverses in outcropping areas and
further supported by geological maps and reports suggest the following
tentative lithological sequence and geological events: Fig (4).

-Recent superficial sediments

-Quaternary Gezira Formation
-Tertiary volcanicity
-Post-Nubian faulting
-Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone Formation
-Precambrian Basement Complex

2.2 The Precambrian Basement Complex: -

xxvii
General: -
The Basement Complex is the assemblage of igneous; metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks, which underlies the horizontal ،and sub-horizontal beds
of the Nubian Sandstone Formation (Whiteman 1977) The Basement
Complex Rocks are the oldest rocks in the study area, which underlie the
sedimentary cover. They crop out at west of the White Nile between
Omdurman and Ed-Dueim , east of the Blue Nile and south of the Gezira
between Senar and Kosti .
The Basement rocks in the Gezira region appear also in form of isolated out
corps of charnockites, schist, marbles and foliated granite.
(i) Granulites and Charnockites: -
High grade metamorphic rocks are found at Jebel Moya 30 Km west of
Sennar. The Jebel is made up of bouldry out crops of coarse –grained dark,
charnockite.
The rocks are composed of large crystals of hypersthene ،plagioclase and
quartz. In thin section, pink–green pleochroic orthopyroxene, green
amphibole and yellow–green biotite are surrounded by quartz and
plagioclase. The plagioclase is zoned and has thin lamellae showing low
extinction angles. Apatite and magnetite are also abundant. (J.R.vail1980).
(ii) Gniesses: -
This type of rock crops out in the southern Gezira and at Jebel Arashkol
west of the White Nile . The rock is porphyroblastic quartz- feldspathic
gneiss of fine-grained dark groundmass and large feldspar. Under the
microscope the rock is composed of large irregular, angular fragments of
quartz, K-feldspar, altered plagioclase and perthite. The matrix is granular
mass of broken grains with brown – green mica, sercite, chlorite and

xxviii
accessory apatite, euhedral sphene, and streaky magnetite. The cataclastic
texture is dominant, (J.R.vail1980).

(iii) Schist and marbles: -

These are generally composed of sericite schist ،graphitic schist, and marbles
of moderate grade regional metamorphism. They crop out between Kosti and
Sinnar in the vicinity of the graphitic schist. The sericite schist is fine-
grained rock composed of quartz and white mica, they are slightly foliated,
hence the graphitic schists are soft dull, black rocks. They form a band
between Jebel Moya and Jebel Sagadi (Adamsom 1980).
(iv) Granite: -
This type of rocks occurs at Jebel Moya, as intrusions into the charnockites
The Jebel Sagadi is made up of low outcrop of very coarse grained granite,
largely pegmatite, porphyrite, orange-pink in colour and made up
dominantly of quartz and feldspar. Under the microscope large equigranuler
crystals of quartz, perthite, orthoclase and albite-oligoclase are associated
with large, brown biotite crystals and minor dark green hornblende.

2.3 The Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone: -

The Nubian Sandstone Formation represents an important rock unit in
Sudan, as it covers about 28% of the surface area and represents the major
groundwater aquifer.
About two centuries ago the term of Nubian Sandstone was introduced;
which is confusing, vague and ambiguous as the knowledge on the Nubian
Sandstone has not been enlarged at that time.

xxix
The Sudanese Nubian Sandstone Series was first described by Beadnell in
1909. Sandford (1935) studied the geology of Northwestern Sudan and used
the term Nubian Series. He distinguished three lithological units.
a- A lower unit of conglomerate and coarse sandstone.
b -An argillaceous intermediate unit.
c- An upper unit dominated by fine sand.
Kheiralla (1966), used the term Nubian Sandstone Formation to designate
the sediments of variegated colors lying unconformably on the Basement
Complex and composed of sandstone, mudstones, conglomerates and
overlain unconformabley by the Tertiary or Quaternary deposits.
Whiteman (1971) proposed replacing the term by “Nubian Sandstone
Group” because the first term is chrono-stratigraphic. The Nubian Sandstone
Group designates the conglomerates, the sandstones and the argillites, which
lie unconformably on the Basement Complex or on the Paleozoic
sandstones. This Formation is locally covered by the Hudi Chert Formation
or by the lower Tertiary basaltic lava.
Tahir (1976) believed that the Nubian Sandstone of Khartoum region was
deposited by rivers in a tropical environment.
The age determination of the Nubian Sandstone was discussed by many
authors. Edwards (1926) considered the Nubian Sandstone in western Sudan
as lower Cretaceous. Chialvo (1975) proposed the Nubian Sandstone in
eastern Sudan at Gadarif be refered to upper Cretaceous. Omer (1978)
indicated that the Nubian Sandstone in central, eastern and southern Sudan is
upper Jurassic to Cretaceous with preference for the lower Cretaceous.

The nature of the Nubian Sandstone:

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Generally the exposures are flat lying, forming hills which are often capped
with ferruginous crusts.
The outcrops consist of horizontal or slightly dipping, some of the outcrops
have been affected by strong faulting such as J.Aulia. The petrographic
nature of the Nubian Sandstone indicates three types of facies. A sandy
facies, which consists of siliceous sandstone multi-coloured, with silica
cement, ironstone or argillaceous cement, and is of variable grain size. A
second shaly facies with variable colours: red, violet and while the third is a
gravel facies at the base of the paleochannels, where pebbles of quartz form
coherent beds.
Two types of transport had affected the Nubian Sandstone: -
1-transport by braided channels.
2-transport by laminar flow (flood plain deposit)
The environment of deposition of the Nubian Sandstone may be of two
environments: continental environment and littoral environment
The Nubian Formation in the Gezira is made of coarse –medium poorly
sorted and gently inclined strata largely made of sandstone locally
intercalated with relatively thin layers or lenses of basal conglomerates,
arkoses, grit, shale and mudstones. The sandstone may include pebbly
variety and other types of variable cementing material. Although the
sandstones are considered as an excellent water aquifer, however, these
sandstones are deeply buried in Gezira region.
The Nubian Sandstone Formation contains plant fossils. i.e. fossil wood,
plant fragments and leaf prints. On the basis of the fossil record Whiteman
(1971) suggested the deposition of the Nubian sequence to have commenced
in a fresh water environment during the Upper Cretaceous time. The
sediments were transported via rapid streams and dumped into disconnected

xxxi
series of lakes. Palaoecurrent records in rocks indicate derivation of the
sediments from localities situated south to southeast of the Gezira
(Kheiralla1966).

xxxii
xxxiii
2.4 The Post Nubian Faulting: -
The post Nubian faulting is indicated in Gezira on the surface by N-S
brecciated felsite dykes traversing the basement rocks and the Nubian
Sandstone Formation. These faults also displaced the granitic bodies.
Qureshi and Mula (1973) reported the occurrence of similar N-S faults from
northern Gezira affecting the sandstone mass of Jebel Aulia. The Blue Nile
sector between Senar and Wad Madeni appears to follow a N-S fault zone
(Farwa 1977).
Farwa (1977) deducted from analysis of a Bouguer anomaly map the
occurrence of NE-SW and NW-SE fault running along the margins of the
subsurface basins and horsts concealed underneath.

2.5 The Tertiary Volcanicity: -

In central Sudan volcanic rocks were emplaced in the Nubian Sandstone
strata presumably during Tertiary times. Two small outcrops of olivine
basalt occur south and west of Ummdurman. The former makes up the low
Jebel of Toriya and is now quarried for road material (Almond 1968). The
other is a small outcrop of jointed fine-grained dark green basalt.
Traces of volcanic ash and pumice are recorded along the Blue Nile west of
Wad-Madani. The ash generally occupies the upper horizons of the plain at
few meters below the surface, However, the same ash is encountered within
the Wadi channels. At Sennar, coarse-grained basalt referred to as the

xxxiv
Sennar Teschenite (Whiteman 1971) crops out just below the Dam wall,
where it is surrounded by Nubian-type sediments.

2.6 The Quaternary Gezira Formation: -

The Quaternary Gezira Formation consists of unconsolidated clays, silts,
sands and gravels, that lie unconformably on either the Nubian sandstone
Formation or directly on the Basement Complex, and is covered by black
cotton soil and blown sand (Andrew 1948). And defined uniquely for the
land between the two rivers
Clay and silts are largely alluvium derived from the Ethiopian volcanic
plateau via a network of protochannels later integrated into the present Blue
Nile course.
Lithologicaly, the Gezira Formation is mainly a mixture of clays which are
alkaline, dark in colour and low in organic matter. They contain a high
proportion of undecayed minerals such as calcic plagioclase, titano-augite,
hornblende and brown biotite flakes (Andrew 1948). The sand is composed
mainly of angular to sub angular quartz grains of white, yellow and grey
colour, fine to medium grains which are poorly sorted. Gravels are
composed mainly of white or yellow quartz pebbles with different fragments
of metamorphic and igneous rocks and kanker nodules.
The thickness of the Gezira Formation varies from few metres (1.5m) close
to Managil ridge to more than 180m in the center of the plain (El-Boushi and
Abdelsalam 1982).

xxxv
Sedimentation in the Gezira appears to be controlled by the Cenozoic
tectonic activity which accompanied the eruption of volcanoes.
Abdelsalam (1966) classified the Gezira Formation into three members (a-
Mungata Member b- Lower Sandy Member c- Upper Gezira Clay Member).
Awad (1994) added to this succession a fourth basal Member at Wad
Madani. In the following a brief description is given:

A-Wad Madani Member: -

This unit represents the basal part of the Gezira Formation. It consists
predominantly of sand and clay interbeds, and occasional limestone and
tuffaceous material which occur near the top of the member. The clays are
varicoloured, predominantly light grey to reddish brown. The sands are
loose, coarse to medium-grained and moderately sorted. Occasional stringers
of silts and /or fine-to very fine-grained sands may be present.

b-The Mungata Member: -

This member is Oligocene to Miocene age as indicated by plyanofora (Awad
1994) as recorded from wells at Mungata village near Managil. It is
predominantly made of coarse arkosic gravels, sands and clayey grit
showing variable thickness and fining upwards. The thickness recorded at
the type locality is 111m but on average the thickness is 9m. The rock
contains fish-bone fossil obtained from a 44 m deep well.

C-Lower Sand Member: -

xxxvi
This member is mainly made of sands accompanied with gravel, silt and
clayey lenses. Clay or lime often cement the sands. Gravel lenses vary in
thickness from few centimeters to over 30m. Indurate gravels some times
extend for 16-24km and usually thin out towards the Blue Nile. The
thickness of this unit varies between 20 to over 58m with an average of 35m
(Abdelsalam1966).

D-Upper Clay Member: -

This member covers an extensive area between the Blue Nile and the White
Nile. It forms the top of the Gezira Formation. It is mainly made up of clays
with occasional patches of sand, quartz-pebble pockets, and kanker nodules
which occur in local zones. The thickness varies from 3m in the west to 27m
at the east of the area with an average of 17m (Abdel salaam 1966).

2.7 The Superficial deposits: -

Most of the study area is covered by black cotton soil, which may be
associated with kankar.
In the west of the area there are residual deposits which are mainly derived
from the weathering processes of adjacent rocks. The superficial deposed
consists of Qoz sand, Khor and Wadi deposits,
Rock fragments and residual gravel occur along the banks of the Blue Nile
and the White Nile the alluvium is mainly current bedded fine and medium
to coarse sands in addition to silt and clay.

2.8 Regional structures and tectonic setting: -

xxxvii
Salama (1985) postulated that the Cenozoic up-doming, volcanicity and
tensional stress associated with the movement of the African Plate created
rift structures which were formed by successive block faulting along
palaeotrends. These were followed by subsidence and linear uplift to create
the biggest rift structures in Africa; the Sudanese Rift System. This extends
from the western boundaries of Sudan to the eastern borders with
Ethiopia.fig (5)
The study area is surrounded the by White Nile rift to the west which is
formed by the junction of two major grabens; the Umm Rawaba graben
extending in a NW direction and the White Nile graben extending in N to
NW direction. It is bounded in the North by E-W faults and NE-SW fault
systems. The Basement rocks and the overlying Mesozoic deposits are
block-faulted at the Rabak where the Mesozoic sediments are down thrown
more than 100m at Kosti. To the north, the study area is surrounded by the
Blue Nile Basin which extends from south of Sabaloka gorge and continues
southeast to the Sudan borders with Ethiopia. It’s formed of three main
grabens, from North to South, Khartoum basin, Wad Madani basin and the
Singa basin. Its southern limit is the elevated basement block extending in a
NW-SE direction with various hills cropping out along this boundary line
i.e.J.Dali, J.Mazmum, J.Moya, J.Doud, and J.biuyt. The northern margin is
another elevated block of basement rocks extending in NW-SE direction
i.e.J.Fau. A series of faults striking NW-SE parallel to the Blue Nile, River
El-Rahad and River Dinder caused a westerly down throw with southerly
increase in depth.
There are a few structural informations in the study area, which are in form
of strike and dip of foliation or bedding and metamorphic lineaments. In
southern Gezira the strike of foliation of the metasediments and the trend of

xxxviii
the associated quartzite, graphitic slates and limestone bands is also NE. The
Feldsite dyke in western Gezira area at J.Huweida and J.Bereima are
intensively brecciated. The zone of brecciation has a general N-S trend.
Whiteman (1971) suggested that the basement complex in central Sudan was
affected by four periods of metamorphism or folding whereas Rabaa (1976)
suggested another evolutionary system for the Basement. He mentioned
three phases of folding (F1, F2, and F3) which affected the metamorphic
sequence in the central region of Sudan. The second phase of folding was
dominant over the first and it was only slightly influenced by the third phase.
Folds of F2 generation are reclined folds having their axial plane dipping
steeply to the east. F3 was associated also with thrusting, shearing and
faulting. These structural domains of the Basement Complex are partly

xxxix
xl
responsible for the control of the subsequent deposition and deformation of
the Nubian Sandstone and the younger sedimentary formations.

