SBF3033

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
Practical: 1
HUMAN REFLEXES AND SENSORY SYSTEM
Date of practical:
11th March 2019
Lecturer’s Name:
DR. NORLIANA BINTI MOHD ROSLI

Prepared by:

No. Name of Students Student No. Group

1. NUR NADIA BINTI MOHAMAD NASIR D20171078138 A

2. FARAH MASTURAH BT AHMAD AZIAN D20171078145 A

3. LEENA A/P MUNIANDY D20171078150 A

4. BASILIKA MICHEAL D20171078155 A

Date of submitted: 25th March 2019

TITLE
Complex life with nervous system and sensory system

INTRODUCTION

Marieb (2015) describe nervous system as “ the master controlling and communicating system of
the body. Every thought, action and emotion reflects its activity.” The nervous system consists
of four major parts. Those parts are the brain, neuroglia, spinal cord, and spinal nerves. The brain
is part of the Central Nervous System (CNS) along with the spinal cord and nerves as Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) and works together to act like a computer sending messages to all the
parts of the body. Nervous system depends on sensory receptors or organs to monitor all the
changes happen inside and outside the body. The changes receives by sensory receptors is called
as stimuli (impulse) and in form of sensory input. Then, the sensory input will undergo
integration process where they will be processes and interprets by CNS and being decides what
response or output should be made. The decision made up by CNS will be sending as in form of
motor output to activate specific muscles or glands to produce motor response.
Neuroglia cells are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and
provide support and protection for neurons in the brain and peripheral nervous system. The
spinal cord connects directly to the brain through the brain stem. It runs through the spinal
foramen and is used by the brain to send signals to the different parts of the body by using nerves
which are rooted into the spinal cord and is used for sensory and motor aspects. Any disruptions
in nerves or spinal cord the signal from the brain will be lost at that point which is how people
who damage their spinal cord in their neck area it will paralyze them from the neck down
because the signal cannot pass.
In order for signal (impulse) be able to being transferred, a series of event which
involved action potential, depolarization, repolarization and renting potential must be activate or
occurred along the neuron cells. The action potential is where the graded potential is the small
spikes, depolarization is when its rises, action potential is the highest point, repolarization is
when they begin to go down back to being polar, and resting membrane is polar and is the
normal level. When a toxin is exposed to the membrane such as epilepsy or dendrotoxin the
toxin affects it and begins to depolarize, reach its action potential, the repolarize back to the
normal resting membrane potential.
For sensory system, as mentioned above, sensory receptors or organs will monitor the
changes happen inside or outside the body. Its means that they carry out one of the most
important task where they gathers all the information that have to be pass to the CNS for
integration process before motor output being produced. The receptors or organs involved in
sensory system are nose for smell, tongue for taste, eyes for sight, ears for hearing and skin that
act as detector or receptor for several changes occurred on temperature, pressure, pain and also
on the proprioceptors of muscles and joints. There are also has several special sense receptor that
located in ear which control the equilibrium, complex sensory organs (eyes and ears) and
localized clusters of receptors (taste buds and olfactory epithelium) (Marieb, 2015).

OBJECTIVES

1. To identify differences in the nervous system based on organization and reaction response
time.
2. To investigate several types of human reflexes to demonstrate their investigate function at
several levels of investigation in the body.
3. To examine the sensory systems, including taste, smell, cutaneous sensation,
proprioception and hearing
MATERIALS

Torch light
Reflex mallet
Blunt probe
Bottles of natural flavours material :Table salt (NaCl), sugar and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP)
Nose clips
Coins
Pins (toothpicks)
A series of vials chemicals : Essence vanilla, strawberry scent and orange scent
Coffee powder
Warm, cold and skin-like temperature water bath
METHODS

