Chapter 02 - The chemical level of organization

Basic principles of chemistry

1. Chemistry is the science of structure and their interactions of matter
2. Matter is anything that has mass and
takes up space
3. Mass is the amount of matter a
substance contains and weight is the
force of gravity acting on a mass.

Matter can exist in 3 forms

1. Solids
2. Liquid
3. Gas

All matter are composed of chemical elements.

The majority being Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and nitrogen.
1. Oxygen 65% - Part of water and organic molecules, generates ATP, and used as storage for chemical
energy
2. Carbon 18.5% - Forms backbone chains and rings of organic molecules such as lipids, fats, carbohydrates,
proteins, and nucleic acid.
3. Hydrogen 9.5% - Constitutes of water and organic molecules, the ionized form H+ makes body fluids more
acidic.
4. Nitrogen 3.2% - Component of proteins and nucleic acid.
5. Lesser elements 3.6%
6. Calcium 1.5% - Contributes to hardness of bone, ionized form Ca2+ for blood clotting, release of hormones,
muscle contractions.
7. Phosphorous 1.0% - Component of nucleic acid and ATP, helps bone structure.
8. Potassium 0.35% - Ionized form K+ most plentiful cation inside the cell
and generates action potentials.
9. Sulfer 0.25% - Component of vitamins and proteins
10. Sodium 0.2% - Ionized form Na+ most plentiful in the extracellular fluid, it
maintains water balance and generates action potential.
11. Chlorine 0.2% - Ionized form Cl- is most plentiful in extracellular fluid and
maintains water balance
12. Magnesium 0.2% - Ionized form Mg2+ is needed for action of enzymes
which are molecules that increase the rate of chemical reactions in living
organisms.
13. Iron 0.005% - Ionized Fe2+ and Fe3+ are part of haemoglobin and some
enzymes

A chemical bond occurs when atoms are held together by attraction

1. Ionic bonds - the taking and giving of electrons
 ➔ Cations - H+, Na+, K, Ca2+
➔ Anions - Cl-, OH-, HCO3

2. Covalent bonds - Sharing of elections can be single, double or

triple.
3. Hydrogen bonds - Result from attraction of slightly opposite
charged parts of water. It is a polar molecule with a slightly delta
charge which gives cohesion, and creates the ability to have
surface tension.

Inorganic Compounds and Solutions

1. Inorganic molecules - usually lack carbon and are simple
molecules. Water is the most abundant inorganic compound found in the human body.
2. Organic compounds - always have covalent bonds and always contain hydrogen and usually oxygen.

Water is an ideal medium in chemical reactions

1. Hydrolysis - water is added to break bonds
2. Dehydration - water is taken away to make bonds
Water is a major component of body fluids, it reduces friction of membranes and organs slide over one another.
pH is a scale from 0 - 14 which measures its
acidity/alkalinity. The more H+ it has the higher acidity.
The more OH- makes it more basic or alkaline. 7 is
considered to be neutral. pH consistency is important
in blood and other systems. Buffer Systems
maintains homeostasis and helps regulate pH by
converting strong acids or bases into weaker
products.

Carbon
1. Organic compounds always contain Carbon
2. Carbon can combine into many shapes
3. They do not dissolve easily in water and
4. Are a good source of energy

Carbohydrates
1. Comprised of Carbon , Hydrogen , and oxygen usually in a 2:1
ratio of H to O “watered carbon”
1. Includes sugars, glycogens, starches, and cellulose
2. Main source of chemical energy
3. 2% - 3% of total body mass