2.9 Conclusion:-
The lithological sequence and geological events of the study area consist
of The Basement Complex is the assemblage of igneous; metamorphic
rocks. Which are the oldest rocks in the study area underlie the Cretaceous
Nubian Sandstone which composed of sandstone, mudstones and
conglomerate. The Nubian Sandstone formation is overlain unconformabley
by The Quaternary Gezira Formation which consists of unconsolidated
clays, silts, sands and gravels, the clays are alkaline, dark in colour and low
in organic matter.
The sand is composed mainly of angular to sub angular quartz grains of
white, yellow and grey colour, fine to medium grains which are poorly
sorted. Gravels are composed mainly of quartz pebbles with different
fragments of crystalline rocks
Most of the study area is covered by the black cotton soil, which may be
associated with kankar.
The study area is surrounded the by the White Nile rift to the west which is
formed by the junction of two major grabens; the Umm Rawaba graben
extending in a NW direction and the White Nile graben extending in N to
NW direction Fig (5). The Basement rocks and the overlying Mesozoic
deposits are block-faulted at the Rabak.

xli
 CHAPTER THREE

GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS: -

3.1 Theoretical Background: -

Newton ’ s law of gravitational force is the fundamental principle behind
gravity prospecting .Below is the formula for the force of gravity between
two masses M1 and M 2 separated by a distance r.

M1 M2

M1M 2
F=G
r2

Where G is the gravitational constant which is 6.673 x 10-11 (N m2/s) (mks

units).
In words, the force of gravity is equal to the product of the gravitational
constant times the masses of the two objects divided by the square of the
separation between the center of masses (squared).

xlii
For gravity prospecting we are interested in the acceleration of gravity
rather than the force of gravity. Given that Force = Mass x Acceleration,
one can eliminate a unit mass M1 from both sides of the force equation and
find the acceleration due to gravity.
a = G M2 / r2 which becomes g = G M / R2

Where: g = the acceleration of the Earth’s gravity field.

R = the radius of the Earth.
And M = the mass of the Earth.

Gravity surveys are conducted to solve problems of prospecting in

geology. This includes the following among several items:
a) The tectonic, lithologic and petrographic demarcation of areas for
geological mapping.
b) The delimitation of promising zones and areas for more detailed
geological and geophysical exploration.
c) The investigation of structures favouring the accumulation of minerals
and hydrocarbons.
The gravity method of prospecting is based on study of the natural
gravitational field at the surface of the earth. By measuring the element of
this field we can obtain an idea of the density of the rock forming the crust.
More over much attention is paid to study of density of formation because
local variations in density of the subsurface rocks cause changes in the main
gravity field.
The presence of a difference in density between the body being sought and
the enclosing rocks is a necessary condition for gravity prospecting and, the
greater it is, the more successfully geophysics method can be employed.

xliii
3.2 Basics of the Gravity Method:
3.2.1 Meter Drift Correction: -
Instrument drift is corrected for by periodic reoccupation of established base
stations. Small changes in the readings at these bases are attributed to
instrument drift. A drift correction is applied to intervening observations by
linear interpolation.
In this work the meter drift correction is made by re-measuring the gravity at
the same location (base station) at different times. Then the differences in
the gravity observations at these bases are used to estimate the meter drift.

3.2.2 Gravity Data Reduction:-

The purpose for collecting gravity data is to determine the structure and
nature of buried geologic bodies. The goal of gravity processing is to convert
field measurements into gravity data by removing of all factors not relating
to local geologic bodies. This is achieved by applying corrections related to
elevation, latitude, and terrain which leads to Bouguer anomaly.
In processing, gravity data the writer used Gravemaster program (windows-
based program) which takes data from land gravity surveys and removes the
predicable distortion. The anomalies, which remain, can then be interpreted
as variation due to sub surface variations in rock density.

xliv
This program was developed jointly by Geotools, the software division of
AOA Geophysics Inc., and Laoste and Romberg.
The corrections applied are the followings:

3.2.2.1 Elevation correction: -

Elevation is a critical factor in the measurements of gravity. The

acceleration of gravity is highly dependent upon the distance from center of
mass of the Earth. The elevation correction includes two corrections: -
The Free-Air correction and Bouguer correction.
Free-Air correction Since gravity varies inversely with the square of
distance, it is necessary to correct for changes in elevation between stations
so that all field reading are reduced to a single datum surface. This is known
as the Free-air correction.
The Free-air corrections does not include the density of the material between
the station elevation and the datum. It is a correction for the vertical change
of gravitational acceleration. It is obtained by differentiation of the term
γM
∆g =
R2
∆gFA − 2γ M e − 2 g
= =
∆Re Re3 r

On substituting the earth’s radios (6371 km) for r and the mean value of
gravity (981,000 mgals) for g, we get a ∆gFA of 0.3086 mgal/m.
So the Free-air correction in this work is positive because all
gravity stations are above the datum.

xlv
The Bouguer correction is to replace the “air” in the previous correction
with rock. The space between the gravity station and the reference surface is
filled with an infinite horizontal slab of rock. An average density of 2.67
gr/cm3 is required to calculate the Bouguer correction. The Bouguer
correction formula for an infinite horizontal sheet is:
Bouguer correction =2π Gρh

Given G =6.673x10 –11 m 3 kg -1 s-2

Bouguer correction = 0.04193ρh

Where ρ is density in g/cm 3 and h is elevation in meter. This can also be

expressed as:

∆g =0.04193ρ (mgal/meter).

So the total elevation correction is expressed as:

∆g e = (0.3086-0.04193P) h. mgal/meter
Thus, an elevation factor of 0.1929mgal/meter is applied in this work.

3.2.2.2 Latitude correction: -

It accounts for variation of the gravity of the earth as expressed by the

International Gravity Formula. Thus it is necessary to apply a latitude
correction where there are any appreciable north-south excursions of the grid
stations.

xlvi
In this work for the latitude correction, we use this formula: -

g Φ = 97832.67(1+0.0052790414sin 2 Φ+0.0000232718sin 4 Φ)

Where g Φ = theoretical gravity in mgal.

Φ = Geographical latitude in degree.

3.2.2.3 Terrain correction: -

This correction allows for surface irregularities in the vicinity of the field
station e.g. hill rising above the gravity station or valleys below it.
There are several graphical methods for calculating terrain corrections, all of
them require good topographical maps of the area extending if possible
considerably beyond the survey grid (within which, of course, the elevations
are known more-precisely). The terrain correction tries to account for the
local topography the bumbs and pits on top on the infinite slab and can be
important in height relief areas. This correction was not performed in the
study area because the surveyed area is generally flat, (changes in relief 0-
10m) Appendix.

3.2.3 Bouguer Anomaly: -

The Bouguer anomaly is the difference between the elevation
corrected observed gravity and theoretical gravity.as`shown by the relation
below:

xlvii
∆gB = gobs + ∆ge - gΦ

Were ∆gB = Bouguer anomaly

gobs = Observed gravity

∆ge = elevation correction

gΦ = theoretical gravity

3.3 Gravity measurements: -

Sometimes the term” observed gravity“ is used for any form of gravity
based on field measurements. In a more technically restricted usage
“observed gravity“ represents the “ real “ gravity value, the actual
acceleration, at any point on the Earth ’ s surface.
In most cases, a survey will be designed to include one or more stations
where the absolute gravity is known. The difference between the observed
gravity for the known base station (after applying all corrections) and the
published gravity value for that station tells how much shift for the observed
gravity values to make them absolute gravity values.
A regional gravity survey was carried out in the area during the period
1999-2000. Measurements were conducted along loops in the area Fig (6).
The measurements in this work were made with a Lacoste & Romberg
Gravimeter, Model D No 108. The instrument measuring range is 200mgals,

xlviii
which is wide enough to observe the expected gravity variation in the area. It
has a dial constant of 1.0863mgal/division with an accuracy of
±0.005mgal.The average drift rate of the instrument is ±1mgal/month.

3.3.1 Gravity stations: -

The points of observations are distributed along six loops Fig (6) which form
closed polygons or triangles of variable dimensions. Four topographic maps
of 1:250000 scale, are used as a base map for plotting the gravity points.

xlix
 14.8

14.6

14.4

Manaqil

14.2

El Dueim
14

13.8

Kawa

0 10Km
13.6 Scale:

32.4 32.6 32.8 33 33.2 33.4 33.6

Fig ( ) Location of gravity data points

The station spacing along the loops is 5km which was determined with the
help of GPS (Global Positioning System). The number of stations occupied

l
in this survey is 136. About 57 regional gravity readings from the regional
gravity map of the Gezira by Farwa (1977) are compiled and plotted Fig (6).
The total number of stations used is 193.
The gravity stations are irregularly aligned depending on the accessibility
along the major canals in the irrigated part of the Gezira.

3.3.2 Station heights: -

Station elevations were determined using Aneroid barometers. Two
Aneroid barometers (MDM-5) are used: one barometer is kept moving along
with the gravity observations while the other is kept at the base station, to
record the diurnal variation of pressure and temperature.

3.3.3 Gravity base stations: -

All gravity differences are referred to a main base station (GBS)
established at the Geology Department, University of Khartoum. Its value is
978.30338 mgal.
A number of base stations are established in the present work at two parts
(Kawa and Managil) in the study area. They were connected to the main
base station and to each other, successively by repeated measurements with
the gravimeter during the course of observations.
The base stations and their absolute values are shown in Table (1)
The main base stations in the area are schematically shown in Fig (7). It is
observed that the discrepancy is very small. This is attributed to the good
accuracy of the Lacoste & Romberg gravimeter used.

li
3.3.4 Density Variation: -
In this work, the calculation of the Bouguer anomaly is done using a density
of 2.67gm/cc. This density value is based on compilations from Farwa
(1978), Mula (1971), Sadig (1969), Merghani (1994) and several others from
the literature. The density of the crystalline Basement Complex, Nubian
Sandstone Formation, the Gezira Formation and the superficial deposits are
taken as 2.67, 2.3, 2.1, 1.8 gm/cc respectively.
Table (2) is summary of density information at different parts of the country.
In the table one can observe the Nubian Group variation in density to be
controlled by cementing materials, indurations and porosity.

lii
liii
Table (1)
Absolute gravity value for the base stations with reference to
base station Khartoum (GBS)
Main station name Coordinates Absolute value (mgal)

Khartoum (GBS) 150 37’/320 33’ 978303.38

J.Aulia 150 14’/320 30’ 978292.57
El-Geteina 140 50’/320 21’ 978280.28
Kawa 130 44’/320 30’ 978216.73
Managil 140 14’/320 59’ 978233.43

liv
3.3.4 Bouguer Anomaly of the Southern Gezira
A Bouguer anomaly map is produced by compilation of 136 Bouguer
anomaly values from the present survey with 57 Bouguer anomaly values
from previous survey conducted by Farwa.
On the Bouguer anomaly map Fig (8) there are two main gravity high zones;
the first occurs in the most lower part of the study area and the highest
gravity anomaly zone occur in an area located about 6 Km east of El-shawal
with value of –27mgals, forming an open contour closure generally trending
in a NS direction.
The second high gravity zone occurs in the NE corner of the study area, the
contour lines over these areas are elongate in NW-SE direction with a
maximum value of –36mgals.
In the Bouguer map there is broad zone of low gravity anomaly which is
elongated in a general NE-SW direction and it is roughly bordered on both
sides by the (-52) mgal contour line.
Another gravity low zones are recognized in the Bouguer map: one occurs
in the upper corner of the study area with a value of –72mgals. It is
elongated in the center and it is generally trending N – S.
The second gravity low zone occurs NE of Managil with a minimum value
of –59 which trends NE – SW. A small gravity low zone is observed 10 Km

lv
NE of Kawa with a minimum value of -59 around station (164). Another two
gravity low zones are partly revealed at stations (232) and (241) in the map.
It can be concluded that the gravity anomalies in the area may be the result
of the following:
1- Variation of density between the Basement Complex and overlying
sediments.
2- Variation within the Basement Complex is also suggested.

lvi
lvii
Table (2).

Rock name Average Location Source

Density
gm/cc
Acid Gneiss 2.73 Darfur & west
Kordofan state
Undifferentiated 2.59-3.27 Sabaloka North of Sadig et.al 1969

B.C Khartoum

Granite 2.66 Ahmed,1994

Charnokite 2.63
Enderbite 2.77
Graphite 2.12
Amphibolite 2.91
Granite 2.64 J.Qeili Ahmed ,1968
Syenite 2.62
Gabbro 2.93
Rhyolite 2.67
Green schist 2.81
Conglomerate 2.63 Western Kordofan State Strojexport,1975

Silicified sst 2.61

Conglomerate 2.42-2.63 Kordofan State & Strojexport,11976

&Silicified sst Darfur State

Conglomerate

lviii
(slightly cemented) 2.26-2.34

Mudstone 2.00-2.18 Kordofan State & Strojexport,1975

(cemented) Eastern Darfur State

Sands 1.76
Mudstone &
siltstone 2.07-1.52 Strojexport,1975
Clays
Nubian 2.3 J.Aulia Mula 1971
Formation
Gezira Formation 2.1
Superficial 1.8
deposit

lix
3.4 Gravity Interpretation: -

3.4.1 General: -
The shape of a gravity anomaly is determined by the dimensions,
density contrast and depth of the anomalous body. The horizontal extent of
an anomaly is often called its apparent, ‘wavelength’ the wavelength of an
anomaly is a measure of the depth of the anomalous mass. Large deep
bodies give rise to broad (long-wavelength), low amplitude anomalies, while
small, shallow bodies cause narrow(short-wavelength),sharp anomalies.
Usually a map of Bouguer anomaly contains superposed anomalies from
several sources; the long-wavelength anomalies which are due to deep
density contrast are called regional anomalies. They are important for
understanding large-scale structures of the earth’s crust under major
geographic features, such as mountain ranges, oceanic ridges and subduction
zones. Short-wavelength residual anomalies are due to shallow anomalous
masses that may be of interest for exploration. Geological knowledge is
essential for interpreting the residual anomalies.

lx
The interpretation of the anomalous field is to produce a geological and
structural model in the area. It can be approached qualitatively, then
quantitatively by means of modeling methods.