In completing this lab experiment, we used quantitative method. This is because, this method is
simply suitable to be used to different people as we cannot get a fix value of how hard the person
can hear or how small the eyeball of a person is. Hence, we chose quantitative method upon
completing this experiment.
To test reflex function, we had observed the eye and spinal reflex.
For eye reflex firstly, we investigated the reflexion of pupillary by flashing a light into
one eye to observe pupillary response. The size and length of the partner’s pupils were observed
in a given intensify of light. As soon after that, a hand was placed over one eye without changing
either the light intensity or the focus to observe the diameter of the pupils. We also tested the
accommodation reflex that included within the eye reflex. First of all, the size of the partner’s
pupils when the eyes are focused on a distant object were observed (20 ft away). Soon, the
changes were noted while the focus was shifted to a near object without changing light intensity.
For spinal reflex, we first observed on patellar reflex. To do this, the partner was sat on a
chair or on a laboratory stool with legs crossed. The patellar tendon of the crossed leg then was
gently tapped with a reflex mallet and the responses were noted for right and left knees. We
identified the result for ciliospinal reflex, where the skin was pinched on one side of the nape of
one’s neck and the dilation of the pupil of the eye on the ipsilateral (location at the same part)
side was noted. To see the plantar reflex and Babinski’s reflex, the sole of the foot was stroked
sharply near the inner side, using a blunt probe and the observations were recorded.
To observe the organization and function of the nervous system in sensory system, we had
conducted all qualitative method in five station.
In station 1, we identified the taste ability by the NaCl and a chemical called
6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), were placed in cups or bottles at each of the lab desks to be tasted
and smelled. The solutions was soon sipped and spat out with or without nose clips in place and
were rated on specially constructed scales. Bottles of solutions been sniffed and the intensity of it
was rated as well. Observations were recorded by not saying it loud until the experiment is over
for non-tasters, medium and super-tasters.
 In station 2, we wanted to see two point discrimination by first, using three different sizes
of coins which had been prepared (1 sen, 5 sen and 20 sen). Eyes were closed and one of the
coins was placed on the back of the forearm to be guessed. The coins also being placed in the
palm of the hand to be guessed. The difference between the sensitivity of the two sites were
observed and studied. Eyes were closed and the forearm was gently touched with either one or
two pins to guess the number of pins present. The number of pins were also guessed by varying
the distance between the pins. Observations were then recorded.
Smell is investigated in station 3. First thing first, a series of vials of a chemical and
alpha-androstenone were sniffed to indicate the the intensity of the smell. We had made sure that
the nose were cleaned and in between coffee beans were smelt for different concentrations. The
eyes were closed while sniffing the series of vials. Observations were recorded for the smells that
can identified.
The situation of hot and cold is observed in station 4 to see the adaptation of animal in
both situation. In the beginning, a warm (but not hot) water bath, a cold water bath, and a bath
that is at approximately the same temperature as skin are prepared. One hand was placed in the
warm bath and the other in the cold bath. Both hands were next placed in the skin temperature
bath after it adapt individually to the water temperature that will not feel either cold or warm.
Finally, observations were recorded.
In the fifth station, hearing was observed. On hearing acuity and tone discrimination, a
set of tuning forks was prepared to test hearing acuity and tone discrimination. The hearing on
right and left site were tested by applying the tuning fork at the middle of the forehead.
Observations were noted. Besides, we had identified the directional hearing and selective
attention where two other people of the same sex needed for this exercise. 2 helper had
positioned themselves about 3 meters from tester and 2 meters from each other. Next, with
tester’s eyes closed, 2 helpers spoke the same short sentences to the tester, one at a time.
Observations were recorded on determining which helper spokes first. The same arrangement
with a doorway separating tester from “direct line of hearing” from helpers was tried. Finally,
observations were noted.
RESULTS

A. REFLEX FUNCTIONS

TABLE 1.0

Exercise Result

Eye Reflex Pupillary Reflex Light Intensity Response (Size of Pupils)

(Responder: Leena, Torchlight/ Non-covered one eye from light:

Basilika, Farah and flashlight - Both eyes change its size

Nadia) (diameter) simultaneously

(Length of eye and becoming smaller.
and light
source: 20 cm) Cover one eye from light:
- Only the eye that being
flash by light change it size
(diameter) and becoming
smaller.

Accommodation Distance Response (Size of Pupils)

Reflex
About 20 ft From distant object :
away from - The size of pupils
focused object (diameter) is bigger.
Nearer the object:
- The size of pupils
(diameter) is getting smaller.
Spinal Reflex Patellar Reflex Knee Response

Right Crossed leg

(Responder: Nadia
- Does’t shows obvious
and Farah)
response of sudden kicking

Non-crossed leg
- Showing obvious
response of sudden kicking

Non-crossed leg shows more

response (reflex) than crossed
leg.

Left Crossed leg

- Does’t shows obvious
response of sudden kicking

Non-crossed leg
- Showing obvious
response of sudden kicking

Non-crossed leg shows more

response (reflex) than crossed
leg.
 Comparison - Response (reflex) shows
between cross by right knee is just slightly
legs of right higher than left knee.
and left knees - But, there is no obvious
difference response between
the right and left knee.

