Lesson 1:The Kinetic Molecular Theory

The kinetic molecular theory of matter explains how matter can change among the phases of
solid, liquid, and gas.

The kinetic molecular theory of matter offers a description of the microscopic properties of
atoms (or molecules) and their interactions, leading to observable macroscopic properties (such
as pressure, volume, temperature). An application of the theory is that it helps to explain why
matter exists in different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) and how matter can change from one
phase to the next.

The three phases of matter:

Notice that the spacing between atoms or molecules increases as we move from a description of
the solid phase to the gaseous one.

The kinetic molecular theory of matter states that:

· Matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving.

· All particles have energy, but the energy varies depending on the temperature the sample of
matter is in. This in turn determines whether the substance exists in the solid, liquid, or gaseous
state. Molecules in the solid phase have the least amount of energy, while gas particles have the
greatest amount of energy.

· The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.

· A change in phase may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.

· There are spaces between particles of matter. The average amount of empty space between
molecules gets progressively larger as a sample of matter moves from the solid to the liquid and
gas phases.

· There are attractive forces between atoms/molecules, and these become stronger as the particles
move closer together. These attractive forces are called intermolecular forces.

EXAMPLE: WATER
Let’s take water as an example. We find that in its solid phase (ice), the water molecules have
very little energy and cannot move away from each other. The molecules are held closely
together in a regular pattern called a lattice. If the ice is heated, the energy of the molecules
increases. This means that some of the water molecules are able to overcome the intermolecular
forces that are holding them close together, and the molecules move further apart, forming liquid
water. This is why liquid water is able to flow: the molecules have greater freedom to move than
they had in the solid lattice. If the molecules are heated further, the liquid water will become
water vapor, which is a gas. Gas particles have more energy and are on average at distances from
each other which are much larger than the size of the atoms/molecules themselves. The attractive
forces between the particles are very weak given the large distances between them.

                  

                 

Changes in phase: A change in phase may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.

Diffusion

The kinetic theory of matter is also illustrated by the process of diffusion. Diffusion is the
movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration. It can be seen as a
spreading-out of particles resulting in their even distribution. Placing a drop of food coloring in
water provides a visual representation of this process – the color slowly spreads out through the
water. If matter were not made of particles, then we would simply see a clump of color, since
there would be no smaller units that could move about and mix in with the water.

Teacher’s Insight

Particles have energy, and the energy varies depending on the temperature the sample of matter
is in, which determines if the substance is a solid, liquid, or gas. Solid particles have the least
amount of energy, and gas particles have the greatest amount of energy.
The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. A
change in phase may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.

There are spaces between particles of matter. The average amount of empty space between
molecules gets progressively larger as a sample of matter moves from the solid to the liquid and
gas phases.

Lesson 2: Intermolecular Force of Attraction

Solutions consist of a solvent and solute. There are gas, liquid, and solid solutions but
in this unit, we are concerned with liquids.

The solvent then is a liquid phase molecular material that makes up most of the
solution. Water is a good example of a solvent.

The solute is a smaller quantity of anything that is dissolved in the solvent. It can be a
gas (O2 in water), a liquid (water dissolved in ethanol), or a solid (NaCl dissolved in
water).

In any solution, the molecules or ions of the solute are randomly distributed among the
molecules of the solvent.

                     
What are the intermolecular forces? They are listed in the table below along with
covalent and ionic bonding for comparison. Notice that they have different dependence
on the distance between the attracting particles.
Materials dissolve in a solution when there are strong intermolecular forces between the
solute and the solvent.

Interaction Strength Distance Function

Covalent very strong complex
Ionic very strong 1/r
ion-dipole Strong 1/r2
dipole-dipole Moderate 1/r3
ion-induced dipole Weak 1/r4
dipole-induced dipole very weak 1/r6
London forces very weak 1/r6
London Dispersion Forces
We could discount intermolecular interactions between gas-phase molecules because
these molecules are mostly far apart and moving rapidly relative to each other. In the
liquid phases, all molecules interact with one another. The stronger the interaction
between a molecule and a pure liquid, the greater will be the solubility of the molecule
in the liquid.

All molecules interact with each other through London dispersion forces, or induced
dipole interactions. In the figure below, a 2-atom molecule collides with a 3-atom
molecule. The electron cloud of the first molecule repels the electron cloud of the
molecule it strikes, causing a displacement of some electron density away from the
nucleus. The nucleus is then poorly shielded by its own electrons and attracts the
electron cloud of the first molecule.

              

Both molecules now have a small dipole moment that was induced by molecular
collision.
Dipole-Induced Dipole Interactions
When a molecule with a permanent dipole, such as HCN, collides with a molecule
without a molecular dipole, the collision itself causes a dipole to appear by changes in
electron density within the molecule. The nitrogen atom in HCN is electron rich and the
molecular dipole points in the direction of this atom. Upon collision, the electron cloud
of the second atom would be repelled by the excess electron density on nitrogen so the
positively charged nucleus would be closer to N and would interact with it.

Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Molecules with permanent dipoles can interact with other polar molecules through
dipole-dipole interactions. Ag this is electrostatic in nature. The molecular dipole vector
points towards high electron density.

Hydrogen Bonding Interactions

Hydrogen that is bonded to very electronegative elements (F, O, or N) is highly electron
deficient. It acts as a Lewis acid and interacts with basic sites in other molecules. The
hydrogen bonding interaction is stronger than dipole-dipole interactions. Again, it adds
to the existing London dispersion forces to stabilize molecules in solution.

Teacher’s Insight

The intermolecular forces of attraction pertain to forces that hold individual particles
such as atoms, molecules, or ions together. The strength of the intermolecular forces of
attraction is dependent on the arrangement of' the particles, the proximity of particles
relative one another, and the nature of the interacting particles. The intermolecular
forces of attraction influence the resulting properties of solids, liquids, and gases. In
solids, for example, the intermolecular forces of attraction directly affect its melting
point and heat of fusion. There are types of intermolecular forces there are; dispersion
force is caused by polarization, or the distortion of the electron cloud brought about by
the presence of a highly charged particle. In this case, the electron cloud of one atom is
attracted to the positively charged nucleus of another atom, dipole-dipole interaction is
an intermolecular force of attraction that occurs between partially positive and partially
negative ends, ion-dipole interaction arises from the interaction between an ion and a
polar molecule, and hydrogen bond is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction, which
form when hydrogen bonds with fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen.

Lesson 3: Properties of Liquids

Properties of Liquids

Due to the presence of intermolecular force, liquids exhibit the properties of viscosity,
vapor pressure, and boiling point.