3.4.2 Qualitative interpretation: -

In case gravity methods anomalies the qualitative interpretation is describing
and explaining the anomalies to the form of geological and geophysical
knowledge as geological structures, tectonic boundaries and density contrast
from the masses.
The Bouguer anomaly map of the study area Fig (8) displays several
anomalous zones, recognized as contour closures of local gravity highs and
lows. These variations mainly result from the density contrast between the
Basement Complex rocks and the overlying sediments (e.g. Nubian
Sandstone Formation and the Gezira Fomation).
On the Bouguer anomaly map Fig (8) there are two main gravity high zones;
the first occurs in the most lower part of the study area and the highest
gravity anomaly zone in area located about 6 Km east of El-shawal with
value of –27mgals, forming an open contour closure generally trending in a
NS direction.

It can be concluded that gravity anomalies in the area may be the result of
the following:
1- Variation of density between the Basement Complex and overlying
sediments.
2- Variation within the Basement Complex are also suggested.

lxi
3.4.3 Regional and residual: -
The interesting anomalies on the gravity map are frequently affected by
deep-seated structures. The removal of the so-called regional resulting from
these deep- structures is a more serious problem in gravity than in other
geophysical methods.
The separation of anomalies of regional and local origin is an important step
in the interpretation of a gravity map. The analysis may be based on selected
profiles across some structure, or it may involve the two-dimensional
distribution of anomalies in gravity map. Numerous techniques have been
applied to the decomposition of gravity anomaly into its constituent parts.
They range in sophistication from simple visual inspection of the anomaly
pattern to advanced mathematical analysis.

3.4.3.1 Graphical and smoothing techniques:-

Clearly this method will be satisfactory when the residuals are fairly
evident to begin with, which implies that their general trend is distinctly
different from that of the regionals. In other cases the two trends may be
roughly parallel, or the residuals are located in closures, saddles or other
complex irregularities in the regional field. Then the simple smoothing
process usually becomes ineffective.
Such situations call for additional graphical procedure. In one method
several profiles are plotted for lines roughly at right angles to the regional
contours, smooth regional are drawn on the profiles and these smoothed
profiles are used to modify the regional in their vicinity. This approach is
suitable when the regional trend is mainly unidirectional but not uniform.

lxii
3.4.3.2 Analytical techniques: -

A-Empirical gridding method: -

This method is a simple way of removing the regional by second-derivative
analysis.Originally Griffin (1949) described the regional as the average
value of gravity in the vicinity of the station, and is obtained by averaging
observed values on the circumference of a circle centered at the station.
Mathematically this is defined by the following.
g- (r) =1/2π oƒ2π g (r,θ )dθ
Where the integral is generally replaced by a sum of n discrete values:
g (r) =[g (r,θ1) +g (r,θ2) +…g (r, )] /n
The various g (r,θ) terms are obtained by interpolation from the gravity
contours.

B- Polynomial fitting.
This a purely analytical method, in which matching of the regional by a
polynomial surface of low order exposes the residual features as random
errors .The treatment is based on statistical theoryas shown by Brown
(1955); Oldham (1955); Grant (1957)and skeels (1967).

3.4.4 Quantitative Interpretation: -

The quantitative interpretation is inversion which gives the nature,
depth, slab and extension of the causative source.
The interpretation can be direct or indirect .The indirect (forward)
interpretation is determining the possible mass distribution directly from the

lxiii
observed gravity data where as the direct (inverse) is modeling the causative
body and depend on the geological and structural parameters of the area.
A model is proposed and the theoretical anomaly of this model is compared
with the observed gravity. The geometry of the model can be modified until
a good fit between the observed and the calculated gravity results. The
model that gives a good match to the observed anomaly is considered.
The principle of two-dimensional (2-D) mass distribution states that for a
body represented in a system of Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), the density
varies along its cross-section area (x y plain), where it constant along the
longer dimension (y axes), hubbert (1948).
In case of calculation the gravity effect of two-dimensional bodies, hubbert
(1948) developed a line integral method. Which he expressed as: -

I ∫θ dz = ∫ z dθ

And the gravity effect ∆g

∆g =2kp ∫zd θ

Where ,

Z is the vertical coordinate

θ is the polar coordinate of a point on the peripheries of the mass
in a plane normal to its axis.
K is the gravity constant

lxiv
 P is the density contrast.
The evaluation of the integral method for polygons at any given point,
Talwani et.al. (1959) derived analytical expressions to obtain both the
vertical (v) and horizontal (h) components of the gravitational attraction as
follows:

V= 2pk ∫ zdθ = ∫ aI tanθ tanØ (tanØI –tanθ ) dθ

AB B

H= 2kp ∫ xdθ = ∫ aI tanθ tanØ / (tanØI –tanθ ) dθ

AB B

The vertical component of gravitational attraction (v) and the horizontal

component (H) due to the whole polygon are then given respectively by:
n

V= 2kp Σ zI
I=1

And
n

H= 2kp Σ xI
I=1

lxv
The summation being made over the n sides of the polygon . The expression
xI and zI can futhur be given interms of the vertices coordinates (xI ., zI ) as
:-

ZI = aI .sinØI cosØI [ θI – θI-1+ tanØI in cosθI ( tanθI –tanØI )/ cosθI + 1

(tanθI +1 - tanØI ) ]

XI = aI sinØI cosØI [ tanØI (θI + 1 – θI ) = in cosθI (tanθI – tanØI ) /cosθI + 1

(tanθI + 1 – tanØI ) ]

Where

θi =tan-1 zI / xI , ØI = tan-1 (zI +1 – zI / xI + 1 –xI )

θI + 1 = tan-1 zI + 1 / xI + 1
aI = xI + 1+ zI +1 / ( xI + 1 - xI / zI – zI + 1 )

Based on Talwani et.al .(1959 ), Geotools, the software division of AOA

Geophysics inc., and Lacoste and Romberg developed a gravmodeler
program which performs 2-D modeling of gravity data .
Gravmodeler is optimized to model bougeur anomalies with bodies of
various densities embedded within a homogeneous background. This
program was designed to be a simple program. It works in two dimensions,
that is, the bodies represented by the polygons in the model are assumed to
be infinite in extent in and out of the profile.
In this technique, each two – dimensional body is represented by a polygon
describing its cross section to the polygon may have as many vertices a
desired.

lxvi
At each observation point, the gravity response of a single body can be
computed based on:
1- The difference between the density of the body and the background
density.
2- The geometry of the body as defined by the vertices which make up
the polygon and encloses its cross section.
3- The location at which the response is to be calculated (the gravity
observation point).
To obtain the gravity response of the total model at a particular observation
point, the response each body is computed at that point and then these are
added together.
The result of the Talwani computation is a curve representing the computed
gravity response across the model. Each value in the curve is the residual
gravity anomaly due to the bodies in the model computed at that offset.
These correspond to the gravity anomaly one would measure in the field
after correcting for all effects of elevation and topography. In other words,
the response computed by gravemodeler corresponds to the residual bouguer
anomaly after free air, buoguer slabs, and terrain. Corrections have been
made.
The Talwani algorithm requires that all polygons have the same orientation.
The gravmodeler software automatically orders the points so that all
polygons are traversed in clockwise order. A polygon should not have edges
which cross one another (like a bow tie). The program will issue a warning if
this occurs. It is generally recommended that polygons not overlap one
another.

3.4.5 Modeling of Gravity profiles: -

lxvii
 For the interpretation, totals of five profiles are selected which
approximately cover the most of the area. For creating models to fit gravity
data which has been corrected all distortions, density contrast of (-0.47
g/cm3) between Basement rocks and the overlying sediments, and associated
structures are assumed which is suitable for the models. Density variation
within the basement rocks is not considered, because they are
undifferentiated were they are mapped or recorded in boreholes.

Profile I
This profile starts from lower left side of the area 13 97/ 32 40 and ends in
the lower center of the study area. (13 97/ 32 67) fig (9).
This profile traverses through small anomalous body with density contrast of
(-0.47 gr /cm3) and maximum thickness of 1800m in the area of (13 97/ 32
67)

lxviii
lxix
Profile II
This profile lies from the upper western side of the study area through large
basin about 20 Km with density contrast of (-0.45gr /cc) the profile model
shows high depression with maximum thickness of about 2000m in the area
of (14 49/ 32 70).
The profile starts from the area of (14 49/32 43) and ends at the area of 14
49/ 33 00 fig (10).

Profile III
This profile extends from upper west side of the area to the center of the
area, the model show graduation depression which have density contrast of
(-0.47gr/cc) with maximum thickness of 1900m .This profile occupied the
area from (14 49/ 3243) to (14 15/32 96) fig (11).

Profile IV
This profile trends NE – SW and starts from above the southwest corner of
the area (13 85/ 32 50) and ends to northeast corner the area of (14 48/ 33
00).
This profile passes through anomalous body, which have density contrast of
(-0.47gr/cc).
From the model the maximum thickness point of the basin occurs in the area
of (14 28/ 32 93) and has a value of 1900m .fig (12)

lxx
Profile V
The profile starts from center of the area at (14 00/ 33 00) and ends near to
the north east corner of the area at (14 14/33 30).

lxxi
lxxii
lxxiii
lxxiv
lxxv
lxxvi
lxxvii
The module of this profile is showing graduation depression on both sides,
which have density contrast of (-0.47gr/cc) with maximum thickness of
1500m. Fig (13)

3.5 Conclusion:-
The regional gravity measurements are used to investigate the geology
of the subsurface of the study area, the number of stations occupied in this
survey is about 193 distributed along six loops Fig (6) which form closed
polygons or triangles of variable dimensions.
The Bouguer anomaly map of the study area Fig (8) displays several
anomalous zones, recognized as contour closures of local gravity highs and
lows. The most southern part of the study area indicates high gravity
anomaly zone which forms an open contour closure generally trending in a
NS direction, with value of –27mgals. In the Bouguer map there is broad
zone of low gravity anomaly which is elongated in a general NE-SW
direction. A total of five profiles are selected for the interpretation of the
Bouguer map which approximately cover the most of the area, density
contrast of (-0.47 g/cm3) between the Basement rocks and the overlying
sediments are assumed for the models.

lxxviii
 CHAPTER FOUR

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD:-

4.1 Introduction:-

The resistivity method is useful for simultaneously detecting lateral and

vertical changes in subsurface electrical properties. Electrical resistivity is
also used to delineate 3-dimensional bodies with anomalous electrical
conductivities.
The electrical resistivity method is one of the most useful technique in
groundwater exploration because the resistivity of a rock is very sensitive to
its water content. In turn, the resistivity of water is very sensitive to its ionic
content.
In general, the method is able to map different stratigraphic units in a
geologic.
section as long as the units have a resistivity contrast. Often this is
connected to rock porosity and fraction of water saturation of the pore
spaces.

4.2 Theorotical background:-

lxxix
The electrical resistivity of any material is defined as the electrical resistance
of a cylinder with a cross section of unit area and with unit length. Fig (4.1)
Ohm's law is
∆V = I R

Fig (4.1) illustrated the relationship between the resistivity and resistance.

Where ∆V is the voltage drop or potential difference from one end of a

resistor to another. R is the resistance, and I is the current. If the resistivity
of the a conducting cylinder having a length L and cross sectional area A is
p, the resistence R is expressed by
ρL
R=
A
By rearranging this expression, we can express the resistivity as:

RA
ρ =
L
Where ρ is the characteristic resistivity of the geologic medium, A is the unit
cross-sectional area and L is its length. The unit of resistivity is usually
given in ohm - meter.

lxxx
In the resistivity surveys, a direct current or low frequency alternating
current is sent through the ground between two metal electrodes.
The voltage loss that occurs as the current moves through the ground is
measured at another two electrodes placed between the current electrodes.
4.2.1 Apparent resistivity: -

The apparent resistivity of a layered earth is defined as the resistivty

of homogeneous Earth .in the multi layered case, the layer resistivities can
be derived from the apparent resistivity measured as a function of the current
carrying electrode spacing x. the penetration depth of the current. The
apparent resistivity value calculated is not the true resistivity of the
subsurface but is the resistivity of a homogeneous ground which will give
the same voltage and current values for the same electrode arrangements.
By measuring ∆V and I and knowing the electrode configuration, we
obtain an apparent resistivity value ρa. which defined as the below equation
⎛ ∆V ⎞
ρ a = 2π ⎜ ⎟K
⎝ I ⎠

If the ground is inhomogeneous, the apparent resistivity value will

depend on the location of the electrodes. Although it gives some indication
of the true resistivity in the vicinity of the electrode array, the apparent
resistivity value is not an average value. Only in the case of a homogeneous
ground is the apparent value equivalent to the actual resistivity. The relation
between the "apparent" resistivity and the "true" resistivity is a complex
relationship. To determine the true subsurface resistivity, an inversion of the
measured apparent resistivity values must be carried. Current electrodes are

lxxxi
often constructed using stainless steel spikes while porous pots are used to
ensure low noise levels during measurements of the resulting voltage at the
inner pair.

The potential difference between M and N can be expressed as:

Iρ ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤
∆V = − − +
2 π ⎣ AM BM AN BN ⎥⎦
⎢

This expression can be written more conveniently as

Iρ
∆V =
k

Were K is defined to be the geometric factor.