Ciliospinal Reflex Response

(Responder: Leena
The size of pupils (diameter) is getting bigger as the responder felt pain.
and Basilika)

Plantar Reflex Tick [√] for the respondent’s response and describe
and Babinski’s
Plantar Reflex [√] Basilika and Farah
Reflex
- Both show the response of a plantar
(Responder: Leena,
(downward) flexion of all toes.
Basilika, Farah and
Nadia)
Babinski’s Reflex [√] Leena and Nadia
- Both show the response of a dorsally
(upward) flexion of all toes.
B. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM II –
SENSORY SYSTEM
TABLE 2.0

Exercise Results

Station #1: Taste Sample Response

Ability
With nose clips in place Without nose clips in
(Responder: Leena
place
and Basilika)
Leena Basilika Leena Basilika

Salt Slow Slow Fast Fast

Slow Slow Fast Fast

Sugar
Taste a little Taste bitter Taste more No taste
PTC bitter bitter

Station #2: Two Response

Point
Discrimination
(Responder: Farah
and Basilika)
 i) Coins used : 20 cent, 5 cent and 1 cent
Responder : Farah
Place the coins on the back of forearm
- Cannot tell which coins are used
Place the coins in the palm of hand
- Can tell the 20 cent coin that used. The others two coins cannot
tell as the size is almost same.
ii) Pins used : 2 toothpicks
Responder : Basilika
Place the pins on the back of forearm
- Guess: 1 (exact: 2)
Place the pins in the palm of hand
- Guess: 1 (exact: 1)
- Two different location of same palm; Guess: 2 (exact: 2)
- Same location; Guess: 1 (exact: 2)
Place the pins on the tip of finger
- Guess: 1 (exact: 1)
- Two different location on same finger; Guess: 2 (exact: 2)
- Same location; Guess: 2 (exact: 2)

Station #3: Smell Sample Response

(Responder: Leena
Leena Basilika
and Basilika)
Essence vanilla
Not Sure Not Sure

Strawberry Can Guess Not Sure

Can Guess Not Sure

Orange
Station #4: Hot Response
and Cold
Temperature of : warm water (45.5˚C), cold water (-1˚C) and water bath
(Responder: Nadia)
(37˚C)

After placing each hand in warm water and cold water respectively for
some times, responder immediately put her hands in water bath.
Observation :
- From warm water : her hand felt cold
- From cold water : her hand felt warm

Station #5: Response

Hearing
i. Hearing acuity Responder : Leena
(Responder: Leena
and tone Through air : Low pitch
and Nadia)
discrimination: Through bone : High pitch
DISCUSSION

A. REFLEX FUNCTIONS
Eye Reflex
Pupillary Reflex
The pupil reflex to light has the significant advantage of being accessible in normal organisms.
No dissection or surgical manipulation of the intact animal is required in order to visualize its
response (Lawrence Stark & Philip M. Sherma, 1957). Based on our observation for pupillary
reflex, we noticed that when both eyes were opened and not covered, both will simultaneously
change their pupils’ diameter which becoming smaller.
Photoreceptor which are rods and cones play very big role in sending information by the
presence of the light to the brain so that that pupil that act as effector will become smaller.
Meanwhile, when one eye was covered from light, only the other eye that being flashed
by light without changing either the light intensity or the focus, the pupil size (diameter) of
opened eye will change and becoming smaller. This is called the consensual reflex.

Accommodation Reflex
The magnitude of the pupil response increased linearly with that of accommodation and
disaccommodation. In addition, to being affected by light, both pupils normally constrict when
we focus on a near object. This is called the accommodative pupillary response (Gary Heiting,
2017). In short, accommodation reflex is a vision reflex that enables people to quickly transfer
their focus between near and distant object.
The diameter of pupils is bigger when looking to a distant object. The nearer the object,
the smaller the size of pupils (diameter).
Looking for the advantages of the accommodation reflex, we found that the three
phenomena that make up the reflex which are convergence, changes to lens shape and pupil
constriction allow the eye to adapt when it shifts between near and distant targets. Also, there are
clear evolutionary advantages to the ability to quickly switch visual targets, for tasks like
tracking predators or identifying prey (Mary McMahon, 2019). Besides, accommodation reflex is
particularly suitable for the study such as to identify the defects of the colour-sense mechanism
because its reaction can be watched objectively with some precision (Edgar Fincham, 1963).

Spinal Reflex
Patellar Reflex
In comparing the responses of the right and left knees, we observed that response (reflex) shows
by right knee is just slightly higher than left knee. However, there is no obvious difference
response between the right and left knee.
These inconsistencies in the reflexion may be due to a lack of standardized, accurate, and
convenient methods to quantify tendon reflex response (Annapoorna Chandrasekhar, Noor
Azuan Abu Osman, et.al, 2018).