Vaporization

Vaporization is the process of converting a liquid into a gas. It is also called evaporation.
Since we know that the particles of a gas are moving faster than those of a liquid, an
input of energy must be required for a liquid to become a gas. The most common way
to add energy to a liquid system is by adding heat.

As a liquid gains energy, the molecules begin to move around faster. If a molecule is on
the surface of the liquid, and has enough energy, it can break free and become a gas
molecule. As with anything in chemistry, or life for that matter, there are other factors
that determine how easily a molecule can break free from the liquid. We just discussed
some of them: intermolecular forces.

The stronger the intermolecular forces that are holding a liquid together, the more
energy that will be required to pull them apart. What this means in practical terms is
that a liquid with strong intermolecular forces will have to be heated to a higher
temperature before it will evaporate.

For example: Look at Methane (CH4 M.W. 16 g/mol) and Water (H2O 18 g/mol). Their
molecular weights are very similar, but their Heats of Vaporization (how much heat per
mole that has to be added to make them evaporate) are very different. Water has
a DHvap of 40.7 kJ/mol and Methane has a DHvap of 8.2 kJ/mol. Methane is actually a gas
at room temperature because of its low heat of vaporization.

What is condensation?

Well, the opposite of vaporization, of course. The process by which a gas changes phase
into a liquid. And if you must add energy/heat a liquid to convert it to a gas, then you
must remove energy from or cool a gas to convert it into a liquid. Make sense? Yes.
What else makes sense is that the amount of energy required to go from gas to liquid
phase would be the same as that required to go from liquid to gas, just opposite in sign.
So the Heat of Vaporization is the same for both processes, just positive
(endogonic/endothermic) for evaporation and negative (exergonic/exothermic) for
condensation.

What is Vapor Pressure?

Vapor pressure is a measurable quantity that exists when a liquid and its vapor are in
equilibrium. This is only possible in closed systems. But please note that the earth's
atmosphere is considered a closed system. On a much smaller scale this would be when
you place any liquid into a sealed container. The molecules at the surface of the liquid
would be changing into gas phase molecules and returning to the liquid until an
equilibrium was reached. This is what we call a "dynamic equilibrium". As molecules
from the liquid move into the gas phase within the container, this increases the pressure
above the liquid. A measure of this pressure (minus the normal atmospheric pressure)
gives us the vapor pressure of the liquid. The higher this pressure, the more volatile a
liquid is said to be. Vapor pressure is also dependent on the temperature of the system.
The liquid will still have a heat of vaporization to contend with so the equilibrium vapor
pressure will increase at higher temperatures.

Boiling Points
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid will convert to a gas.
If the atmospheric pressure at this temperature is given as 1 atmosphere or 760 mmHg,
then this temperature is called the normal boiling point of the liquid. Boiling points are
therefore pressure dependent. (The lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the
boiling point and vice versa). This is because the atmospheric pressure is what is
pushing against the surface of the liquid and keeping the liquid down. When the vapor
pressure of the liquid is equal to or greater than the atmospheric pressure, boiling will
occur (or in other words vapor will form) and the gas phase molecules will escape from
the surface of the liquid (you see this as bubbles).

Critical Temperature and Pressure

The temperature and pressure at which the line between liquid and gas phase blurs is
called the critical temperature and critical pressure, respectively. At very high
temperatures and pressures the properties of a substance resemble those of both a
liquid and a gas.

Supercritical Fluids

A Super Critical Fluid (SCF) is defined as a substance above its critical temperature (TC)
and critical pressure (PC). The critical point represents the highest temperature and
pressure at which the substance can exist as a vapor and liquid in equilibrium. The
phenomenon can be easily explained with reference to the phase diagram for pure
carbon dioxide (Figure below). This figure shows the areas where carbon dioxide exists
as a gas, liquid, solid or as a SCF. The curves represent the temperatures and pressures
where two phases coexist in equilibrium (at the triple point, the three phases co-exist).
The gas-liquid coexistence curve is known as the boiling curve. If we move upwards
along the

boiling curve, increasing both temperature and pressure, then the liquid becomes less
dense due to thermal expansion and the gas becomes denser as the pressure rises.
Eventually, the densities of the two phases converge and become identical, the
distinction between gas and liquid disappears, and the boiling curve comes to an end at
the critical point. The critical point for carbon dioxide occurs at a pressure of 73.8 bar
and a temperature of 31.1°C.

Surface Tension

Molecules on the surface of a liquid are held to the liquid by the intermolecular
attractions from the molecules below and beside them. Surface tension has units of
erg/cm2 or dyne/cm. It arises because atoms on the surface are missing bonds. Energy is
released when bonds are formed, so the most stable low energy configuration has the
fewest missing bonds. Surface tension therefore tries to minimize the surface area,
resulting in liquids forming spherical droplets and allowing insects to walk on the
surface without sinking.

                     

Capillary Action

Capillary action is a physical effect caused by the interactions of a liquid with the walls of
a thin tube. The capillary effect is a function of the ability of the liquid to wet a particular
material. The liquid for which this effect is most commonly seen is water, because water
is capable of strong surface interactions and because water is ubiquitous.

This property refers is to the measure of how much a liquid resist flowing freely. A liquid
that flows very slowly is said to be more viscous than a liquid that flows easily and
quickly. A substance with low viscosity is considered to be thinner than a substance with
higher viscosity, which is usually thought of as being thicker. For example, honey is more
viscous than water. Honey is thicker than water and flows more slowly. Viscosity can
usually be reduced by heating the liquid. When heated, the particles of the liquid move
faster, allowing the liquid to flow more easily.

Teacher’s Insight
Due to the presence of intermolecular forces liquids exhibit different properties.
Viscosity of a liquid is strongly dependent on the strength of the intermolecular forces
in play. Surface tension is referred as the amount of resistance needed to increase the
surface area of liquids. Vaporization is the transformation of a substance from a liquid to
a gas. A liquid boils its vapor pressure is equal to the prevailing atmospheric pressure.

Lesson 4: Properties of Water

 Properties of Water

Pure water is an odorless, tasteless, and colorless substance. A water molecule can form
hydrogen bonds with many other molecules. A water molecule is also polar due to the
lone pair of electrons in the oxygen atom. Therefore, the electron density of the
molecule is concentrated on the oxygen atom. Water is considered as the universal
solvent because it has great dissolving power. Each water molecule is surrounded by
four other neighboring water molecules through hydrogen bonding. Thus, liquid water
is composed of a three-dimensional network of water molecules that are bonded by
hydrogen. Water expands on freezing, and at 277 K(4°C), liquid water has a maximum
density of 1.00 gram per milliliter (g/mL). Because ice has a lower density than liquid
water, it forms the top layer of lakes and rivers come winter. However, most of the water
remains in liquid form, allowing aquatic life to continue to live through the winter.