Values for K are determined by the geometry of the array according to the

expression

⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤
K = 2π ⎢ − − + ⎥
⎣ AM BM AN BN ⎦

Iρ
∆V = The Equation can now be restated as
K

⎛ ∆V ⎞
ρ = K ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ I ⎠

lxxxii
4.2.2 Electrode Configurations:-
There are many electrode configurations developed for electrical
prospecting , the most commonly used arrays today in resistivity surveys are
the Wenner, Schlumberger, dipole-dipole, pole-dipole However, we shall
discuss only the Wenner, Schlumberger and dipole-dipole with their
geometric factors Figures (4.2,4.3,4.4). These arrays are chosen because they
are widely used for groundwater, engineering and shallow surveys, and the
interpretation tools are well developed.
The Wenner array assumes an equal spacing between electrodes.Fig (4.2)
Assuming a constant separation (a) the geometric factor k for this array can
be calculated according to equation
⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤
K = 2π ⎢ − − + ⎥ giving
⎣ AM BM AN BN ⎦

⎡1 1 1 1⎤
K = 2π ⎢ − − + ⎥
⎣ a 2a 2a a ⎦

which simplifies to give

K=2πa
Consequently the apparent resistivity for the Wenner array can be given as :
⎛ ∆V ⎞
p=2πa ⎜ ⎟
⎝ I ⎠

lxxxiii
I

V
 a a a

A M N B

Fig (4.2) Wenner arrangement

The Schlumberger. The Schlumberger array is one of the most commonly

used arrays for resistivity sounding surveys. Four electrodes are placed
along a straight line on the Earth surface Figure (4.3) in the same order.
AMNB, as in the Wenner array. A widely used rule for Schlumberger
surveys is that potential electrode spacing must be less than 40% of 2L,
where 2L is the spacing between the current electrodes.

In the Schlumberger array the spacing between the current electrodes

are much larger than the potential electrodes. The spacing between the
current electrodes is gradually increased while the electrode spacing between
the potential electrodes remains fixed for several reading, so the apparent
resistivity for schlumberger array ρa can be calculated by using the
following equation :

π ⎛⎜ s2 − a 2/4 ⎞⎟ ∆V
ρ= ⎝ ⎠
a I

I
lxxxiv
V
 a
M N
A s s B
Fig (4.3) Schlumberger arrangement

The dipole-dipole array consists of a separated pair of dipoles (current and

potential) with no overlap between the electrodes Fig (4.4). This system
provides maximum flexibility for measurements of potential with no need to
relocate the current dipole between measurements. If the separations a and b
are equal and the distance between the centers of the respective pairs is (n+
1) a, the apparent resistivity determined by this arrangement is

∆V
ρa = n(n + 1)(n + 2)πa
I

V I

a na b
A B M N

lxxxv
Fig (4.4) Dipole-dipole arrangement

4.3 Survey methods:-

Resistivity surveys are conducted using two principal procedures
depending on the nature of the target.

4.3.1 Vertical electrical soundings (VES):

The vertical electrical soundings are used to investigate variations in
resistivity as a function of depth. Surveys of this type may be required for
estimates of depth to bedrock in civil engineering projects or to investigate
potential aquifers in groundwater surveys. The depth of penetration is
controlled according to equation p = 2 π a (∆V / I) by progressively
increasing the separation of the current electrodes.

In this method, the centre point of the electrode array remain fixed, but the
spacing between the electrodes is increased to obtain more information
about the deeper sections of the subsurface, The most severe limitation of
the resistivity sounding is that it is assumed that the subsurface consist of a
number of horizontal layers. A one-dimensional model of subsurface is used
to interpret the measurements.
When a series of closely spaced resistivity sounding measurements (VES)
are taken along a straight line, the data can be combined and presented as a
2-D geoelectrical section.

lxxxvi
4.3.2 The constant separation technique (CST):
The constant separation technique (CST) has been developed to
determine lateral variations in resistivity. Consequently this method can
assist with geological mapping. The current and potential electrodes are
maintained at fixed separation and progressively moved along a profile. Any
of the different arrays can be used to trace variations in resistivity, with
constant separations adopted for each electrode.
Although this technique is called electrical profiling. Which is most often
used in searching for ore bodies, faults or fault zones, for evaluating sand
and ground deposits, for delineating boundaries, and for finding dipping
contacts of different earth materials

4.4 Resistivity Curves-:

In the field measurement, the results of VES are presented in form of
curves having apparent resistivity plotted as function of AB/2 on
bilograthmic graphs. These give the general variation of ρa with dept
depending on the variation of the resistivity in the subsurface.
If the ground is composed of two layers, the curve rises or falls depending
on whether ρ2 >ρ1 (Ascending type)

The apparent resistivity curve for a three-layer structure generally has one of
four types typical shapes, determined by the vertical sequence of resistivities
in the layers Fig (4.5). The K type curve rises from ρ1 to a maximum as ρ2
and than decreases to ρ3 . The intermediate layer has highest resistivity

lxxxvii
compared to the top and bottom layer. The H type curve shows the opposite,
it falls to a minimum ρ2 for the intermediate layer and rises to ρ3 comparable
to ρ1 . The A type curve shows the progressive increase of the apparent
resistivity, indicating that the true resistivities increase with depth from layer
to layer. The Q type curve exhibits the opposite effect. The resistivity
continuously with progressive increase of resistivity depth.

These four basic shapes of apparent resistivity curves represent layered

structure consisting of three horizontal layers. For deep sounding cases in
which more than three layers exist, the curves are indicated as combinations
of the basic forms given above. Such as KH-type, AH-type, KHK type, etc
….

(a) Type-K

ρ1
ρ2
ρ2 depth
ρ3

ρ3
ρ1
L/Z
electrode spacing
ρ 1 < ρ 2 > ρ3

lxxxviii
 (b) Type-H

ρ1
ρ1
ρ3
ρ2 depth
ρ3

ρ2
L/Z
electrode spacing
ρ 1 > ρ 2 < ρ3

(c) Type-A

ρ3
ρ1
depth
ρ3

ρ1
lxxxix
ρ2

L/Z
electrode spacing
ρ 1 < ρ 2 < ρ3

(d) Type-Q

ρ1
ρ1
ρ2 depth
ρ3
ρ2

ρ3
L/Z
electrode spacing
ρ1 >ρ2 > ρ3

Fig (4.5) The four common types of apparent resistivity curves for a layered structure consisting of three
horizontal layers

4.5 The resistivity of the earth materials:

The resisitvity of the earth materials varies widely, from very low values to
very high values. This wide variation depends on different factors such as:
mineral composition of the rocks, properties such as porosity, permeability
and fluids types and content.
Electric current passes through a material by one of three different modes;
electronic, dielectric, or electrolytic conduction,
electronic conduction

xc
In case of Electronic conduction, the free electrons in a metal have a high
average speed. When an electric field is applied, the electrons move at a
much smaller speed

Dielectric Conduction : This mode occurs in insulators, which contain no

free electrons. Normally, the electrons are distributed symmetrically about a
nucleus. However, an electric field displaces the electrons in the direction
opposite to that of the field, while the heavy nucleus slits slightly in the
direction of the field. The atom or ion acquires an electric polarization and
acts like an electric dipole.
Electrolytic Conduction: Electrolytic conduction occurs in aqueous
solutions that contain free ions. The water molecule is polar, with a strong
electric field, which breaks down molecules of dissolved salts into positively
and negatively charged ions. The ions in the electrolyte are mobilized by an
electric field, which causes a current to flow. Electric charge is transported
by positive ions in the direction of the field and negative ions in the opposite
direction.

4.6 Limitations of the Resistivity Method: -

The major limitations of the electrical resistivity method are resolution,
suppression and equivalence. They are all associated with the concept
of relative thickness (RT), which is defined as the ratio of the thickness
of a layer to the depth to the top of the layer. As a general rule, the
resistivity method cannot resolve thin layers (RT <0.1m). It follows that
the method can resolve considerable detail near the surface, but can see

xci
only bulk zones at depth. Usually, the method soundings can resolve no
more than six to eight layers.
Even a reasonably thick layer (0.1 <RT<1m) may not be detected if
resistivity contrast is inadequate. This is likely to happen with a layer of
intermediate resistivity which is sandwiched between one layer which is
more conductive (less resistive) and another layer which is more
resistive. Such a layer is said to be suppressed, as there may be no hint
of the layer in the field data.
The interpretation of a multilayer sounding curve generally is not unique.
This means that a given electrical sounding curve can correspond to a
variety of subsurface distributions of a layer thicknesses and resistivities.
Several other limitations are inherent in the conventional methods of
electrical sounding. These limitations are:
4.6.1 Principle of Equivalence of K & H-type curves.
It states that the same VES curve may reflect several geoelectrical sections.
Consider two sections of H-type curve. If the longitudinal conductance 'S'
for both sections is equal, then the sounding curves for both sections will be
practically identical (equivalence by S). The equivalence by S also applies to
sounding curves of the A-type.
Equivalence by transverse resistivity ' T ', consider two sections of K-type
curve. If the T for both sections is equal, then the sounding curve for both
sections will be practically identical. This type of equivalence also applies to
Q-type curves.
4.6.2 Principle of Suppression: -
If the thickness of a layer is very small compared to the total thickness, and
the resistivity contrast is also very small. The effect of the layer in the

xcii
sounding curve is so small or suppressed; therefore the layer may not be
detected unless drilling method is used.
4.6.3 Principle of Anisotropy: -
In these cases, the rsistivity measured along two perpendicular directions are
not equal. The coefficient of anisotropy (λ) can be define as
λ = (ρt / ρl)1/2
The value of 'λ' is estimated by dividing the interpreted thickness of a layer
by the real thickness obtained from borehole.
Electrical Resistivity Noise:
Cultural noise: Ground structure such as fences' lines and pipe lines
redistribute the current from ground wire source so that part of the current
flows through the cultural structure. This can cause a spurious resistivity
anomaly.
Cultural structures can also introduce noise into the measurements. For
example strong noise voltages are present in the vicinity of power lines. To
remove such noise, a filter is required at the front end of the receiver. Pipe
lines often carry electrical current for a cathodic protection, and this current
can be a source of electrical noise.
Geological noise: When the overburden is of irregular resistivity, the
geologic noise caused by the near surface features can obscure the anomaly
due to the target in the bedrock. Anomalies due to geological
heterogeneities can obscure, or partly obscure, the anomaly due to the target
sought.
Table (4.1) Resistivity of some common rocks, soil materials and rock types
below the water table. (After Telford et al, 1990).

xciii
Material Resistivity (Ω.m)

Igneous and metamorphic rocks

Granite 5 x 103 – 106
Weathered granite 1 – 102
Basalt 103 – 106
Jointed /fractur basalt 1 – 102
Quarzite 103 – 2 x 108
Marble 102 – 2.5 x 108
Schist 20 – 104
Sedimentary rocks
Sandstone 8 – 4 x 103

Conglomerate 2 x 103 – 104

Shale 20 – 2 x 103
Limestone 50 – 4 x 102
Unconsolidated sediment 1 – 100
Clay 10 – 800
Alluvium and sand 3 – 70
Marl 20
Wet clay
Groundwater
Fresh groundwater 10 – 100
Brackish water 0.3 – 1
Sea water 0.2
Super saline brine 0.05 – 0.2

xciv
The table (4.1) the resistivity of these rocks is greatly dependent on the
degree of fracturing, and the percentage of the fractures filled with ground
water. The sedimentary rocks which are usually more porous and have high
water contents normally have lower resistivity values. Resistivity values for
unconsolidated sediments commonly range from less than 1 ohm-m for
certain clays or sands saturated with saline water to several thousand ohm-m
for dry sands, gravels and basalt. The resistivity of sand and gravel saturated
with fresh water ranges from about 15 to 600 ohm-m.
The resistivity of saline groundwater is lower than fresh groundwater. The
resistivity of groundwater varies from 10 to 100 Ωm depending on the
concentration of dissolved salts. In comparison, sea water has a resistivity
value of about 0.2 Ωm.

4.7 Interpretation of VES data of the study area:-

A total of 24 vertical electrical sounding points using a
schlumberger configuration were made through out the area. During this
work the locations of the vertical electrical sounding points were
determined by using the Global Positioning system (GPS).the sound
points are constructed along four traverses which are plotted in Fig (4.6).
their separation and distant is variable .
The study area is characterized by rabid facieses changes and thicknesses
variation which is due to horizontal and vertical discontinuity so using
of the schlumberger array was suitable for this work because the
schlumberger array has reasonably good horizontal and vertical
resolution and relatively large affective depth of exploration.

xcv
4.7.1 Qualitative interpretation:-
The VES data of the area constitute several types, which cover a range
from 1 to more than 300 ohm-m these variations in resistivity may result
from the following:
The area is covered with rocks that range from Clay to Basement
Complex rocks. The low resistivity may be related to Clay and
Mudstone, while the intermediate resistivity may be related to Sandstone,
Sands and Gravel occurrences. The high resistivity may indicate
Basement Complex rocks. Also most of the permeable rocks in this area
are saturated, and therefore, these rocks shows intermediate resistivity,
but the layers which are affected by salinity may reflect low resistivity,
other factors such as compaction and anisotropy could affect the
resistivity values in the study area both vertically and horizontally.
4.7.2 Inversion of resistivity data:-
The quantitative interpretation of vertical electrical sounding (VES) data
is interpreted with the help of automatic inversion computer program
referred to as Resix (Interpex Limited Golden co, 1993). The program
calculats the thicknesses of the subsurface layers, and gives the
thicknesses of each layer except the last layer, which is assumed to have
infinite thickness. This program accepts sounding location with X, Y
coordinates; also the program provides both forward and inverse
modeling.
The program is an interactive, with graphics which enables to modify the
input parameters, so that the process and computation and

xcvi
14.8

D
A
14.6
41 30

17
B
14.4
26 36 27
29
28 3139 37
2
32 91 33
Managil
34
14.2 12
35
C

76
legend
A

20 23 A
25 40
El Dueim profile
14
B

13 D A
4 VES point
7 11
9 10 6

13.8 Borehole point

82
Kawa Scale
85
0 10 Km
C

13.6

32.4 32.6 32.8 33 33.2 33.4 33.6

Fig ( 4.6 ) A map showing the VES data and Geoelectric sections

xcvii
adjustment of models is continued until a reasonable fit is obtained, in
this work, the quantitative interpretation is checked by calibration of
vertical electrical sounding (VES) with the help of the lithological logs of
the borehole information.