Diagram shows the reflex arc:

Ciliospinal Reflex
Note the dilation of the pupil of the eye on the ipsilateral (location at the same part) side. This is
a reflex response mediated over the sympathetic nervous system in response to a painful
stimulus.

Plantar Reflex and Babinski’s Reflex

The normal adult reflex response is a plantar (downward) flexion of all toes. If the toes fan out
with a big toe reflexes dorsally (upward), the response is referred to as the positive Babinski’s
reflex: this reflex is often associated with damage to the pyramidal tract fibres. Babinski’s reflex
is the normal response of a child in its first year because the nerves are still undergoing
myelination at this time.
B. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM II- sensory system

Station #1: Taste ability

It is perfectly normal to have reactions to these taste that differ from other people’s reactions.
People differ in their ability to taste PROP. This ability depends primarily of the number of taste
buds a person has. Because the taste buds carried on the fungiform papillae of the tongue, the
more papillae one have the stronger the sensation from this chemical. At the end of this
experiment we had demonstrated the fungiform papillae on the tongues of people who are
classified as non-tasters [of PROP], medium, and super-tasters.
We had conducted a test on Leena and Basilika and identify a few different between
them. Normally, both of them can taste salt and sugar but qualitatively undifferentiated.
However, Basilika stated that the PTC taste bitter when her nose was clipped in place but can
taste anything when nose was not clipped in place while Leena stated that the PTC taste a little
bitter when her nose was clipped in place and the taste become stronger when her nose was not
clipped in place.
It was proven that each person have a different taste ability. Referring to the both
situation, the relation between taste and smell ability is differed between the two of them that
allow the modifying of messages to limbic system in different ways.

Station #2: Two Point Discrimination

Farah and Basilika cannot identify all the coins as it was placed on the back of the forearm.
However, they can identify most of the coins as they were each placed on the palm of hand. The
same thing happened as the toothpick was placed on the back of the forearm and palm of hand.
The reason you are more sensitive on your palm of hand than back of your forearm is that
there are many more sensory neurons on palm of your forearm. When an area has more sensory
neurons there is a larger brain area devoted to receiving their signals, meaning more sensitivity
(Daisy Yuhas, 2012).
The primary somatosensory area of the human cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus
of the parietal lobe which involves in two point of discrimination. The postcentral gyrus is the
location of the primary somatosensory area, the area of the cortex dedicated to the processing of
touch information.
A somatosensory pathway will typically consist of three neurons: primary, secondary, and
tertiary. In the periphery, the primary neuron is the sensory receptor that detects sensory stimuli
like touch or temperature. The cell body of the primary neuron is housed in the dorsal root
ganglion of a spinal nerve or, if sensation is in the head or neck, the ganglia of the trigeminal or
cranial nerves. The secondary neuron acts as a relay and is located in either the spinal cord or the
brainstem. This neuron’s ascending axons will cross, or decussate, to the opposite side of the
spinal cord or brainstem and travel up the spinal cord to the brain, where most will terminate in
either the thalamus or the cerebellum. Tertiary neurons have cell bodies in the thalamus and
project to the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, forming a sensory homunculus in the case of
touch. Regarding posture, the tertiary neuron is located in the cerebellum.

Station #3: Smell

Leena can identify the smell of strawberry and orange while she is not sure the smell of the
essence vanilla (75%) on the first attempt. However, basilika can smell the odours but can guess
what it was (0%). For second attempt, Leena can identify all (100%) the odours but Basilika can
only identify orange and strawberry (75%) when they were provided by the list of the possible
smells. Their identification ability was improved.
Every people have their own ability to smells odours. This is happening because we have
different structure or the amount of smell receptor. Sometimes, we can’t identify a particular
odour because we don’t have the memory of the smell or it was the very first time we smell the
odour. It was related with our most primitive brain centers (limbic system) that influences
emotion and memories because our olfactory bulb have sensory receptor that actually part of the
brain that send messages directly to limbic system.
Basically, sense of smell is dependent on olfactory cells located within olfactory
epithelium high in the root of the nasal cavity. Its contain cilia where each of it has only 1 out of
1000 different types of receptor protein. When the neuron communicate this information via the
olfactory tract to the olfactory areas of the cerebral cortex, we can smell and differentiate odours.
The olfactory bulbs have direct connections with the limbic systems. Nerve fibers from olfactory
cells lead to the same neuron in the olfactory bulb. An odour contains many odour molecules,
which activate a characteristic combination of receptor proteins. An odour signature in the
olfactory bulb is determined by which neurons are stimulated. Actually, a good sense of smell is
created when it was worked together with the sense of taste.