An acid is a molecule that contains a hydrogen proton (H"), and a base is a molecule
that contains hydroxide (OH), according to Arrhenius's definition. Water may act both as
an acid and as a base, enabling it to undergo autoprotolysis to give hydronium (H,0)
and OH ions.

Autoprotolysis involves the transfer of protons from and to the same 1dentical

molecule, as given in the previous equation. At equilibrium, the autoprotolys is constant
(K) can be written as K [H3O+][OH-]= 1.0 x 1014. Accordingly, pure water gives a neutral pH
concentration of 7. Acid-base reactions involving water impose a limit on the relative
strength of the acid and base components in solution. This is called the levelling effect
of water. Acid-base reactions involving water yields hydronium [H 3O] and hydroxide ions
in solution. The levelling effect of water imposes that the strongest acid in the solution
is the hydronium ion, whereas the strongest base in the solution is the hydroxide ion.

Buffer is the ability to resist extreme pH changes. The buffering capacity of water is so
important from an environmental perspective. Any accidental spill of substances with
extreme pH such as strong bases and acids (pH7 > or pH <7, respectively) will not
immediately induce significant pH changes in natural bodies of water. There aquatic
organism is extreme acidity or extreme basicity. Water also exhibits high heat capacity,
which prevents oceans or river from generating large changes in their temperature
conditions.

Teacher’s Insight

Water is an extremely important molecule, it actively participates in many chemical

reactions, particularly those involving aqueous processes. example, photosynthesis is
based on the oxidation of water to yield molecular oxygen (O,) as a by-product.
Photosynthesis is highly useful as this process converts the sun's energy into chemical
energy that organisms need. Water also facilitates the transport of molecules, nutrients,
and products of reactions within and between cells. Furthermore, the behavior or
properties of biomolecules may be influenced by the presence of water. Water exhibits
different properties both physical and chemical.

Lesson 1: Types and Properties of Solids

Types and Properties of Solids

Crystalline solids, or crystals, are regarded as "true solids." Minerals are crystalline

solids. Common table salt is one example of this kind of solid. In crystalline solids, the
atoms, ions or molecules are arranged in an ordered and symmetrical pattern that is
repeated over the entire crystal. The smallest repeating structure of a solid is called a
unit cell, which is like a brick in a wall. Unit cells combine to form a network called
a crystal lattice.

Aside from the regular arrangement of particles, crystalline solids have several other
characteristic properties. They are generally incompressible, meaning they cannot be
compressed into smaller shapes. Because of the repeating geometric structure of the
crystal, all the bonds between the particles have equal strength. This means that a
crystalline solid will have a distinct melting point, because applying heat will break all
the bonds at the same time. 

Crystalline solids also exhibit anisotropy. This means that properties such as refractive
index (how much light bends when passing through the substance), conductivity (how
well it conducts electricity) and tensile strength (the force required to break it apart) will
vary depending on the direction from which a force is applied. Crystalline solids also
exhibit cleavage; when broken apart, the pieces will have planned surfaces, or straight
edges. 

 Types of crystalline solids

There are four types of crystalline solids: ionic solids, molecular solids, network covalent
solids and metallic solids. 

Ionic solids
Ionic compounds form crystals that are composed of oppositely charged ions: a
positively charged cation and a negatively charged anion.  Because of the strong
attraction between opposite charges, it takes a lot of energy to overcome ionic bonds.
This means that ionic compounds have very high melting points, often between 300 and
1,000 degrees Celsius (572 to 1,832 degrees Fahrenheit). While the crystals themselves
are hard, brittle and nonconductive, most ionic compounds can be dissolved in water,
forming a solution of free ions that will conduct electricity. They may be simple binary
salts like sodium chloride (NaCl), or table salt, where one atom of a metallic element
(sodium) is bonded to one atom of a nonmetallic element (chlorine). They may also be
composed of polyatomic ions such as NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate). Polyatomic ions are
groups of atoms that share electrons (called covalent bonding) and function in a
compound as if they constituted a single charged ion.

Molecular solids
Molecular solids are composed of covalently bonded molecules attracted to each other
by electrostatic forces called van der Waals forces. Because covalent bonding involves
sharing electrons rather than outright transfer of those particles, the shared electrons
may spend more time in the electron cloud of the larger atom, causing weak or shifting
polarity. This electrostatic attraction between the two poles (dipoles) is much weaker
than ionic or covalent bonding, so molecular solids tend to be softer than ionic crystals
and have lower melting points (many will melt at less than 100 C, or 212 F). Most
molecular solids are nonpolar. These nonpolar molecular solids will not dissolve in
water, but will dissolve in a nonpolar solvent, such as benzene and octane. Polar
molecular solids, such as sugar, dissolve easily in water. Molecular solids are
nonconductive.
Examples of molecular solids include ice, sugar, halogens like solid chlorine (Cl2), and
compounds consisting of a halogen and hydrogen such as hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Fullerene "buckyballs" are also molecular solids.

Network covalent solids

In a network solid, there are no individual molecules. The atoms are covalently bonded
in a continuous network, resulting in huge crystals. In a network solid, each atom is
covalently bonded to all the surrounding atoms. Network solids have similar properties
to ionic solids. They are very hard, somewhat brittle solids with extremely high melting
points (higher than 1,000 C or 1,800 F). Unlike ionic compounds, they do not dissolve in
water, nor do they conduct electricity. Examples of network solids include diamonds,
amethysts and rubies.

Metallic solids
Metals are opaque, lustrous solids that are both malleable and ductile. Malleable means
they are soft and can be shaped or pressed into thin sheets, while ductile means they
can be pulled into wires. In a metallic bond, the valence electrons are not donated or
shared as they are in ionic and covalent bonding. Rather, the electron clouds of adjacent
atoms overlap so that electrons become delocalized. The electrons move with relative
freedom from one atom to another throughout the crystal.  A metal may be described
as a lattice of positive cations within a "sea" of negative electrons. This electron mobility
means that metals are highly conductive of heat and electricity. Metals tend to have
high melting points, though notable exceptions are mercury, which has a melting point
of minus 37.84 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 38.8 Celsius), and phosphorous, with a
melting point of 111.2 F (44 C).

An alloy is a solid mixture of a metallic element with another substance. While pure
metals can be overly malleable and heavy, alloys are more workable. Bronze is an alloy
of copper and tin, while steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and other additives.