4.7.2.1 Calibration of VES Data:-

The resulting VES curves of four sites at Umm Assala, Wad Al-Amin, Al
Amara Abdel Bashir and Al-Sheikh are calibrated with the lithological
Colums of the boreholes at the corresponding sites Fig (4.7a,b,c,d) from the
calibration, ranges of the of the resistivities of the rocks that composing the
subsurface layers were obtained as results. The results of the calibration are
shown in table (4.2). These results are used were no boreholes information is
available.

4.7.2.2 Geoelectrical sections of the study area:

The following are presentation of the results of the calibration in forms of
geo-electrical sections.
Geoelectric section along profile A: -
The upper layers (0-35m) of the sections are composed of very thin clays
about 4m and sandy clays which end at VES(41) eastern part of the section
Fig (4.8a). The resistivity range of these layers is from 2-6 ohm-m. Sandy
gravel clayey underlies these layers. The resisitivity of these layers reaches
30 ohm-m. This layer overlies a layer of gravel in the western parts of the
section, which has limited extension. The middle parts of the section are
composed of gravelly sands with sandy clay and mudstone lenses. This layer
overlies the base layer of the section that is composed of mudstone.

xcviii
The resisitivity of the gravelly sandstone layer reaches 77 ohm-m. The
section shows that the resisitivity of the mudstone layer ranges from 5-24
ohm-m.

Table (4.2) Resistivity of the rock units in the study area from the VES

Rock units Resistivity in ohm-m

Clay 2-4
Mudstone 5-32
Sandyclay 4-33
Sand 45-115
Sandstone 25-279
Gravels 77-266
Basement Complex 639-951

xcix
c
ci
cii
ciii
civ
cv
cvi
Geoelectric Section along the (B):
Thin layer of clay cover this section Fig (4.8b). The resistivity of the layer
ranges from 2 – 5 ohm-m. This layer overlies a layer of clay with Kanker
resisitivity of this layer ranging from 2-14 ohm-m. A layer of coarse sand
underlies these layers. In this layer a layer of sand with Gravel is dominance
in the N.E direction. The resistiviy of the coarse sand attains 56 ohm-m
while the resistivity of the sand with gravel reaches 115 ohm-m. The lower
part of the section is composed of sandy clay layer. The resistivity of this
layer ranges from 4-10 ohm-m. A limited layer of mudstone underlies this
layer. The resistivity of this layer attains 32 ohm-m.
The base of the section is composed of sandstone (western parts the section)
and clay layer eastern part of the section. The resistivity of the sandstone
ranges from 26-35 ohm-m. But the resistivity of the clay layer is 9 ohm-m.

Geoelectric Section along the (C):-

The top layer of the section consist of clay Fig (4.8c) which becomes thin in
thickness to the east until is disappears. The resistivity of this layer ranges
from 2-6 ohm-m. a layer of sandy gravels underlies this layer, its resisitivity
reaches 162 ohm-m, as shown in the section this layer ends at VES (23)
western part of the section, were a sandy clay layer is observed which
underlies by a layer of coarse sand ( western part of the section ).
The resistivity of the sandy clay attains 20 ohm-m and the resistivity of the
coarse sand attains 57ohm-m. A thick layer of sand clay is shown in the
lower part of the section, its resistivity ranges from 7-28 ohm-m this layer
overlies the base layers of the section (clay layer and coarse sandy layer).

cvii
The resistivity of the sand reaches 76 ohm-m. While the resitivity of the clay
layer reaches 8 ohm-m..

cviii
cix
cx
cxi
cxii
cxiii
cxiv
cxv
Geoelectric Section along the (D) :-
The upper layers (0-37m) of the section are composed of clay, sand and
sandy clay Fig (4.8d). The resisitivity of the clay reaches 7 ohm-m. The sand
lower layer has resisitivity which attains 279 ohm-m but the sandy clay layer
has resistivity value of 19 ohm-m. The middle part of the section is
composed of sandy clay in the west and sandy gravel in the eastern part of
the section the resitivity of the sandy clay reaches 33 ohm-m. Was the
resistivity of sandy gravel reaches 55 ohm-m. The base of the section is
made of Basement complex in the east and coarse sand with gravel in the
western part of the section. The resisitivity of the basement complex rocks is
high 639-951 ohn-m where as the resistivity of the coarse sand reaches 266
ohm-m.
4.8 Conclusion:-
A total of 24 vertical electrical sounding points using a schlumberger
configuration were made through out the area.The result of the interpretation
of Geoelectric sections provide information about geology down to depth
about 130 m. The study area is characterized by rapid facies changes and
thicknesses variation which are due to horizontal and vertical discontinuity.
From the Geoelectrical sections in addition to boreholes information, three
zones of resistivity can be distinguished. The first zone is a lower resistivity
zone, which represents surface clay, mudstone and sandstone saturated with
saline water. The second zone has medium resistivity values which represent
of sand and saturated sandstone. The third zone is made mainly of dry sand,
sandstone and fresh Basement Complex.

cxvi
 CHAPTER FIVE

HYDROGEOLOGY:

5.1 General:-
Water is the basic need for any life to exist in this world. Prehistoric man
was leading a nomadic life on the banks of rivers. With natural calamities
such as floods, earthquakes etc. he was disturbed and up rooted from his
dwelling place. With the advent of civilization the use of water increased by
leaps and bounds first for his drinking needs then for supplementing
agricultural irrigation domestic requirements and later for industrial growth.
When supplies are short one has to depend partly or wholly on ground water.

5.2.1 Introduction:-
The aim of the hydrogeological study is to assess the groundwater potential
of the area and to confirm its sufficiency for domestic use besides updating
the previous studies in the area. At present all hydrogeological studies are
directed towards locating areas of sufficient quantity of groundwater with
acceptable quality. This is usually followed by drilling of water wells which
provide the human populations in the area.
The hydrogeological study of the area is expected to contribute to the Gezira
water supply problem and to indicate the most feasible source of water for
the master plan of the area.

cxvii
Groundwater is more desirable than surface water for (at least six)
following reasons:-
- It is commonalty free of pathogenic organisms and need no elaborate
purification for domestic and industrial uses.
- Temperature is nearly constant.
- Turbidity and colour are generally negligible.
- Chemical composition is generally constant.
- Ground water storage is always greater than surface water storage. So
that groundwater supplies are not seriously affected by short duration
droughts.
- Biological contamination in groundwater is seldom noticed

5.2.2 Occurrence of groundwater:-

Groundwater is mainly the result of percolation of surface water downwards.
There is a factor influencing the accumulation of appreciable ground water
to form a source of supply. It is the existence of a water bearing formation
(aquifer) capable of absorbing and transmitting water in appreciable
quantities.
Most of the study area is covered by relatively thick impervious cotton clay
soils, which prevent the passage of water downwards.
Groundwater of the study area is found in the Nubian Sandstone Formation
which has high storage capacity. The Gezira Formation hosts 5% of the
shallow wells with a small share from the Basement Complex rocks.

cxviii
5.2.3 Water- bearing Formations: -
5.2.3.1 Basement Complex:
Rocks of the Basement Complex are generally compact and impervious, but
water lodges in spaces formed by opened joints in areas where the
superficial and unconsolidated deposits overlie rocks of Basement Complex.
There is usually a zone of variable depth of partly weathered rocks which
may carry groundwater.
In the Gezira, the Basement Complex has a small outcrop area and is almost
entirely covered by impervious clays. Consequently little rainwater seeps
into the joints and the weathered rocks. Few hand dug wells are excavated in
the weathered zones.

5.2.3.2 Nubian Sandstone Formation:-

There are two main water – bearing formations in the Gezira. These are the
Nubian Sandstone and Gezira Formations. Both are aquifers and contain
large quantities of water. Where the Gezira Formation is thin (200m or less)
and clay rich, the main aquifer is in the underlying Nubian Sandstone
Formation. Very often the two aquifers are interconnected and their waters
are mixed.
The Nubian Sandstone Formation in the Gezira area occurs at relatively
great depths and consequently is not as well exploited as in other parts of the
Sudan. Groundwater is found under semi-artesian conditions owing to the
presence of the Gezira Formation and its clays on top of the Nubian aquifer.
The water bearing beds consist mainly of sandstone and conglomeratic
sandstone. The sandstone consists in general of fine-to-medium grained

cxix
angular quartz particles with a moderate degree of sorting. The average
saturated thickness of the Nubian formation is 42 m (Abdel salaam 1966).
Pumping tests conducted by Geotechnica Company in wells tapping the
aquifer revealed transimissivity values ranging from 185 to 585m2/day
(15000 to 47000 gal/day/ft) and storage coefficients varying from 2x10-2 to
1.7x10-9. Such values indicate that the Nubian aquifer is under non-confined
to confined conditions. The transmissivity values also show that the Nubian
aquifer is a good aquifer containing large quantities of water.

5.2.3.3 The Gezira Formation:-

The Gezira aquifer consists of two aquifers:
-An upper semi-confined Gezira aquifer is found mainly along the White
Nile, where it is capped by a thin clayey layer.
The aquifer is extensively utilized for domestic purposes from hand dug
wells.
-A lower semi-confined aquifer; is found covering the area between the
White Nile and the Blue Nile. This aquifer receives direct recharge from the
Blue Nile. More than 100 wells tap this aquifer. The upper 10-15 m is fine
sand and clays, while in the central part the thickness increases and water is
usually found in a layer of sand and gravel. The main water-bearing stratum
in the Gezira aquifer is the lower sandy member which consists of sinuous
interconnected sand bodies. It consists of fine, medium and coarse sands.
Pumping tests conducted by Geotechnica Company in the Gezira gave
transmissisivety values for the Gezira aquifer ranging from 385m2/day to
535m2/day (31000 to 43600gal/day/ft).The storage coefficient of the Gezira
aquifer determined by Geotechnica Company varied from 2.5x10-4 to
4.8x10-7. After analyzing pumping test data, El-Boushi (1972) suggested that

cxx
the Gezira aquifer is a leaky artesian one. The presence of the major trough
in the center of the Gezira aquifer confirms that the leakage takes place and
that the water percolates downward to the Nubian aquifer.
Groundwater level fluctuations ranged from three meters near the Blue Nile
to nearly steady conditions near the central part.

Table (5.1): Borehole information

The location Total yield

name Long. Lat. S.w.l
depth(m) m3\h
Umm Asalah 32.48 14.28 154 34 55
El- Biwaida 33.33 14.2 111.6 15.2 43.63
Miheila abdolab 32.97 14.55 115.5 35.4 15.22
El Managil 33.16 14.23 92.2 43.9 60
Abrag 33 14.25 138.8 35.2 40
EL-shigla 32.75 14.42 203.7 12.8 31.82
Baha eldin 33.15 14.32 62.5 37.8 22
Dar nail el magil 32.45 14.18 99.1 39.9 60
El-amara el
awamra 33.33 14.02 78 30.5 9.8
El-ansar 32.95 14.08 337.9 26.6 9.1
Hantoub(1) 32.52 14.43 60.2 16.6 64.5
Umm meleiha 33.05 14.52 70.8 34.5 54.5
Kereamit nor
eggaleel 33.01 14.5 79.3 27.4 40.91
Farag alla 33.1 14.55 109.1 29.4 45.5
Tanob 33.17 14.53 103 29.1 54.5
El- Rugla Younis 33.2 14.33 83 34.6 6.5
Shebiek Felata 33.13 14.45 72.6 33.3 16.5
El-manawra 32.85 14.17 106.5
El-Dibeba 32.85 14.55 108.3
El- amara abdel
rahim 32.66 14.3 181.4 37.4 28.18
Kordigalli 33.03 14.27 171.7 44.2 5.55
WdaGangdari 32.96 14.03 145.2
Mahaeta 33.24 14.22 223.1

cxxi
abdelhakam
Flata defalla 33.25 14.27 252.5
The location Total yield
name Long. Lat. S.w.l
depth(m) m3\h
Hillat Farah 33.18 14.23 271.3
Eleugla ytouinis 33.12 14.2 280.6
Seriat Elshileikh 32.52 14.29 54
Tayba 33.26 14 153.8
Shelikha 33.29 14.1 162.5
Fahal Elnoba 33.22 14 146.5
Roof Champ 33.24 14.14 269.3 40
Tobakha 33.23 13.58 210.3
Wad adam 32.37 14.32 621
Darr Nail 32.58 14.12 325
El burgan camp 33.04 14.18 219.8
Mahic camp 33.04 14.07 200
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.72 36.6 12.2 5.5
EL-Kreida 32.8 13.8 38.4 7.3 13.6
EL-gewaz 32.36 13.76 96.1 16.1 20.45
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.68 41 10 32.7
Tayibat EL-
hassan 32.65 13.75 51.2 25.8 5.45
Shallaoha 32.35 14.2 71.6 26.8 18.18
Ummfilga 32.56 13.65 306 33.5 8.18
EL-Gurashi 32.64 14.28 181.4 37.4 28.18
Wad Al-Amin 32.59 14.19 60 37
Alsheikh Amara 32.58 14.08 70 41

cxxii
5.2.4 Hydrogeologic Characteristic and Lithology:-
The hydrogeologic characteristics and lithology of the study area is
primarily collected and drawn from well data in the area. Parameters studied
are the depth of water wells, depth to water levels, lithological formation of
the wells and aquifers extensions in the area.