Station #4: Hot and Cold

Our skin acts as the protective barrier between our internal body systems and the outside world.
Its ability to perceive touch sensations gives our brains a wealth of information about the
environment around us, such as temperature, pain, and pressure.
In this experiment, we have conducted a test on skin reaction towards certain stimuli such
as hot and cold. One of our group members, Nadia had placed her hand into the warm water
(45.5˚C) for a few minutes before placed it into the water bath (37˚). Her hand felt cold. The
same step is conducted for cold water (-1˚C). Her hand felt warm when placed into water bath
(37˚).
Our sense of touch is controlled by a huge network of nerve endings and touch receptors
in the skin known as the somatosensory system. This system is responsible for all the sensations
we feel such as cold, hot, smooth, rough, pressure, tickle, itch, pain, vibrations, and more. Within
the somatosensory system, there are four main types of receptors which are mechanoreceptors,
thermoreceptors, pain receptors, and proprioceptors. Thermoreceptors is the one that responsible
to detect hot and cold stimulus.
Thermoreceptors perceive sensations related to the temperature of objects the skin feels.
They are found in the dermis layer of the skin. There are two basic categories of
thermoreceptors: hot and cold receptors.Cold receptors start to perceive cold sensations when the
surface of the skin drops below 95 ° F. They are most stimulated when the surface of the skin is
at 77 ° F and are no longer stimulated when the surface of the skin drops below 41 ° F. This is
why your feet or hands start to go numb when they are submerged in icy water for a long period
of time.
 Hot receptors start to perceive hot sensations when the surface of the skin rises above
86°F and are most stimulated at 113°F. But beyond 113°F, pain receptors take over to avoid
damage being done to the skin and underlying tissues.
Thermoreceptors are found all over the body, but cold receptors are found in greater
density than heat receptors. The highest concentration of thermoreceptors can be found in the
face and ears (hence why your nose and ears always get colder faster than the rest of your body
on a chilly winter day).

Station #5: Hearing

Hearing acuity and tone discrimination is depend on the auditory system. Mostly, auditory
system (mechanoreceptors) interpret sound waves that comes from the air. The process of
hearing begins when sound waves enter the auditory canal. Sound waves travel by successive
vibrations of molecules.
Ordinarily, sound waves do not carry much energy, but when a large number waves strike
the tympanic membrane, it moves back and forth. The malleus then takes the pressure from the
inner surface of the tympanic membrane and passes it by means of the incus to the stapes in such
a way that the pressure is multiplied about 20 times as it moves. The stapes strikes the membrane
of the oval window, causing it to vibrate, pressure waves move from the vestibular canal to the
tympanic canal across the basilar membrane and to the round window. The basilar membrane
moves up and down, and the stereocilia of the hair cells embedded in the tectorial membrane
bend. The nerve impulses begin in the cochlear nerve and travel to the brain stem. When they
reach the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex, they are interpreted as a sound. Each part of the
spiral organ is sensitive to different wave frequencies or pitch. Near the tip, the spiral organ
responds to low pitch, and near the base, it responds to higher pitches such as whistle. The nerve
fibers from each region along the length of the spiral organ lead to slightly different areas in the
brain. The pitch sensation we experience depends upon which region of the basilar membrane
vibrates and which area of the brain is stimulated. Volume is a function of amplitude of sound
waves. Loud noises cause the fluid within the vestibular canals to exert more pressure and the
basilar membrane to vibrate to greater extent.
 Therefore, if you heard the tuning fork more strongly on one site of the head than on the
other when applying a tuning fork to the middle of the forehead, it is because of the inability of
the vestibular canals to provide fluids for exertion of more pressure and vibration on one site of
the head. Listening to Walkman at high volume will cause the basilar membrane to vibrate at
greater frequency that cause it to be torn.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, experimental results from applying cellular techniques to the central nervous
system (CNS) have led to similar conclusion. Developmental and physiological studies have
indicated that individual nerve cells is connected to one another in precise way. As a result,
individual cells respond only to specific sensory stimuli to provide specific motor output.
Throughout this experiment, we also be able to understand on how human reflex mechanism
occurred. We learned that some organs and parts of our body are being controlled by autonomic
nervous system as shown in human reflex activity. We also got to learn more detailed on sensory
system involving the five senses which are smell, taste, hearing, sighting and touch. From this
activity, we can indirectly know that some sensory organs are depend to other to improve their
ability such as the interaction between smell and taste that could help human to enjoy more
during eating or drinking.
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