Amorphous solids
In amorphous solids (literally "solids without form"), the particles do not have a
repeating lattice pattern. They are also called "pseudo solids." Examples of amorphous
solids include glass, rubber, gels and most plastics. An amorphous solid does not have a
definite melting point; instead, it melts gradually over a range of temperatures, because
the bonds do not break all at once. This means an amorphous solid will melt into a soft,
malleable state (think candle wax or molten glass) before turning completely into a
liquid. 

Amorphous solids have no characteristic symmetry, so they do not have regular planes
of cleavage when cut; the edges may be curved. They are called isotropic because
properties such as refractive index, conductivity and tensile strength are equal
regardless of the direction in which a force is applied. 

Teacher’s Insight

 Solid is one of the three main states of matter, along with liquid and gas. Matter is the
"stuff" of the universe, the atoms, molecules and ions that make up all physical
substances. In a solid, these particles are packed closely together and are not free to
move about within the substance. Molecular motion for the particles in a solid is
confined to very small vibrations of the atoms around their fixed positions; therefore,
solids have a fixed shape that is difficult to change. Solids also have a definite volume;
that is, they keep their size no matter how you try to change them.  Solids are divided
into two main categories, crystalline solids and amorphous solids, based on how the
particles are arranged. 

Lesson 2: Phase Changes

Phase Changes

Phase changes involve the transition from one phase to another. For example, a solid
change to liquid during melting. A phase change entails either absorption represented
by a change in the latent heat of fusion. Other phase changes include vaporization,
condensation, and sublimation.

Phase change occurs when a substance is subjected to different temperature and

pressure conditions. For example, Earth receives radiation flux from the sun, which
causes the warming of Earth. At elevated temperature conditions, water from the oceans
and from other bodies of water tend to evaporate, changing its phase from liquid to gas
(water vapor). This phase change is very critical as it prevents solar radiation to
completely warm Earth. Water acts as a coolant due to its very large heat of
vaporization. Similarly, the vaporization of water from your bodies through perspiration
causes your body to cool down.
1. Melting-Similar to liquids, solids also undergo phase changes. A Solid may turn into
liquid if it is heated. This process is called melting. Take ice as an example. The energy
that flows into the ice causes the random motion of water molecules. This random
motion disrupts the intermolecular forces of attraction between the water molecules.
Thus, water molecules break loose from the solid lattice of the ice. The temperature at
which a solid change to a liquid is called the melting point. Melting point can also be
defined as the temperature at which the melting rate of a solid is the same as its
freezing rate at a given pressure. This implies that the solid and liquid phases of the
solid are in equilibrium. The latent beat of fusion (AH) is the energy required to melt 1
mole of a solid at its melting point. The latent heat of fusion is highly dependent on the
nature of the intermolecular force of attraction. Usually, solids with high melting points
have also high values of latent heat of fusion

The various processes undertaken by a substance as a function of energy added (at a

constant rate) are illustrated through a heating curve. The heating curve figure below is
a plot of temperature versus time at which a constant rate of energy is supplied onto
the substance. The plateau shown in the heating curve of water at 273 K (0°C) implies
that the melting process continues until the solid has fully melted.

            

The heating curve shows that the temperature does not rise the substance complete its
phase change over time.

1. Vaporization-Continuing the heating process will eventually cause the liquid to boil
and eventually vaporize, or turn to gas. The temperature further increases and the liquid
boils at 373 K (100°C). This temperature remains constant until the liquid has been
completely vaporized, as shown in figure 2.9. The melting and boiling points of
substances are affected by their vapor pressures, with the vapor pressure of ice being
much more dependent on temperature. The vapor pressure of ice increases rapidly with
an increase in temperature, as compared to the vapor pressure of liquid water. Thus, at
melting point, liquids and solids have the same vapor pressures.

3. Sublimation- sublimation is the process at which a solid is vaporized at atmospheric

pressure without transforming to a liquid. Solids with high vapor pressures easily
Sublime. Household products such as mothballs and deodorizers undergo sublimation.
Occurrence of such a phase change is marked by the distinct odor these products give
off.

Note that all phase changes are physical changes, which means that no chemical bonds
broken during these processes.

Phase Diagram

A phase diagram represents pressure-temperature relationships at equilibrium, as the

pure substance undergoes phase changes in a closed system. A closed system is a
system in which no exchanges of matter take place. On the other hand, in an open
system, matter goes into the system and goes out into the surroundings, or vice versa.

The phase diagrams for water and for carbon dioxide are shown in a figure.

The phase diagram of water represents the condition at which the solid water (ice) is less
dense than the liquid water, as indicated by the negative slope (slanting to the left) of
the solid-liquid equilibrium line AB. On the other hand, the phase diagram of carbon
dioxide illustrates the conditions at which the solid carbon dioxide is denser than the
liquid carbon dioxide, as suggested by the positive slope (slanting to the right) of the
solid-liquid equilibrium line AB.

                
 The solid-liquid equilibrium line AB in the phase diagram of water is also its melting
curve.

This implies that the most stable form of water to the left of the AB line is solid.
Moreover, regions near AB line indicate that ice is less dense liquid water. This
demonstrated when ice flows in liquid water.

 As shown in the phase diagram of water, water boils at different temperatures at
different pressure conditions. At higher elevation, the atmospheric pressure is low,
causing the water to boil at a lower temperature. As a result, cooking hard-boiled eggs
takes longer time in areas that are thousands of meters above sea level, such as the top
of Mt. Everest in Tibet, where the elevation is 8, 847.73 meters. At this level, atmospheric
pressure is 31, 997 Pa and water boils at 343 K(70 0C)

The triple point represented by a point A is the point at which all phases of a substance
(in this case, water) can coexist at equilibrium. The triple point of water is achieved at
273. 14 K (0.010C) and 607. 95 Pa (0.006 atm). Pressures and temperatures along
sublimation curve, solids tend to sublime or vice-versa.

In the case of the carbon dioxide, the triple point is at 216 K (-57 0C) and 5.20 x 106 Pa
(5.1 atm). This condition at 5.20 x 106 Pa is above the normal atmospheric pressure (101
325 Pa), which explains why dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) sublimes at the atmospheric
pressure.

A supercritical fluid is formed when the temperature of a substance is above its critical
temperature. The critical temperature of water is at 647 K (374 0C), whereas the critical
temperature of carbon dioxide is at 304 K (310C). The critical temperature is defined as
the temperature in which the vapor cannot be liquefied regardless of the pressure
applied. Critical pressure, on the other, is the pressure at which liquefication occurs at
the critical temperature. The critical point gives the combination of the critical pressure
and the critical temperature. The critical point water is at 647 K and 2.21 x 10 7 Pa (218
atm), whereas the critical point of the carbon dioxide is at 304 K and 7.40 x 10 6 Pa (73
atm). Supercritical liquid carbon dioxide can be used for extracting contaminants or
separating components of certain mixtures.