5.2.4.1 Depth to Wells:

Most of the wells which have been considered in this study penetrate water
bearing layers. About 3 wells (6.5 %) in the area have shallow < 50 m, and
about 25 wells (54.3%) in the area have a moderately shallow depth (50-150
m), while 11 and 7 wells (23.9 % and 15.3 %) respectively, in the area have
a depth which ranges between (150-250 m). The latest 7 wells have great
depth about more than 250 m. Table (5.2)

Table (5.2) Depth of wells in the study area

Well depth (m) Number of wells Percentage (%)
< 50 3 6.5
50-150 25 54.3
150-250 11 23.9
>250 7 15.3

The total depth contour map Fig (5.2) indicates that the wells with shallow
depth are located mainly near the recharge area (southwest corner of the

cxxiii
map). While the wells with great depth are located away from the recharge
area (the center of the area).

5.2.4.2 Depth to the water of the study area:-

About 91 wells have been used to construct the static water level contour
map Fig (5.3). This figure depicts the regional variation of the water level
below the ground surface.
In the study area the depth to the water level decreases towards the recharge
area, for example the water table attains a shallow depth of 7.3 m in El-
Kireida near the White Nile, while the depth to the water level increases
away from the recharge area to attain a maximum depth below the ground
surface of 44.2 m in Kordigalli in the center of the area.
The standing water levels is in general higher near rivers indicating that the
rivers are the main source of recharge to the Gezira area (Khairalla 1966 )
.From the map we can see that the water stands at high level near the bank of
the White Nile .The water depth decreases towards the center of the study
area.
The recharge to aquifers is believed to take place mainly by under flow from
the Blue Nile and to a lesser extent from the White Nile. The Blue Nile has a
very huge discharge and it has a sandy bed that allows seepage of
appreciable quantities of recharge water. While the White Nile has small
slope, slow current and a bed which is covered by clayey silt.
The Gezira clay prevents rain water from percolating downwards; most
rainfall is subject to evapotranspiration or run off.

cxxiv
Water is discharged artificially from the aquifers by pumping boreholes
which tap Gezira and Nubian aquifers. The natural discharge occurs from
the upper Gezira aquifer where water is lost to the atmosphere by
evapotraspiration where the water table is shallow.

cxxv
14.8
legen

contour interval =15 m

155 contour line with valiu in (m)

14.6

30 6 20
21
18
El Azazi 19

27
14.4 17
10

El kereimet
75 El Fakhakhir 11
24
31
56
2 91
Managil
8
33 44

14.2 7 45
42
88 Matug 55 3
12 77
29
67
76
60
El Hosh
14
78

14 Ed Dueim 35 Kudeibat 13
66 58

13.8
83

84
Kawa
87
82

85
89
13.6
Esh Shawal 70

32.4 32.6 32.8 33 33.2 33.4 33.6

0 Scale 10 Km
Fig ( 5.2) Total depth map of the wells

cxxvi
14.8

14.6

30 6 20
21
18
El Azazi 19

27
14.4 17
10

El kereimet
El Fakhakhir 24
75 11
31
56
2 91 Managil
33 44
8
14.2 Matug
7 45
42
88 55 3
12 77
29
67
76 El Hosh
60
14
78
Ed Dueim Kudeibat
14 35
13
66 58

13.8
83
Kawa
84
87
Legend
82

85 Contour interval = 2 m
89
13.6 Esh Shawal
22 Contour
70
line with valiu in ( m)

32.4 32.6 32.8 33 33.2 33.4 33.6

Fig ( 5.3) Static water level contour map 0 Scale 10 Km

cxxvii
5.2.4.3 Hydrolithological Characteristics of the study area:-
The study of the hydrogeologic charactreristic and lithilogy is based mainly
on the borehole information. From the lithological columns and water
samples, five hydrolithologic sections are constructed Fig (5.1)
Hydrolithological section along (a)
The section passes along seven boreholes from the west to the east of the
area.it extends from Hantoub and ends at Tanab Fig (5.4).A layer of clay
covers the top part of the section. Kankers area observed at El Shigla at level
10-20m. Clays, sandyclay with kanker and sand layers are marked with in
the Gezira Formation in the eastern part of the section. The upper layer of
the Nubian Formation is made up of mudstone which is observed at shallow
level 40m in the eastern part of the section while the middle part of the
section shows a mudstone layer in level 190m. The mudstone overlies a
thick layer, which is composed of coarse sandstone and gravels. In the
middle of the section at level 100m there is a layer of clay which has
thickness of 20m. Generally the thickness of the Gezira Formation decreases
to the east and reaches about 35m. The TDS of the boreholes ranges between
206 to 422 ppm.
Hydrolithological section along (b):-
Four boreholes penetrate the section from west at umm Asala to the east at
El-Rigla younis Fig (5.5). The top layers of the section are composed of
clay, clay with kanker. The clay with kanker overlies fine sand layer which
also indicate kankers at depth 20-30m. Sandy clay is observed in
deferent levels of the section. A coarse sand and gravels layers are observed
at the level 60m and 80m in the Gezira Formation respectively both at
eastern and western side of the section.

cxxviii
14.8

14.6
30 6 20
21
18
19 a
27
17
a 10

14.4
75 11
24 b
31
56
2 91
33 44
b 8
El Manaqil
7 45
42
88 55 3
14.2 c 12
29
77
c
67
76
60
14
78

35
El-Dueim d 66 58
13
d
14

83 e
13.8
84
87
82
Kawa
85
e 89
Scale
13.6 70

32.4 32.6 32.8 33 33.2 33.4 33.6

Fig ( 5.4) A Map showing bore hole location and line sections

cxxix
A thin layer of mudstone is observed at a depth of 80m. The most base part
of section represent thick layer which is composed of coarse sandstone and
pebbles of quartz. The coarse sandstone overlies a thick gravel layer at the
El Amara well. The aquifer of this borehole indicates fresh water the value
of the TDS reaching about 238 ppm.
Hydrolithological Section along (c):-
The section passes along seven boreholes from the west to the east of the
study area. It extends from Dar Elnail and ends at El-Buwiada Fig (5.6). A
layer of clay covers the top part of the section. The thickness of this layer
ranges from 5m at Dar Elnail to 25m at El Buwiada. Kanker are observed at
Dar El nail and Al Manawra at levels of 2-10m and 6-20m respectively.
The upper layer of the Nubian Sandstone Formation is made up of
mudstone. The mudstone layer overlies a thick layer, which is composed of
coarse sandstone and gravels. The coarse sandstone layer overlies a layer
that is made up of mudstone. In the eastern part of the section the base layer
is composed of coarse sandstone which underlies a mudstone layer.
Hydrolithological Section along (d):-
Three boreholes penetrate this section. The section begins at Wad El Gandri
in the west of the study area and ends at El Amara El Awarma in the east
direction Fig (5.7). The top of the section is composed of clay, which overlie
medium sand layers separated by sandyclay layer at a depth of 25-40m.
The lithological column of the Nubian Sandstone Formation of the western
part of section is generally dominated by sandy gravels and mudstone in the

cxxx
upper part of the formation and pebbly sandstone in the lower part. In the
lower eastern part of the section there are two layers composed of gravel and
sandyclay.

Hydrolithological Section along (e):-

In this section, three boreholes penetrate the Gezira Formation Fig (5.8).
From the lithological column of the section two horizons of clay are
observed at the top and the bottom of the section. These layers are separated
by coarse sand layer. which indicates a fresh water.The static water level
ranges 7-25m from the ground surface of the area.

Referring to the geoelectrical sections and hydrolithological sections,

two different units of layers can be suggested as water-bearing beds. The
first unit is observed at depth between 20-80 m below the ground surface.
The apparent resistivity of this unit varies between 45-115 ohm-m. This unit
is composed mainly of sand and some times with gravels, they represent
mainly the Gezira aquifer. Therefore the layers may contain no good water
quality as compared to the Nubian aquifer which forms the second unit. The
Nubian aquifer is located below a level of 80 m below the ground surface
and is composed of sandstones and gravels. The resistivity of these layers
are more than 115 ohm-m, these layers indicate fresh water. A huge
thickness of Nubian Sandstone has been identified as a result of the gravity
methods.
More than hundred wells are taping the Gezira and the Nubian Sandstone
aquifers. The yield of number of wells is shown in Table (5.1) varies
between 5.5 and 64.5 m\h

cxxxi
cxxxii
cxxxiii
cxxxiv
cxxxv
cxxxvi
cxxxvii
cxxxviii
5.3 Hydrochemistry:-

5.3.1 General:
The salinity of water is an important characteristic that determines its uses.
Low salinities are generally desirable for all types of water use, including,
domestic, agricultural (both stock and irrigation), and industrial uses. In
some cases, the particular constituents (such as chloride, sulfate, and the
relative amounts of sodium to calcium and magnesium) can be a
consideration for use where dissolved solids concentrations are high. The
recommended standard of the WHO for TDS in drinking waters is 500
mg/L, and for both chloride and sulfate concentrations is 250 mg/L. The
general classification limit between freshwater and saline water is 1,000
mg/L.

The main objectives of this study are to identify the hydrochemical

processes that control the quality of the groundwater of the study area and to
assess the water quality of the Gezira area.

5.3.2 Water quality:-

The Gezira area where groundwater is the main source of water for domestic
use groundwater quality is of equal importance as its quantity. To assess the
water quality, water samples from 46 boreholes representing different areas
were chemically analyzed in the Non Nile and Wadi Water Authority and
Khartoum National Laboratory. Where there are multiple samples for the
same site, only the most recent data are used. During the field survey

cxxxix
electrical conductivity measurements were carried out for water samples
from 46 wells.
The laboratory chemical analysis includes measuring the pH, electrical
conductivity (E.C), total dissolved solids (T.D.S), total hardness, and total
alkalinity, in addition to constituents of calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, fluorides,
nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia Table (5.1).
The E.C measurements of groundwater is a quick indication of its quality as
the T.D.S in ppm = 0.7 EC in Mho /cm. The EC of the groundwater of the
Gezira area ranges between 270 Mho/cm to a maximum of 2920 umohs/cm
.About 90% of the wells tap water with an EC of less than 1000 umohs/cm,
which is of a good quality. Still most of the rest of the wells have a value of
less than 2000 Mho /cm which is an acceptable range for quality of water.
Only two wells (Wad Adam and El Borgam camp) tap poor quality
groundwater. Table (5.1)
The most commonly used parameter to differentiate between saline water
qualities is total dissolved solids (TDS).The total dissolved solids is defined
as the sum of the dissolved organic materials and the inorganic salts. Fresh
waters contain less than 1,000 milligrams per liter of total dissolved solids.
Brackish water contains 1,000-20,000 milligrams per liter of total dissolved
solids. Seawater usually contains at least 20,000 milligrams per liter of total
dissolved solids.

The TDS concentrations, used to determine the water-quality is drawn as

contour map Fig (32) which shows the distribution of TDS concentration in
the groundwater of the study area. The lowest TDS contour interval has an

cxl
upper value of 500 mg/L, which is the secondary standard for drinking
waters.

Most of the ground water in the study area contains TDS concentrations less
than 1,000 mg/L indicating that the water is fresh. A large portion of the
freshwater has TDS value less than 500 mg/L. Aquifer areas with high TDS
concentrations include the northwest corner around Ma’tuq village, the
salinity in this area roughly coincides with the left branch of the
palaeochannel of the Blue Nile which formed the Gezira buried saline lake
(Salama 1985). And the central area of the map- south of manaqil – in Zone
(c) Fig (5.9) and the EL Tayibat Hasan village area near El Shawa. The
source of salinity in this area comes from the Pleistocene evaporates near
Esh Shawal which indicates the absence of clastic components in addition to
crystalline basement rocks near El Shawal (Williams and Adamson 1980).

El Boushi (1982) noted that the presence of gypsum and carbonates in the
Gezira sediments implies that saline water accumulated in an internal
drainage basin in the past. Adamson et. al. (1982) reported the presence of
thick carbonate deposits in the Gezira. They also showed that the conditions
were favorable for the deposition of carbonates during much of the
Pleistocene time and probably earlier. The presence of massive carbonates
deposits or calcretes suggest prolonged and high input of dissolved
carbonate under conditions suitable for it is precipitation. These were
sluggish stream flow and wide dispersal of the water at the down slope end
of a fan such as the Gezira.
The total dissolved solids of he groundwater in the study area ranges
between a 180 ppm at Umm Asalah well to 2184 ppm at El Burgan well.
About 80% of the wells tap water with a T.D.S of less than 500 ppm which

cxli
indicated good quality. The Fig (32) is a generalized representation of the
TDS concentration of the area. Contours are drawn on the map for three
zones, Zone A with value of less than 500 ppm. Zone B which is restricted
between contour lines 500 ppm and 1000 ppm, and Zone C with values of
more than 1000 ppm.

cxlii
 14.8
Legend

Zone A < 500 ppm

Zone B 500 1000 ppm

14.6
Zone C > 1000 ppm
30 6 20
21
18
Zone A 19
El Azazi
27
14.4 17
10

24
75 11
31 El Fakhakhir
56
2 91
33 44
8
Managil
14.2 7 45
42
88 55 3
12 Matug 77
29
67
76
60 El Hosh
14
78

14 35
Kudeibat 13
Ed Dueim Zone B 66 58

Umm Suneita
wh
ite
Nil
e

13.8
83
Zone C
84
Kawa 87
82

85
89
13.6
Esh Shawal 70

32.4 32.6 32.8 33 33.2 33.4 33.6

10 Km
Fig ( 4.9) A map showing Total Disolved Solids 0 Scale

5.3.2.1 Suitability of groundwater:-

cxliii
The suitability of water for human and animal consumption as well as for
irrigation purposes is hereby assessed on the basis of the Sudanese (1983)
and the international standard of WHO (1984).
The general specifications for drinking water in the Sudan can be
summarized as follows:
1- Water should be free from colour, turbidity and unpleasant odour or
test.
2- The total dissolved solids (T.D.S) should not exceed 2500 ppm unless
there is no better water available.
3- The concentration of certain ions such fluorite, lead, arsenic should
not reach the harmful limit.
From the chemical analysis of the groundwater of the study area it can be
concluded that all waters analyzed are fit for human consumption. With
the exception of well No.77 at El Burgan.