Types of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides - simple sugars containing 3-7 carbons
atoms such as glucose, fructuous, galactose, deoxyribose in
DNA, and ribose in RNA.
2. Disaccharides - formed from combining two
monosaccharide from dehydration synthesis such as table
sugar and milk sugar.
3. Polysaccharides - formed of tens of hundreds of
monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis. Examples
would include glycogen, scratches, and cellulose.
Types of lipids in the body
1. Fatty acids - used to synthesize
triglycerides and phospholipids or to
produce ATP
2. Triglycerides - protect, insulate, and
used for energy storage
3. Phospholipids - are major lipid
components of the cell membrane
4. Cholesterol - is a steroid which is a
minor component in animal cell membranes, it is a
precursor of bile salts, vitamin d, and steroid
hormones.
5. Bile salts - are steroids needed for digestion and
absorption.
6. Vitamin D - is a steroid which regulates calcium
levels in the body needed for repairs and bone
growth.
7. Adrenocortical hormones - are steroids which
regulate metabolism, resistant to stress, and salt
and water balance
8. Sex horones - are steroids that stimulate
reproduction.
9. Eicosanoids - modify responses to hormones,
blood clotting, inflammation, immunity,
10. Carotenes - needed for synthesis of vitamin A
used in the visual pigments of the eyes and
function as antioxidants.
11. Vitamin E - promotes wound healing, prevents
tissue scarring, and is an antioxidant that
contributes to normal structure and function of the nervous system.
12. Vitamin K - required for synthesis of blood clotting proteins.
13. Lipoproteins - transport lipids into blood , they also carry triglycerides
and cholesterol to tissues and remove cholesterol from the blood.
Fatty acids can be either saturated or unsaturated. Unsaturated fats have
a kink in the line which does not allow for a strong structure so they are
liquid at room temperature. Butter and coconut oil are saturated artificial
fatty acids that make a strong straight structure and are more solid.

Proteins made of amino acids give structure to the body while regulating
processes, provides protection, assists in muscle contractions, transports
substances, and serve as enzymes.
Functions of Proteins
1. Structural proteins - form the structural framework of the body
such as collagen in your ligaments and fingernails.
2. Regulatory proteins - function as hormones that regulate physical
processes, affect growth and development and can mediate the responses
of the nervous system as neurotransmitters.
3. Contractile - Allows the shortening of muscle fibers and cells
producing movement.
4. Immunological - Aids responses that protect the body against
foreign substances and invading
pathogens.
5. Transport - Carry vital
substances throughout the body
6. Catalytic - Act as enzymes that
regulate biochemical reactions

Enzymes are catalysts in a living cell

which are highly specific, efficient, and
are subject to cellular control.

Nucleic acid can be DNA that forms the genetic code in the nuclei of the body
and regulates cell activity and RNA guides protein formation. DNA is made of
two strands twisted in a spiral staircase-like structure called a double helix.
Each strand consists of nucleotides bound together and consists of a deoxyribose sugar bound to a phosphate
group and one of four nitrogen bases Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, and Thymine. Through hydrogen bonds Adenine
pairs with Thymine and Guanine pairs with cytosine, RNA has the nitrogen base uracil instead of thymine.
How the Cell produces Adenosine Triphosphate
1. Cellular respiration - is when glucose is catabolized
2. Releases energy - attached to phosphate to ADP
3. It has two phases - Anaerobic (without O2), glucose breaks down into pyruvic acid which yields 2 ATP.
Aerobic oxygenated glucose breaks down into CO2 and H20 and yields 30-32 ATP

Chapter 2 - Questions
1. In terms of body mass percentage , what is the most abundant element?
a. Carbon
b. Hydrogen
c. Oxygen
d. Calcium
e. Phosphorus
2. What type of chemical bonds commonly form between adjacent water molecules?
a. Molecular bonds
b. Polar ionic bonds
c. Covalent bonds
d. Hydrogen bonds
e. Polar covalent bonds
3. What is the most abundant compound in all living organisms
a. Carbon dioxide
b. Water
c. Salt
d. Protein
e. glucose
4. Which of the following compounds would be hydrophobic in a solution with water?
a. Sodium chloride
b. Inorganic bases
c. Inorganic acids
d. Oil
e. Potassium chloride
5. Which of the following substances, if added to water, would change the pH of water to a value
below <7.0?
a. Sugar
b. Salt
c. Inorganic acid
d. Inorganic base
e. None of the above
6. Which of the following molecules is a polysaccharide?
a. Lactose
b. Glucose
c. Glycogen
d. Sucrose
e. Triacylglycerol
7. Which type of lipid is a major component of cell membranes?
a. Fatty acids
b. Triglycerides
c. Vitamin D
d. Phospholipids
e. Carotene
8. Of the major types of organic compounds found in the body, which type is used to make enzymes,
to make structural molecules such as collagen, and nearly always has complex 3 dimensional
structures?
a. Carbohydrates
b. Lipids
c. Cholesterol
d. Proteins
e. Nucleic acid
9. In a DNA molecule , adenine always pairs with _____, while in RNA , adenine pairs with ____
a. thymine/adenine
b. cytosine/uracil
c. thymine/uracil
d. guanine/thymine
e. Uracil