Carbon dioxide is usually used in fire extinguishers. It puts out fire by keeping the
oxygen away, as oxygen is needed to ignite or keep the fire burning. Carbon dioxide
also serves as a coolant. Liquid carbon dioxide readily transforms into vapor when
released to the environment at standard pressure.
Teacher’s Insight

Most substance have the phase diagram that mimics that of carbon dioxide. However, if
we examine the phase diagram of water, we find an important difference. Unlike carbon
dioxide and most other diagram of water shows a negative slope for the boundary line
between the liquid and solid state. This difference has to do with the fact that water
actually expands as it goes from state to the solid state. This implies that liquid water is
denser than solid water.

Lesson 1: Solutions
A solution is defined as a homogenous mixture which mainly comprises of two
components namely solute and solvent.

For example, salt and sugar is a good illustration of a solution. A solution can be
categorized into several components.

On the basis of physical states of solvent and solute can be categorized as solid, liquid
and gaseous solutions.

In solid solutions, solute and solvent are in the solid-state. For example ceramics, and polymer
blends. In liquid solutions, solid, gas or liquid is mixed in a liquid state.

Gaseous solutions are usually homogenous mixtures of gases like air. Depending upon a
number of solutions and solute, it can be classified into dilute and concentrated
solutions

Lesson 1.1 Different Types of Solutions

Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be
categorized into supersaturated solution, unsaturated and saturated solutions.
  A supersaturated solution comprises of a large amount of solute at a
temperature wherein it will be reduced as a result the extra solute will crystallize
quickly.
 An unsaturated solution is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving
any more solute at a given temperature.
 A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not
capable of dissolving any more solute at a given temperature.

The solutions are of two forms, depending on whether the solvent is water or not.

 Aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in water the solution is called an

aqueous solution. Eg, salt in water, sugar in water and copper sulfate in water.
 Non-aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in a solvent other than
water, it is called a non-aqueous solution. Eg, iodine in carbon tetrachloride,
sulfur in carbon disulfide, phosphorus in ethyl alcohol.

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/bknanjwade/solutions-and-their-properties

Solutions are spoken of as having two components, the solvent, and the solute. Another
classification of the solution depends on the amount of solute added to the solvent.

 A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of solvent.

 A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute dissolved in a small
amount of solvent.

Types of Solution According to their Phase

Solute Solvent Solution Example(s)

Solid Solid Solid Jewelry, steel, brass
Solid Liquid Liquid Seawater
Liquid Liquid Liquid Gin, alcohol
Gas Solid Solid Hydrogen in platinum
Gas Liquid Liquid Carbonated drinks
Gas Gas Gas Air
Teacher’s Insight

Solutions are homogenous mixture, which are compost of a solute and solvent. The
solute is the substance that is present in small amount, and the solvent is the bulk or
medium in which solute dissolved, mixed or dispersed. Solutions that use water as the
solvent are considered aqueous solution.  Aqueous solution can be classified as
electrolyte or nonelectrolyte. Those that can conduct electricity are electrolytes.
Nonelectrolytes, on the other hand, are solutions that do not conduct
electricity. Unsaturated solution is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving
any more solute at a given temperature. A saturated solution can be defined as a
solution in which a solvent is not capable of dissolving any more solute at a given
temperature.

Lesson 2: Energy of Solution Formation

We often prepare solutions daily. Examples of these include preparing our juice and
coffee drinks, and mixing our laundry detergents with water. In making solutions, energy
change is also involved. The formation of a solution can be divided into three stages.
The first stage is the disintegration of the solute into individual components. This is then
followed by the interaction of the solvent molecules our laundry detergents with energy
change is also involved. The formation of a solution can be divided into three stages.
The first stage is the disintegration of the solute into individual components. This
involved in their formation is then followed by the interaction of the solvent molecules
with individual solute and solvent. Effective encounters among solute and solvent
particles will result in solvation. This is when the solute particles eventually drift into the
solution. Energy absorption is sometimes necessary to break down the solute and
solvent particles and overcome the respective intermolecular forces of attraction. This
process is termed as endothermic. On the other hand, at some instances, energy is
released during interaction between solute and solvent molecules. This release of
energy is referred to a exothermic. The heat of solution (AH)accounts for the overall
change in the energy associated with the formation of solution. This is taken as the sum
of the energy change derived from each stage. The heat of solution may give either a
positive sign or a negative sign, as shown in figure.

Generally, a more negative value of AHsol’n a favorable dissolution process, is influenced

by the following factor:
·         Strong solvent-solute attractions

·         Weak solute-solute interaction

    Weak solvent-solvent interaction

The dissolution of a solid solute in a liquid solvent is strongly dependent on the crystal
lattice energy. The lattice energy is the energy change accompanying the formation of
one mole of solid from gaseous reactants. This process is always exothermic; therefore,
the lattice energy is always negative.

Another contributing factor to the dissolution of a solid solute in a liquid solvent is the
interaction of the solvent molecules with the solute particles. This is expressed through
hydration energy. Hydration refers to the interaction of water molecules with solute
particles.

Teacher’s Insight

Solution are important in our daily lives. We have to take note of the energy changer
involved in their formation. The formation of solution can be divided into three stages.
The first stage is the disintegration of the solute into individual components. This is
followed by the interaction of the solvent molecules with individual solute molecules.
Lastly will be the effective encounters of solute particles and solvent particles. During
energy formation of the solution energy absorption is necessary to breakdown the
solute and solvent. This process is called endothermic. At some instances, energy is
released during interaction between solute molecules and solvent molecules.

Lesson 3: Expressing Concentration of Solution

The concentration of solutions pertains to the amount of solute and solvent particles
present in the solution. It can also be defined as relative numbers of solute and of
solvent particles in the solution. We need to know the concentration for the following
reasons:

1. To determine the colligative property of solutions.

2. To determine the stoichiometry or reaction in solutions.

3. To interpret the results obtained from several analysis.

 There are a number of ways to express the relative amounts of solute and solvent in a
solution. This page describes calculations for four different units used to express
concentration:

 Percent Composition (by mass)

 Molarity
 Molality
 Mole Fraction

Percent Composition (by mass)

We can consider percent by mass (or weight percent, as it is sometimes called) in two
ways:

 The parts of solute per 100 parts of solution.