Future of Gezira Water Supply System:-

It is observed from the climate of Gezira that the rainfall is not uniform in
terms of its temporal and spatial distributions. This means that there is a
period of surplus water and a period of water deficit in the streams and
rivers. The annual rainfall as mentioned earlier decreases towards the north
and south-east of the country. These factors point to the fact that many
channels, particularly, in the north and south-east may not be perennial.
Most small chanels which feed many rural communities apart from the
possibility of being polluted cannot even do so on sustainable basis
throughout the year.

cxliv
There is the need to find alternative sources of water supply for the rural
dwellers which is self sustaining. Groundwater has been found to be
sufficient both in quantity and quality for most Gezira rural communities. It
is therefore not surprising that the percentage of the rural communities
which depend on boreholes and wells has increased substantially in the last
ten years.

5.4 CONCLUSIONS

It is now the official policy to provide potable and safe drinking water for all
rural communities. These rural water supply schemes which are to be based
mainly on groundwater resources include deep wells hand-dug wells and
boreholes fitted with hand pumps.

The groundwater resources appear to be the key to the development of the

rural water supply industry and should therefore be managed and utilized on
sustainable basis to meet future challenges. However, it has to be
emphasized that due to geological limitations it is not everywhere that
groundwater is available or available in the required quantities. Some rural
communities therefore have to rely solely on surface water resources whilst
others have to resort to conjunctive use of both surface and groundwater
resources.

Most of the study area is covered by heavy impervious cotton clay soil,
which prevents the passage of water downwards. Groundwater of the study
area is found two water – bearing formations these are the Nubian Sandstone
and Gezira Formations. The Nubian Sandstone Formations consist mainly of
sandstone and conglomeratic sandstone the transimissivity values of this

cxlv
formation ranging from 185 to 585m2/day (15000 to 47000 gal/day/ft). The
Gezira water-bearing formation is thin and rich in clay; the main water-
bearing stratum in this formation is the lower sandy member which consists
of fine medium and coarse sands.

The total dissolved solids of he groundwater in the study area ranges

between a 180 ppm at Umm Asalah well to 2184 ppm at El Burgan well.

cxlvi
 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENDATION:-

The present work is a southward extension in the Gezira area to relate the
presence of groundwater to the postulated sedimentary basins, using gravity
survey and vertical electrical sounding (VES) with geological information
from selected boreholes in the study area.
The regional gravity measurements are used to investigate the geology of the
subsurface and basinal structures in the area, while the vertical electrical
sounding (VES) is used in selected area, to indicate the water-bearing zones
and to delineate the depth of the Basement Complex rocks in the shallow
areas.
The number of stations occupied in the gravity survey is about 193
distributed along six loops Fig (6) which form closed polygons or triangles
of variable dimensions. The interpretation of the present gravity survey is
integrated to the result of the vertical electrical sounding and is supported by
borehole data.
The Bouguer anomaly map of the study area Fig (8) displays several
anomalous zones, recognized as contour closures of local gravity highs and
lows. The most lower part of the study area indicates high gravity anomaly

cxlvii
zone which forming an open contour closure generally trending in a N-S
direction, with value of –27mgals. In the Bouguer map there is broad zone of
low gravity anomaly which is elongated in a general NE-SW direction. This
zone represents the main depression within the area. The maximum depth to
the basement surface in this basin amounts to 1900 m. A total of five profiles
are selected for the interpretation of the Bouguer map which approximately
cover the most of the area, density contrast of (-0.47 g/cm3) between the
Basement rocks and the overlying sediments are assumed in the models.
A total of 24 vertical electrical sounding points using a Schlumberger
configuration were made through out the area. The quantitative
interpretation of the vertical electrical sounding (VES) data is performed
with the help of a computer program referred to as Resix (Interpex Limited
1994).
The result of the interpretation of geoelectric sections provides information
about geology down to depth about 130 m. The study area is characterized
by rapid facies changes and thickness variation which is due to horizontal
and vertical discontinuity.
From the geoelectrical sections in addition to boreholes information, three
zones of resistivity can be distinguished. The first zone has lower resistivity
values, which represent surface clay, mudstone and sandstone saturated with
saline water. The second zone is medium resistivity zone which is composed
of sand and saturated sandstone. The third zone is made mainly of dry sand,
sandstone and fresh Basement Complex rocks.
Most of the study area is covered by heavy impervious cotton clay soil,
which prevents the passage of water downwards. Groundwater of the study
area is found two in two aquifers: the Nubian Sandstone and Gezira
Formations. The Nubian Sandstone Formation consist mainly of sandstone

cxlviii
and conglomeratic sandstone. The Gezira water-bearing formation is thin
and is rich in clays, the main water-bearing stratum in this formation is the
lower sandy member which consists of fine medium and coarse sands. The
result of the geoelectrical survey indicates that the Nubian aquifer is
characterized by high apparent resistivity value which is more than 115
ohm-m, which means that this aquifer may contain fresh water, while the
Gezira aquifer indicates saline water in some places and is characterized by
low to moderate resistivity value (45 – 115 ohm-m).
In the study area the depth to the water level decreases towards the recharge
area, for example the water table attains a shallow depth of 7.3 m in El-
Kireida near the White Nile, while the depth to the water level increases
away from the recharge area to attain a maximum depth below the ground
surface of 44.2 m in Kordigalli in the center of the area. The standing water
level is in general higher near rivers indicating that the rivers are the main
source of recharge to the Gezira area.
The total dissolved solids of he groundwater in the study area ranges
between 180 ppm at Umm Asalah well to 2184 ppm at El Burgan well.
Generally the high content of total dissolved solids is located far away from
the recharge area and is concentrated in the central part of the study area,
were the movement of the water is low or none.
The study area is surrounded by the White Nile rift to the west which is
formed by the junction of two major grabens; the Umm Rawaba graben
extending in a NW direction and the White Nile graben extending in N to
NW direction. It is bounded in the North by E-W faults and NE-SW fault
systems. The Basement rocks and the overlying Mesozoic deposits are
block-faulted at the Rabak where the Mesozoic sediments are down thrown
more than 100m at Kosti. To the north, the study area is surrounded by the

cxlix
Blue Nile Basin which extends from south of Sabaloka gorge and continues
southeast to the Sudan borders with Ethiopia.
Recommendations:-
In order to provide safe drinking water for the Gezira rural communities, it is
recommended to construct deep boreholes to penetrate the Nubian aquifer.
Also it is recommended to construct more production wells in the Gezira
area for irrigation and industrial purposes. In addition to sealing the saline
zone of the Gezira aquifer by cement.
The Bouguer map of the study area indicates deep basins, so the
investigation of hydrocarbons needs a seismic method, palaeontological and
palyonological studies.

cl
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Apendix (1)

clviii
 Buouguer anomaly of the study area

St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer

1 32.51417 13.74 380.25 -35.61
2 32.53933 13.78 381.7 -34.55
3 32.57 13.68 383.85 -29.57
4 32.61 13.62 385.65 -29.94
5 32.63 13.61 385.75 -23.04
6 32.68 13.59 387 -23.21
7 32.73 13.61 389.8 -23.85
8 32.73 13.63 391 -24.19
9 32.77 13.64 391.4 -23.61
10 32.77 13.68 390.25 -24.85
11 32.76 13.73 388.5 -26.11
12 32.78 13.76 386.6 -25.19
13 32.76 13.79 385.75 -28.01
14 32.76 13.82 384.2 -30.91
15 32.73 13.84 384 -29.91
16 32.71 13.85 384.35 -27.26
17 32.67 13.85 384.75 -27.01
18 32.65 13.83 384.75 -28.79
19 32.61 13.81 383.8 -32.54
20 32.58 13.81 382.8 -36.52
21 32.52 13.78 383.1 -34.08
22 32.55 13.81 386.3 -32.41
23 32.56 13.85 390 -40.16
24 32.52 13.87 393.8 -40.01
25 32.54 13.89 398.25 -40.49
26 32.58 13.9 401.5 -34.29
27 32.61 13.92 400.5 -38.61

clix
 St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer
28 32.56 13.96 399.25 -35.82
29 32.54 13.97 400.25 -34.32
30 32.51 14 397.3 -37.75
31 32.48 14.02 394.75 -40.11
32 32.44 14.03 394 -38.12
33 32.41 14.07 391.7 -36.83
34 32.38 14.05 390.5 -33.48
35 32.37 14.03 389.8 -31.43
36 32.39 13.99 389.4 -30.88
37 32.41 13.95 388.6 -35.55
38 32.44 13.91 387.8 -42.93
39 32.46 13.87 386.45 -43.02
40 32.48 13.83 385 -40.71
41 32.5 13.79 381.7 -39.13
42 32.51 13.74 384 -20.68
43 32.37 14.05 385 -36.02
44 32.41 14.06 386 -38.25
45 32.42 14.07 387.1 -42.72
46 32.45 14.07 387.75 -41.73
47 32.46 14.09 388.35 -42.96
48 32.48 14.11 388.9 -43.95
49 32.5 14.13 389.25 -44.12
50 32.51 14.15 390.25 -42.41
51 32.55 14.17 390.9 -35.53
52 32.57 14.19 391.62 -34.53
53 32.59 14.16 392.6 -36.83
54 32.61 14.14 392.62 -38.54
55 32.61 14.11 392.9 -49.81
56 32.62 14.07 392.3 -37.21
57 32.59 14.06 391.7 -34.26
58 32.56 14.05 391 -37.46
59 32.54 14.04 390.2 -38.24
60 32.52 14.06 389.32 -43.59

clx
St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer
61 32.5 14.06 388.32 -38.97
62 32.48 14.07 387.5 -42.17
63 32.46 14.07 386.32 -39.11
64 32.43 14.07 385.45 -37.49
65 32.41 14.06 384.3 -34.51
66 32.37 14.05 384 -33.76
67 32.99 14.24 408.1 -35.23
68 32.99 14.24 406 -34.54
69 33.03 14.25 405.75 -44.74
70 33.08 14.24 404.1 -52.18
71 33.12 14.23 405.12 -54.11
72 33.16 14.22 405.1 -52.23
73 33.19 14.19 407.27 -47.31
74 33.21 14.15 408.62 -48.18
75 33.23 14.12 407.32 -44.97
76 33.21 14.09 407.1 -45.21
77 33.18 14.06 406 -45.92
78 33.15 14.04 403.5 -45.01
79 33.11 14.05 401.55 -44.44
80 33.07 14.03 399.75 -42.28
81 33.05 13.99 379.25 -42.86
82 33.01 13.99 395.25 -35.01
83 32.98 14.01 395.62 -31.26
84 32.95 14.03 397.5 -30.3
85 32.95 14.07 400 -29.13
86 32.96 14.11 402.62 -32.16
87 32.96 14.16 405.62 -31.12
88 32.98 14.2 408 -32.98
89 32.99 14.24 402.32 -50.15
90 33.04 13.99 404.62 -40.65
91 33.07 13.97 406.25 -48.42

clxi
92 33.1 13.95 409.25 -42.87

St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer

93 33.1 13.9 412.82 -40.91
94 33.13 13.88 412.75 -41.95
95 33.16 13.85 411.62 -40.46
96 33.146 13.83 408.82 -41.87
97 33.11 13.8 406.3 -47.49
98 33.06 13.8 403.1 -46.65
99 33.02 13.8 400.32 -45.21
100 32.99 13.83 398.25 -45.5
101 32.97 13.85 396.9 -43.5
102 32.94 13.87 396.32 -34.15
103 32.94 13.91 395.5 -34.23
104 32.95 13.93 394.95 -31.72
105 32.94 13.95 395.1 -31.01
106 32.94 13.98 400 -29.3
107 32.99 14.24 397.82 -37.82
108 32.95 14.08 397.5 -31.37
109 32.93 14.08 397.1 -31.49
110 32.9 14.08 396.8 -31.2
111 32.89 14.08 398.3 -28.97
112 32.89 14.11 398.72 -27.85
113 32.87 14.13 398.1 -29.9
114 32.83 14.14 397.85 -28.93
115 32.82 14.14 397.72 -30.96
116 32.79 14.16 397.12 -29.79
117 32.77 14.16 397 -33.94
118 32.75 14.15 396.3 -36.49
119 32.74 14.16 395.6 -37.57
120 32.72 14.12 395.1 -33.73
121 32.7 14.1 394.75 -35.71

clxii
122 32.68 14.09 393.95 -53.23
123 32.65 14.08 394.05 -50.97
124 32.66 14.07 392.62 -43.45

