American University of Beirut

MECH 410L- Thermal and Fluid System Lab

Experiment 1: Bernoulli’s Principle

Section 6: Friday at 8:00 am

Done by: Ahmad El Haj (ID: 202001178)

Date of Submission: September 24, 2021

Due date: September 24, 2021

1.For each of the 8 manometer tubes fitted to the apparatus, please indicate whether the tube
is providing a reading of static, dynamic, or stagnation pressure. How are you able to tell?

The first 7 manometer tubes provide a reading for the static pressure head while the 8th one at the
right side measures the stagnation pressure head.

Justification:

According to Bernoulli’s equation:

P1/ρg + (v1)2/2g = P2/ρg + (v2)2/2g (z1=z2)

• P/ρg: Static pressure head =h (measured by Bernoulli’s apparatus)

• (v)2/2g: Dynamic pressure head (velocity head)

As we move from point A to point E, the nozzle is converging (Cross sectional area is decreasing).
Therefore, the velocity of the flow increases. According to Bernoulli’s equation above, the static
pressure head must decrease, and this is what we have seen in the lab when the head static pressure
decreases from hA=275 mm to hE=20 mm.

If the manometer tubes measure the dynamic pressure head, the height of water must increase as
we move from A to E, but we saw inverse of that.

Therefore, we read static pressure head when the pressure is measured perpendicular to the flow.
However, we read stagnation pressure head when it is measured parallel to the flow.

2.Devise a way to measure the dynamic pressure experimentally for internal flows.

I can apply Bernoulli’s equation on the stagnation point F and on a point where I want to find the
velocity v (those 2 points are on the same streamline). Since vF=0, Bernoulli’s equation become:

h + (v)2/2g= hF; Then v=√[2g(hF-h)];

Therefore, the dynamic pressure Pdynamic = (1/2) ρv2.

(Difference between Pstagnation and Pstatic is Pdynamic)

3. Note that there are two valves in the flow circuit, one near the circulating pump and one
at the outlet of the Bernoulli apparatus. Either can be used to vary the flow rate through the
system. What purpose, then, does it serve to have both valves?

Both valves play an important role in this experiment. The inlet valve, the one near the circulating
pump, controls the inlet flow pressure before reaching the converging nozzle and the pressure taps.
For the outlet valve, it is responsible for filling the manometers with water and getting rid of the
water bubbles from the water flow.

4. According to the fundamental principle of hydrostatics, explain on what basis the total
pressure is equal to stagnation pressure?

Ptotal= Pstatic + Pdynamic.

However, at the stagnation point, the velocity to zero. Therefore, the dynamic pressure is equal to
zero, and then the total pressure equal to the static pressure at the stagnation point.

➔ Ptotal= Pstagnation

5. How was the experimental actual flow rate, Q, determined?

To determine the volumetric flow rate, Q, we record the time needed to fill 5L that can be read on
the manometer on the workbench (we start recording the time from 1L to 6L). In our lab, t=54.25
sec.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.005
➔Q= = 54.25 m3/sec =9.216× 10-5 m3/sec
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

6. Plot the average velocity at positions 1 through 6 versus position number. For a steady
incompressible flow, the average velocity is the system flow rate divided by the cross-
sectional area at a given location.

𝑄
The average velocity Vi=
𝐴𝑖
 9.216×10−5 9.216×10−5
For tap 1: V1= 𝜋𝑑2
= 𝜋(0.025)2
= 0.1877 m/sec
4 4

We can calculate the average velocities at the remaining taps using the same way. We get the
following:

Tap number Diameter (mm) Average velocity V (m/sec)

1 25 0.1877

2 13.9 0.60732

3 11.8 0.84273

4 10.7 1.024908

5 10 1.173417

6 25 0.1877

Plotting these values, we get the following graph:

Average Velocity of the flow

1.4
Average Velocity V (m/sec)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Position Number
7. Assuming that V1 = Q/A1, calculate from the manometer readings the remaining velocities
V2-V6 using the Bernoulli equation, and plot these on the same chart as question 6. (Clearly
indicate which are the actual and which the theoretical velocities on the chart.) Provide a
sample calculation to indicate how you calculated the velocity at a section. Do the velocities
agree well?

V1 = Q/A1 = 0.1877 m/sec

According to Bernoulli’s equation:

P1/ρg + (v1)2/2g = P2/ρg + (v2)2/2g (z1=z2)

Where P/ρg = h (head pressure measured by the manometers).

➔ h1 + (v1)2/2g = h2 + (v2)2/2g

➔ v2= √𝑣12 + 2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

Sample Calculation:

v2= √𝑣12 + 2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = √0.18772 + 2(9.81)(0.275 − 0.212) = 1.1275 m/sec

Tap Number Head h (mm) Velocity Using Bernoulli’s

equation (m/sec)

1 275 0.1877

2 212 1.1275

3 160 1.51376

4 97 1.87817

5 20 2.2446

6 115 1.78166
The graph of the actual and the theoretical velocities is shown below:

Actual and Theoretical Velocities of the Flow

2.5

2
Velocity (m/sec)

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tap Number

Actual Velocity Theoretical Velocity

From the graph, the actual and the theoretical velocities do not agree well; The theoretical
velocities are greater than the actual velocities.

8. What could explain the difference between the velocities calculated in questions 6 and 7?

The conditions that we must make to develop Bernoulli’s equation are the fluid should be inviscid,
incompressible, and steady. But in fact, water has a small viscosity that we have consider while
calculating the velocities. In addition, we should not forget that we have the human error in any
experiment which might be responsible for some difference.

9. Estimate the Reynolds number at the entry and exit of the Venturi tube.

𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷
Re=
𝜇

Where µ=1.0016×10-3 Pa.s, ρ= 997 kg/m3

997×0.1877×0.025
Re1= = 4670.948 (Re at the inlet)
1.0016×10−3

997×1.78166×0.025
Re6 = = 44336.9364 (Re at the outlet)
1.0016×10−3
If we use the actual velocity, Re at the inlet and outlet will be same because we have the same
velocity and diameter. However, the theoretical velocity will give us the above Re.

10. Noting that the above velocities are the average velocities at a given axial location;
calculate the maximum velocity inside the pipe. And at what radial distance from the flow
centerline would this maximum occur?

For fully developed laminar pipe flow, 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 is half of the maximum velocity”.

This can be proved by taking the derivative of the average velocity equation for a circular pipe of
radius R and equating it to zero.

1 𝜕𝑝
V= (r2-R2)
4𝜇 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕𝑝
Doing some mathematical calculation, this equation become 2𝜇 𝜕𝑧 r=0 ➔ r=0.

Therefore, the maximum velocity is twice the average velocity, and occurs at the centerline.

➔Vmax (Therotical)= 2×Vmax =2×2.2446=4.4892 m/sec

➔Vmax(actual)= 2×Vavg=2×0.1877=0.3754 m/sec

11. If we had lost our stopwatch, how could we have used the difference between h1 and h8
to determine the flow rate in the system? Provide an equation that would allow us to calculate
it. (Hint: don’t forget to take into account your answer for question 8).

Use Bernoulli’s equation between point 1 and 8. ➔ v1= √2𝑔(ℎ8 − ℎ1 )

𝜋𝑑12
➔Q=VA ➔ Q= √2𝑔(ℎ8 − ℎ1 ) . In question 8, we said that we have to include the friction
4
factor to get a better approximation of the actual value. Thus, the flow rate will be:

𝜋𝑑12
➔Q=𝜖𝑓 √2𝑔(ℎ8 − ℎ1 )
4