 The fraction of a solute in a solution multiplied by 100.

We need two pieces of information to calculate the percent by mass of a solute in a

solution:

Percent Composition (by mass)

We can consider percent by mass (or weight percent, as it is sometimes called) in two
ways:

 The parts of solute per 100 parts of solution.

 The fraction of a solute in a solution multiplied by 100.

We need two pieces of information to calculate the percent by mass of a solute in a

solution:The mass of the solute in the solution.

 The mass of the solution.

Use the following equation to calculate percent by mass:

Percent Composition (by mass)

We can consider percent by mass (or weight percent, as it is sometimes called) in two
ways:

 The parts of solute per 100 parts of solution.

 The fraction of a solute in a solution multiplied by 100.
We need two pieces of information to calculate the percent by mass of a solute in a
solution:

 The volume of the solute in the solution.

 The volume of the solution.

Use the following equation to calculate percent by mass:

% volume = volume solute  (ml)  x 100

          volume solution (ml)

Example 1: Find the percent by mass in which 41.0 g of NaCl is dissolved in 331 grams of
water.

% by mass = 41 g    x 100  =   11.0%   

                                               372 g

Example 2: What is the percent by volume concentration of a solution in which 75.0 ml

of ethanol is diluted to a volume of 250.0 ml?

% by volume = 75.0 ml x 100    =   30.0%   

                                                   250.0 ml

Molality

Molality, m, tells us the number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram of
solvent. (Note that molality is spelled with two "l” s and represented by a lower-case m.)

We need two pieces of information to calculate the molality of a solute in a solution:

 The moles of solute present in the solution.

 The mass of solvent (in kilograms) in the solution.

To calculate molality we use the equation:

Example 1: A sulfuric acid solution containing 571.4 g of H2SO4 per liter of solution has a
density of 1.329 g/cm3. Calculate the molality of H2SO4 in this solution

Solution:

1 L of solution = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3

1.329 g/cm3 times 1000 cm3 = 1329 g (the mass of the entire solution)

1329 g minus 571.4 g = 757.6 g = 0.7576 kg (the mass of water in the solution)

571.4 g / 98.0768 g/mol = 5.826 mol of H 2SO4

5.826 mol / 0.7576 kg = 7.690 m

Example 2: Calculate the molality of 15.00 M HCl with a density of 1.0745 g/cm 3

Solution:

1) Let us assume 1000. mL of solution are on hand. In that liter of 15-molar solution,
there are:

15.00 mol/L times 1.000 L = 15.00 mole of HCl

15.00 mol times 36.4609 g/mol = 546.9135 g of HCl

2) Use the density to get mass of solution

1000. mL times 1.0745 g/cm3 = 1074.5 g of solution

1074.5 g minus 546.9135 g = 527.5865 g of water = 0.5275865 kg

3) Calculate molality:

15.00 mol / 0.5275865 kg = 28.43 m (to four sig figs)

Note: the mole fractions of water and HCl can also be calculated with the above data.
There are 29.286 moles of water and 15.00 moles of HCl. You may work out the mole
fractions on your own.

 
Molarity

Molarity tells us the number of moles of solute in exactly one liter of a solution. (Note
that molarity is spelled with an "r" and is represented by a capital M.)

Dahlia del Castillo Apocada,General Chemistry 2,DIWA,pp 46

We need two pieces of information to calculate the molarity of a solute in a solution:

 The moles of solute present in the solution.

 The volume of solution (in liters) containing the solute.

To calculate molarity we use the equation:

Example 1: Sea water contains roughly 28.0 g of NaCl per liter. What is the molarity of
sodium chloride in sea water?

Solution:

MV = grams / molar mass

(x) (1.00 L) = 28.0 g / 58.443 g mol¯1

x = 0.4790993 M

to three significant figures, 0.479 M

Example 2: How many moles of NaCl are contained in 100.0 mL of a 0.200 M solution?

Solution:

0.200 M = x / 0.1000 L

x = 0.0200 mol

Mole Fraction
The mole fraction, X, of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of
that component to the total number of moles of all components in the solution.

To calculate mole fraction, we need to know:

 The number of moles of each component present in the solution.

The mole fraction of A, XA, in a solution consisting of A, B, C, ... is calculated using the
equation:

To calculate the mole fraction of B, XB, use:

Example 1: 0.100 mole of NaCl is dissolved into 100.0 grams of pure H 2O. What is the
mole fraction of NaCl?

Solution:

100.0 g / 18.0 g mol¯1 = 5.56 mol of H2O

Add that to the 0.100 mol of NaCl = 5.56 + 0.100 = 5.66 mol total

Mole fraction of NaCl = 0.100 mol / 5.66 mol = 0.018

What is the mole fraction of the H2O?

5.56 mol / 5.66 mol = 0.982

Example 2: A solution is prepared by mixing 25.0 g of water, H2O, and 25.0 g of ethanol,
C2H5OH. Determine the mole fractions of each substance.

Solution:

1) Determine the moles of each substance:

H2O ⇒ 25.0 g / 18.0 g/mol = 1.34 mol

C2H5OH ⇒ 25.0 g / 46.07 g/mol = 0.543 mol

2) Determine mole fractions:

H2O ⇒ 1.34 mol / (1.34 mol + 0.543 mol) = 0.71
C2H5OH ⇒ 0.543 mol / (1.34 mol + 0.543 mol) = 0.29

Teacher’s Insight

Understanding the concentration of the solutions relates to the health and safety
concern. We need to know how to measure the amount of concentration. There are
various ways on hoe to express concentration. Concentration of the solution can be
express through mass measurement, volume measurement, the number of moles, or a
combination of the three. Percent by mass utilizes the mass of the solute and the mass
of the solution. Percent by volume uses the volume of the solution and the volume of
the solute. Mole fraction and the mole percent expresses concentration in terms of the
number of the solute and the solution. Molarity (M) is an expression of the solution
concentration in terms of number of moles of solute per liter of solution. Molality (m) is
an expression of solution concentration in terms of number of moles of solute per 1000
g or 1kg solvent.

Solubility
Take some sand and try to dissolve it in a cup of water. What happens? The sand will
not dissolve; in other words, it is insoluble. Insoluble means that the substance does not
dissolve. If you were to take a teaspoon of table salt or sugar and conduct the same
experiment, the result would be different. Salt and sugar are both soluble in water.
When a substance is soluble, it means that the substance has the ability to dissolve in
another substance.