St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer

125 32.58 14.05 389.45 -46.6
126 32.62 14.07 392.45 -56.96
127 32.67 14.07 392.2 -54.71
128 32.7 14.1 392.2 -47.53
129 32.73 14.13 393.7 -46.94
130 32.77 14.17 394.2 -46.42
131 32.83 14.18 396.2 -53.34
132 32.88 14.23 397.7 -54.35
133 32.95 14.2 399.45 -48.63
134 32.88 14.08 396.91 -44.28
135 32.48 14.23 388.7 -69.56
136 32.58 14.27 390.45 -57.81
137 32.63 14.22 392.2 -53.53
138 32.7 14.22 393.2 -37.67
139 32.69 14.19 392.2 -45.43
140 32.66 14.17 391.7 -51.8
141 32.63 14.14 391.2 -47.08
142 32.59 14.12 390.2 -44.41
143 32.55 14 388.7 -48.23
144 32.62 13.98 390.2 -55.16
145 32.69 13.96 391.7 -55.42
146 32.72 13.97 392.2 -42.93
147 32.78 13.99 393.7 -37.54
148 32.84 14.01 394.7 -40.41
149 32.86 14.03 395.2 -41.46
150 32.9 14 395.7 -40.57
151 32.85 13.95 395.7 -39.91

clxiii
152 32.81 13.93 393.93 -36.37
153 32.77 13.92 392.7 -40.4
154 32.74 13.89 391.7 -41.38
155 32.71 13.86 390.2 -38.2
156 32.65 13.97 390.7 -57.09

St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer

157 32.95 14.07 400.7 -43.04
158 32.9 14.16 397.2 -47.71
159 32.87 14.13 396.7 -42.22
160 32.87 14.08 395.95 -41.05
161 32.81 14.07 394.95 -37.78
162 32.76 14.05 393.95 -39.15
163 32.69 14.04 392.7 -49.19
164 32.65 14.03 390.7 -63.95
165 32.9 14.31 398.7 -65.18
166 32.79 14.32 395.7 -67.58
167 32.57 14.3 390.4 -60.95
168 32.62 14.3 391.7 -54.48
169 32.67 14.33 392.7 -67.29
170 32.65 14.3 392.18 -59.23
171 32.71 14.33 393.7 -69.02
172 32.75 14.33 394.6 -68.13
173 33.02 14.32 402.45 -50.74
174 33.07 14.33 403.95 -57.03
175 33.08 14.39 402.2 -56.81
176 33.08 14.47 400.2 -47.83
177 33.07 14.52 399.7 -45.94
178 33.03 14.58 397.95 -48.39
179 33 14.59 397.2 -51.33
180 32.98 14.6 396.95 -51.05
181 32.95 14.66 395.7 -51.89

clxiv
182 32.93 14.66 394.7 -53.6
183 32.9 14.7 394.26 -51.14
184 32.88 14.73 393.95 -50.57
185 33.06 14.74 397.2 -43.82
186 33.1 14.69 397.2 -35.37
187 33.12 14.63 397.8 -35.32
188 33.17 14.55 400.2 -36.25

St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer

189 33.15 14.5 401.7 -44.68
190 33.18 14.46 403.2 -47.41
191 33.22 14.4 403.7 -51.14
192 33.23 14.37 404.7 -54.38
193 33.27 14.31 404.7 -59.04
194 33.04 14.39 401.95 -54.74
195 33.01 14.43 400.7 -49.87
196 32.98 14.48 398.7 -50.9
197 32.95 14.52 397.2 -53.55
198 32.93 14.57 396.45 -57
199 32.9 14.6 395.2 -59.91
200 32.81 14.53 394.95 -50.18
201 32.84 14.47 396.7 -55.52
202 32.86 14.45 396.95 -56.98
203 32.9 14.42 398.7 -51.72
204 33 14.37 401.2 -50.41
205 33.19 14.27 405.45 -62.64
206 33.45 14.33 406.2 -54.52
207 33.42 14.33 407.2 -54.97
208 33.34 14.31 405.2 -47.04
209 33.28 14.37 404.7 -50.55
210 33.32 14.38 404.95 -47.4
211 33.34 14.34 406.2 -49.43

clxv
212 33.39 14.34 406.7 -52.85
213 33.42 14.41 406.2 -49.58
214 33.45 14.42 405.7 -48.09
215 33.4 14.46 404.2 -36.54
216 33.36 14.47 403.7 -34.05
217 33.3 14.51 402.7 -30.81
218 33.27 14.54 401.2 -36.81
219 33.45 14.02 401.35 -44.94
220 32.86 14.42 397.45 -55.95

St.No. Longitude. Latitude. Elevation(m). Bouguer

221 32.8 14.42 396.7 -55.95
222 32.76 14.39 395.35 -65.6
223 32.71 14.54 392.7 -77.39
224 32.6 14.43 391.45 -53
225 32.65 14.38 392.7 -68.66
226 32.47 14.57 388.35 -53.65
227 32.55 14.54 389.35 -60.3
228 32.55 14.5 390.91 -59.42
229 32.58 14.47 391.35 -57.61
230 32.64 14.47 392.2 -59.24
231 32.67 14.44 393.2 -69.09
232 33.3 14.7 399.2 -53.9
233 33.33 14.65 401.05 -41.14
234 33.35 14.61 401.8 -35.83
235 33.39 14.57 402.29 -35.6
236 33.42 14.52 404.24 -37.12
237 33.45 14.47 404.5 -42.19
238 33.47 14.44 405.73 -47.7
239 33.52 14.4 405.73 -53.63
240 33.52 14.37 407.03 -54.75
241 33.53 14.32 407.7 -53.12

clxvi
242 33.55 14.28 409.66 -59.62
243 32.5 14.65 389.1 -52.32
244 32.7 14.65 391.71 -52.19
245 32.35 14.6 381.15 -45.61
246 32.4 14.6 384.77 -42.68
247 32.45 14.6 383.56 -56.72

Appendix 3
Hydrogeological Data

The location Total yield

Long. Late. S.w.l
name depth(m) m\h
Umm Asalah 32.48 14.28 154 34 55
El- Biwaida 33.33 14.2 111.6 15.2 43.63
Miheila abd olab 32.97 14.55 115.5 35.4 15.22
El Managil 33.16 14.23 92.2 43.9 60
Abrag 33 14.25 138.8 35.2 40
EL-shigla 32.75 14.42 203.7 12.8 31.82
Baha eldin 33.15 14.32 62.5 37.8 22
Dar nail el magil 32.45 14.18 99.1 39.9 60
El-amara el
awamra 33.33 14.02 78 30.5 9.8
El-ansar 32.95 14.08 337.9 26.6 9.1
Hantoub(1) 32.52 14.43 60.2 16.6 64.5
Umm meleiha 33.05 14.52 70.8 34.5 54.5
Kereamit nor
eggaleel 33.01 14.5 79.3 27.4 40.91
Farag alla 33.1 14.55 109.1 29.4 45.5

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 Tanob 33.17 14.53 103 29.1 54.5
El- Rugla Younis 33.2 14.33 83 34.6 6.5
SHebiek felata 33.13 14.45 72.6 33.3 16.5
El-manawra 32.85 14.17 106.5
El-Dibeba 32.85 14.55 108.3
El- amara abdel
rahim 32.66 14.3 181.4 37.4 28.18
Kordigalli 33.03 14.27 171.7 44.2 5.55
WdaGangdari 32.96 14.03 145.2
Mahaeta
abdelhakam 33.24 14.22 223.1
Flata defalla 33.25 14.27 252.5
Hillat Farah 33.18 14.23 271.3
Eleugla ytouinis 33.12 14.2 280.6
Seriat Elshileikh 32.52 14.29 54
Tayba 33.26 14 153.8

The location Total yield

Long. Late. S.w.l
name depth(m) m\h
Shelikha 33.29 14.1 162.5
Fahal Elnoba 33.22 14 146.5
Roof Champ 33.24 14.14 269.3 40
Tobakha 33.23 13.58 210.3
Wad adam 32.37 14.32 621
Darr Nail 32.58 14.12 325 39
El burgan camp 33.04 14.18 219.8
Mahic camp 33.04 14.07 200
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.72 36.6 12.2 5.5
EL-Kreida 32.8 13.8 38.4 7.3 13.6
EL-gewaz 32.36 13.76 96.1 16.1 20.45
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.68 41 10 32.7
Tayibat EL-
hassan 32.65 13.75 51.2 25.8 5.45

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 Shallaoha 32.35 14.2 71.6 26.8 18.18
Ummfilga 32.56 13.65 306 33.5 8.18
EL-Gurashi 32.64 14.28 181.4 37.4 28.18

The location Total So4

Long. Late.
name depth(m) (ppm) Ca(ppm) Mg(ppm)
Umm Asalah 32.48 14.28 154 18 40 20
El- Biwaida 33.33 14.2 111.6 35 35 5
Miheila abd olab 32.97 14.55 115.5 40 30 10
El Managil 33.16 14.23 92.2 60 48 37
Abrag 33 14.25 138.8 74 53 34
EL-shigla 32.75 14.42 203.7 30 20 15
Baha eldin 33.15 14.32 62.5 56 25 9
Dar nail el magil 32.45 14.18 99.1 55 45 38
El-amara el
awamra 33.33 14.02 78 44 20 24
El-ansar 32.95 14.08 337.9 40 19
Hantoub(1) 32.52 14.43 60.2 9 40 17

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Umm meleiha 33.05 14.52 70.8 10 10
Kereamit nor
eggaleel 33.01 14.5 79.3 19.8 24 9.8
Farag alla 33.1 14.55 109.1 14 12
Tanob 33.17 14.53 103 31 40
El- Rugla Younis 33.2 14.33 83 99.6 20 31
SHebiek felata 33.13 14.45 72.6 33 20
El-manawra 32.85 14.17 106.5 50 25 35
El-Dibeba 32.85 14.55 108.3 15 10
El- amara abdel
rahim 32.66 14.3 181.4 92 24 24
Kordigalli 33.03 14.27 171.7 60 25 15
WdaGangdari 32.96 14.03 145.2 18 21 17
Mahaeta
abdelhakam 33.24 14.22 223.1 35.4 24 9
Flata defalla 33.25 14.27 252.5 29.6 32 9
Hillat Farah 33.18 14.23 271.3 91.3 16 6
Eleugla ytouinis 33.12 14.2 280.6 39 22 19
Seriat Elshileikh 32.52 14.29 54 17 18 11
Tayba 33.26 14 153.8 40 36 20
Shelikha 33.29 14.1 162.5 12 26 14
Fahal Elnoba 33.22 14 146.5 19 25 22

The location Total So4

Long. Late.
name depth(m) (ppm) Ca(ppm) Mg(ppm)
Roof Champ 33.24 14.14 269.3 14 18 44
Tobakha 33.23 13.58 210.3 40 16 14
Wad adam 32.37 14.32 621 76 17
Darr Nail 32.58 14.12 325 125 60 35
El burgan camp 33.04 14.18 219.8 321 47 47
Mahic camp 33.04 14.07 200 288 20 25
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.72 36.6 15 15 10
EL-Kreida
Hospital 32.8 13.8 38.4 115 50 45

clxx
EL-gewaz 32.36 13.76 96.1 15 20 10
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.68 41 40 10 10
Tayibat EL-
hassan 32.65 13.75 51.2
Shallaoha 32.35 14.2 71.6 10 10 5
Ummfilga 32.56 13.65 306
EL-Gurashi 32.64 14.28 181.4

The location EC
Long. Late. T.D.S(ppm) Na(ppm) Cl(ppm)
name ms/cm
Umm Asalah 32.48 14.28 180 270 26
El- Biwaida 33.33 14.2 200 295 30
Miheila abd
olab 32.97 14.55 360 410 35 25
el Managil 33.16 14.23 600 900 142

clxxi
Abrag 33 14.25 646 750 130
EL-shigla 32.75 14.42 268 580 42.5
Baha eldin 33.15 14.32 180 515 138 22
Dar nail el
magil 32.45 14.18 510 700 136
El-amara el
awamra 33.33 14.02 332 437 76 4.3
El-ansar 32.95 14.08 367 488 30
Hantoub(1) 32.52 14.43 250 335 35 6
Umm meleiha 33.05 14.52 206 298 54
Kereamit nor
eggaleel 33.01 14.5 428 573 100 16.3
Farag alla 33.1 14.55 232 400
Tanob 33.17 14.53 206 298
El- Rugla
Younis 33.2 14.33 572 878 118 116.3
SHebiek felata 33.13 14.45 200 643 110 30
El-manawra 32.85 14.17 480 645 200 30
El-Dibeba 32.85 14.55 400 600 110 40
El- amara abdel
rahim 32.66 14.3 238 462 28
Kordigalli 33.03 14.27 600 900 185 85
WdaGangdari 32.96 14.03 180 280
Mahaeta
abdelhakam 33.24 14.22 260 346 60 5.7
Flata defalla 33.25 14.27 300 428 59 12.7
Hillat Farah 33.18 14.23 236 404 68 7.8
Eleugla
ytouinis 33.12 14.2 340 443 51 7.8
Seriat
Elshileikh 32.52 14.29 371 495 13.4

The location EC
Long. Late. T.D.S(ppm) Na(ppm) Cl(ppm)
name ms/cm
Tayba 33.26 14 448 713 68 34.7

clxxii
Shelikha 33.29 14.1 258 382 51 8.5
Fahal Elnoba 33.22 14 372 495 43 38.9
Roof Champ 33.24 14.14 332 434 51 4.3
Tobakha 33.23 13.58 202 298 51 17.7
Wad adam 32.37 14.32 2000 2885
Darr Nail 32.58 14.12 665 970 125 65
El burgan
camp 33.04 14.18 2184 2920 375 262.2
Mahic camp 33.04 14.07 1156 1603 275 109
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.72 240 400 65 25
EL-Kreida 32.8 13.8 1190 1570 300 490
EL-gewaz 32.36 13.76 265 380 95 10
EL-Kawa 32.48 13.68 240 400 85 70
Tayibat EL-
hassan 32.65 13.75 1185 1590
Shallaoha 32.35 14.2 350 600 90 20
Ummfilga 32.56 13.65
EL-Gurashi 32.64 14.28

clxxiii