Solubility is the maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount
of solvent at a specific temperature. There are two direct factors that affect solubility:
temperature and pressure. Temperature affects the solubility of both solids and gases,
but pressure only affects the solubility of gases. Surface area does not affect how much
of a solute will be dissolved, but it is a factor in how quickly or slowly the substance will
dissolve. In this section, we will explore all three of these factors and how they affect the
solubility of solids and gases.

The Effect of Temperature on Solubility

Temperature has a direct effect on solubility. For the majority of ionic solids, increasing
the temperature increases how quickly the solution can be made. As the temperature
increases, the particles of the solid move faster, which increases the chances that they
will interact with more of the solvent particles. This results in increasing the rate at which
a solution occurs.

Temperature can also increase the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent.
Generally speaking, as the temperature is increased, more solute particles will be
dissolved. For instance, when you add table sugar to water, a solution is quite easily
made. When you heat that solution and keep adding sugar, you find that large amounts
of sugar can be added as the temperature keeps rising. The reason this occurs is
because as the temperature increases, the intermolecular forces can be more easily
broken, allowing more of the solute particles to be attracted to the solvent particles.
There are other examples, though, where increasing the temperature has very little
effect on how much solute can be dissolved. Table salt is a good example: you can
dissolve just about the same amount of table salt in ice water as you can in boiling
water.

For all gases, as the temperature increases, the solubility decreases. The kinetic

Dahlia del Castillo Apocada,General Chemistry 2,DIWA,pp 47

molecular theory can be used to explain this phenomenon. As the temperature

increases, the gas molecules move faster and are then able to escape from the liquid.
The solubility of the gas, then, decreases.

Looking at the graph below, ammonia gas, NH3, shows a sharp decline in solubility as
the temperature increases, whereas all of the ionic solids show an increase in solubility
as the temperature increases.

A graph for the solubility of oxygen gas, O2, would be very similar to the one
for NH3(g); in other words, oxygen gas would decrease in solubility as the temperature
rises. Conversely, the colder the temperature, the greater amount of O2(g) would be
dissolved
The Effect of Pressure on Solubility
The second factor, pressure, affects the solubility of a gas in a liquid but never of a solid
dissolving in a liquid. When pressure is applied to a gas that is above the surface of a
solvent, the gas will move into the solvent and occupy some of the spaces between the
particles of the solvent. A good example is carbonated soda. Pressure is applied to force
the CO2 molecules into the soda. The opposite is also true. When the gas pressure is
decreased, the solubility of that gas is also decreased. When you open a can of
carbonated beverage, the pressure in the soda is lowered, so the gas immediately starts
leaving the solution. The carbon dioxide stored in the soda is released, and you can see
the fizzing on the surface of the liquid. If you leave an open can of soda out for a period
of time, you may notice the beverage becoming flat because of the loss of carbon
dioxide.

This gas pressure factor is expressed in Henry’s law. Henry’s law states that, at a given
temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of
the gas above the liquid. An example of Henry’s Law occurs in scuba diving. As a person
dives into deep water, the pressure increases and more gases are dissolved into the
blood. While ascending from a deep-water dive, the diver needs to return to the surface
of the water at a very slow rate to allow for all of the dissolved gases to come out of the
blood very slowly. If a person ascends too quickly, a medical emergency may occur due
to the gases coming out of blood too quickly. This is called having the “bends.”

This video serves a blackboard lecture on the factors that affect solubility (6c): 

The Effect of Surface Area on the Rate of Dissolving                              

One other factor to consider affects the rate of solubility. If we were to increase the
surface area of a solid, then it would have been broken into smaller pieces. We would do
this to increase how quickly the solute would dissolve in solution. If you were to dissolve
sugar in water, a sugar cube will dissolve slower than an equal amount of tiny pieces of
sugar crystals. The combined surface area of all of the sugar crystals have a much
greater surface area than the one sugar cube and will have more contact with the water
molecules. This allows the sugar crystals to dissolve much more quickly.

If you were working in a lab, you might be asked to make a solution of copper(II) sulfate.
Copper(II) sulfate comes in several forms: large blue crystals and fine blue crystals
(see Figure below). When you set equal amounts of both forms in test tubes filled
with 10 mL of water, you will notice after 5 minutes that more of the fine crystals will
have dissolved (and the solution will be a darker blue) than the test tube with the large
crystals. You can also take two samples of the fine crystals and put them into separate
test tubes. This time, place a stopper on one of the test tubes and carefully shake it
while letting the other test tube sit still. By shaking, you are again increasing the surface
area by increasing the how much of the fine crystals will come in contact with the water.
The result will still be the same as before: the test tube with the greater surface area will
go into solution at a faster rate. Note, however, that although maximum solubility is
achieved more quickly with greater surface area, the concentration of the solute at
maximum solubility will be exactly the same.

Teacher’s Insight

When a substance can dissolve in another it is said to be soluble; when it cannot, it is

said to be insoluble. Temperature affects the solubility of both gases and solids. With
solids, generally the solubility increases with increasing temperature. With gases, the
solubility tends to decrease with increasing temperature. Pressure only affects the
solubility of gases. Henry’s law states that, at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas
in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid. Increasing
the surface area increases the rate of solubility of a solid because a larger number of
molecules have contact with the solvent.

Lesson 1: Solution Stoichiometry

Chemical stoichiometry deals with the calculation of the amount of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction. In stoichiometry, the mole-mole relationships between
reactants and products are established based on the balanced chemical equation.
Solution stoichiometry practically follows the same procedure in quantifying the amount
of solute and solvent present in aqueous solutions, or establishing the concentration of
the precipitate in a gravimetric or in a precipitation reaction. All particles present in the
solution must be accounted for, and that the concentration and the volume of solutions
used must be carefully determined.
As the universal solvent, water is the most widely used medium in facilitating chemical
reactions. Chemical reactions in aqueous solutions can be any of the following: acid-
base (or neutralization) titration, reduction-oxidation (redox) titration,
complexometric titration, or precipitation titration. Reactions in aqueous solutions are
represented in balanced chemical equations. Furthermore, stoichiometric calculations in
solutions are in of read calculations in solutions are important in preparing solutions
with known concentrations by standardizing processes, performing dilutions, and
evaluating the influence of several factors, such as pressure and temperature, in the
concentration of the reacting substances.

Dilution

Dilution is the process of decreasing the concentration of a solute in a solution, usually

simply by mixing with more solvent like adding more water to a solution. To dilute a
solution means to add more solvent without the addition of more solute. The resulting
solution is thoroughly mixed so as to ensure that all parts of the solution are identical.

The same direct relationship applies to gases and vapors diluted in air for example.

Although, thorough mixing of gases and vapors may not be as easily accomplished.

The same direct relationship applies to gases and vapors diluted in air for example.

Although, thorough mixing of gases and vapors may not be as easily accomplished.

For example, if there are 10 grams of salt (the solute) dissolved in 1 liter of water (the
solvent), this solution has a certain salt concentration (molarity). If one adds 1 liter of
water to this solution the salt concentration is reduced. The diluted solution still
contains 10 grams of salt (0.171 moles of NaCl).
Mathematically this relationship can be shown by equation:

M1V1=M2V2

where

·       c1 = initial concentration or molarity

·       V1 = initial volume

·       c2 = final concentration or molarity

·       V2 = final volume

Problem #1: If you dilute 175 mL of a 1.6 M solution of LiCl to 1.0 L, determine the new
concentration of the solution.

Solution:

M1V1 = M2V2

(1.6 mol/L) (175 mL) = (x) (1000 mL)

x = 0.28 M

Note that 1000 mL was used rather than 1.0 L. Remember to keep the volume units
consistent.

Problem #2: You need to make 10.0 L of 1.2 M KNO3. What molarity would the
potassium nitrate solution need to be if you were to use only 2.5 L of it?

Solution:

M1V1 = M2V2

(x) (2.5 L) = (1.2 mol/L) (10.0 L)

x = 4.8 M
Please note how I use the molarity unit, mol/L, in the calculation rather than the molarity
symbol, M.

Problem #3: How many milliliters of 5.0 M copper(II) sulfate solution must be added to
160 mL of water to achieve a 0.30 M copper(II) sulfate solution?

Solution:

M1V1 = M2V2

(5.00 mol/L) (x) = (0.3 mol/L) (160 + x)

5x = 48 + 0.3x

4.7x = 48

Titration
Titration is the process of determining the volume of the titrant needed to react with
the analyte in the solution. A titrant IS a solution that has a known amount of
concentration. Volumetric analysis, or volumetric titrimetry, is a set of analytical methods
wherein the amount of the target analyte in the sample is determined from the volume
of the titrant needed to completely react with the target analyte in the solution. The
data obtained from the titration process help determine the amount of the analyte or
the unknown substance present in the sample.

Titration is a useful technique in determining the percentage of acetic acid, which is the active
ingredient that gives Vinegar its sour taste. 1itration is also used in determining the acidity of
wines and packed fruit juices. Also, titration helps determine the ascorbic acid content in vitamin
C tablets, as well as the protein content of beer, pork, and other meat products. In these
examples, quantitative determinations ensure the safety and quality of products sold in the
market. The titration setup is shown in figure.
A typical titration setup requires the following materials: iron stand, burette clamp,
burette, and Erlenmeyer flask. In this setup, two solutions are subjected to titration: the
titrant and the solution containing the target analyte. During the titration process, the
burette is filled up with the titrant, and the solution containing the analyte is placed in
an Erlenmeyer flask. An indicator is usually added prior to the addition of the titrant
onto the sample being analyzed. This indicator initially gives a distinct color in the
solution. The endpoint is any physical change that the indicator manifests upon the
addition of a titrant. This endpoint may be influenced by several factors depending on
the indicator used. The endpoint normally coincides with its equivalence point, or the
point the point which the titrant has completely reacted with the analyte. The
concentration of the titrant is chemically equivalent to the concentration of the analyte.

For example, you want to determine the citric acid percentage in fruit juice using a
sodium hydroxide solution. The target analyte is the citric acid, and the titrant is the
sodium hydroxide solution. A phenolphthalein indicator is added to the solution of the
fruit juice sample and gives a calories solution. The endpoint is achieved when the color
of the indicator changes upon the addition of the titrant. The color change exhibited by
the chemical indicator is pH dependent (from acidic to basic or vice-versa). Adding the
sodium hydroxide solution will cause the phenolphthalein indicator in the analyte
solution to change its color to pale pink. his color change indicates that the titration
process has reached its equivalence point. Thus, the addition of the titrant must be
stopped. Given the concentration and volumes of sodium hydroxide consumed at the
equivalence % citric acid of the point and the volume of fruit juice sample, the total
acidity expressed as s.

Acid-based Titration

In an acid-base titration, the standard solution can be a strong base, or a strong acid,
depending on the nature of the unknown solution. A pH indicator is used to signal the
completion of the acid-base reaction. The pH indicator changes color to indicate
completion of the reaction, which is the end point of the titration.in an acid-base
neutralization reaction, itis important to note the relationship between the number of
moles of the acid and the base at the completion of the reaction. This is called the
equivalence point. Let us consider the reaction between a monoprotic acid and a
monobasic base, like HCI and NaOH,

                             HCl(aq )+      NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

 At the equivalence point, that is, when the reaction is complete,

          nacid=nbase                                        Dahlia del Castillo Apocada,General Chemistry 2,DIWA,pp 59-60

we can express the number of moles, n, of the standard solution as they product of its
concentration (expressed in terms of molarity, M), and the volume, V, used in titration.

Choosing the base as the standard solution for this example,

                             Nacid=Mstd Vstd

we can also express the number of moles of the unknown solution as the product of
concentration and volume.

                             MunknownVunknown= Mstd sol Vsdt sol

Then rearranging the equation, we can get

                             Munknown=Mstd sol Vstd sol

                                           Vunknown

Sample Problem:

In a titration, you found that 50.00 mL HCI solution requires 25.00 mi of 1.00M NaOH.
What is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid solution?

Solution

The balanced equation for the acid-base neutralization reaction is:

HCI+ NaOH NaCl+H2O

Based on the balanced equation, you can see that the stoichiometric ratio between

HC and NaOH is 1:1. Hence, the molar ratio indicate that at the equivalence point,

moles HC=moles NaOH

MHClVHCl= MNaOHVNaOH

MHCl= MNaOHVNaOH/VHCl

MHCl=(25.00 Ml)(1.00 M)/50.00 mL

MHCl= .50 M 

Teacher’s Insight

Titration can be used to determine the concentration of a solution. At the end of

titration, the number of moles of the reactants are equal.  Dilution often, solutions need
to be diluted to conserve samples. In the dilution  process we take a measured volume
of a solution of known high concentration and mix it with a measured volume of the
solvent to yield another solution of lower concentration that we refer to as a dilute
solution. Take note that the number of moles of the solute in the concentrated solution
equals the number of moles of the solute in the dilute solution since only more solvent
was added to the concentrated solution.  Acid-Base titrations are usually used to find
the amount of a known acidic or basic substance through acid base reactions. The
analyte (titrant) is the solution with an unknown molarity. The reagent (titrant) is the
solution with a known molarity that will react with the analyte.