Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Family Law Outline
Family Law Outline
Family Law Outline
MARRIAGE
THE TRADITIONAL MODEL
There are two spheres:
o Home sphere – women are traditionally placed here
McGuire v. McGuire – π living with husband maintaining the household, but he was not
giving her money, so she sued for maintenance
o The court ruled she is not entitled to support bc they are still married
“as long as the home is maintained and the parties are living as husband and
wife it may be said that the husband is legally supporting his wife and the
purpose of the marriage relation is being carried out”
π would have to get divorce to get support (or separated)
Family is part of the private sphere where the state will not interfere
o Parties were not separated or lived apart from each other at any time – As long as the
home is maintained and parties are living as husband and wife, the unit is together,
the husband is legally supporting his wife and the purpose of the marriage relation is
being carried out
o One spouse may not sue the other for support and maintenance while the couple’s
marriage remains intact, they continue to live together, and the parties’ home is
maintained
Bradwell v. Illinois – π sought admission to the bar after being denied admission b/c she was
a woman. USSC upheld the denial
o Assumption that women should stay w/in the family and not professional field
Graham v. Graham – a married couple entered into an agreement where he quits his job to
move with her and she gives him $300/mo. They divorce and he sues to enforce the
agreement.
o The court says this contract is unenforceable – against public policy
the couple here were flipping gender roles, which court said was
against public policy
o Wife should follow husband, not vice versa
o K here was entered into b/w parties who were living together and contemplated a
continuance of that relationship
Not the same as a K made after separation or in contemplation of an
immediate separation
o The state has an interest in marriage
o A private agreement between persons who are married or about to be married is not
enforceable if the agreement attempts to change the essential obligations of the
marriage contract as defined by law
CHALLENGES TO THE TRADITIONAL MODEL
Constitutional Limits on Sex Discrimination
Orr v. Orr – Alabama statute provides that husbands, but not wives, may be required to pay
alimony upon divorce
o Two purposes for the statute:
Provide help for needy spouses, using sex as a proxy for need
Compensating women for past discrimination during marriage (which
assertedly left them unprepared to fend for themselves in the working world
following divorce)
o Court upholds Equal Protection argument – the statute discriminates based on
gender bc wives do not have the same obligation to pay alimony as husbands
No gender stereotyping allowed under EPC
o The statute reinforces gender stereotypes about the “proper place” of women and their
need for special protection (opposite of Bradwell)
o After this case, the federal court says that states cannot have sex-based classifications
b/c will not pass scrutiny – family law because divorce matter
Anti-stereotyping principle in this case – for legislative purposes, cannot use
gender-based classification in family law
United States v. Virginia – VMI did not allow women to attend; VA proposed a parallel
program for women, but it did not offer the same things
o State argues that women are physically different and would not be able to do the same
training
Argue women could not handle the adversative method
Say there is an educational benefit to same-sex education
Make privacy argument (the men in the program are always together)
o Court says the parallel program does not have the same prestige as VMI
o Equal Protection argument – cannot stereotype against women, if a woman is
qualified to get in, they should admit her
o Overlapping of the spheres
o “Inherent Differences” between men and women remain cause for celebration, but not
for the denigration of the members of either sex or for artificial constraints on an
individual’s opportunity (p. 203)
This argument acknowledges the differences in the sexes – sets up to still
protect women in certain rights only they have
Anti-Gender-Stereotyping Principle
o Equal Protection cases –
Orr (1979)
VMI (1996)
o The idea of racial stereotyping is being applied to gender
o Implicates the family – women are no longer placed in the family sphere
o Court says it is okay to have rules w/biological differences
Statutory Limits on Sex Discrimination
Hopkins v. Price Waterhouse – a woman with an outstanding record was denied
partnership and told to act more ladylike, etc.
o Title VII – equality in the workplace – no discrimination based on sex
Sex – body/ biology
Gender – everything else (identity, etc.)
o Court says the classifications (ladylike, etc) in the evaluations of π would not have
happened to a male, therefore it is a classification based on sex
Expands Title VII to include gender classifications
o Women have to be treated equally in the market sphere
Private Ordering
Private Ordering – decisions/agreements made within the family
o Types of Agreements:
Pre-Nuptial Agreement – before marriage, anticipating divorce
Marital Contract
Divorce/Separation Contract
Brian Bix, Private Ordering and Family Law
o States generally respect the decisions made by individuals
People know what is best for them
Less stress on the judicial system
o States limit private ordering where:
It is against public policy
Harmful to third parties (ex. minor children)
Mnookin & Kornhauser, Bargaining in the Shadow of the Law (p. 1356/p. 35 in notes)
o Custody – shared or full/ joint-custody
Legal custody – schooling, medical decisions
Physical custody
Visitation (if one party gets full custody)
o Relationship of Money & Custody
Money = property, spousal support, child support
Parent may trade custody rights for money
i.e., see child less to give child better home, food, education
i.e., you take 60% custody and I will get the lake house
Court rarely challenges these agreements
o How Legal Rules Create Bargaining Endowments
The legal rules are the rules that the courts will apply if the parties do not
agree
Parties are coming in with knowledge of how the court would decide
everything
o Uncertainty
Parties use the other sides uncertainty in bargaining
Risk-Neutral – parent treats alternatives as equally desirable
Risk-Averse – parent who would accept a certain outcome of less than half-
custody to avoid the risk
Risk-Preferrers – rather take the gamble and have a 50% chance of winning
fully custody than accept the certain outcome of split custody
o Why Adjudication?
Not a rational decision for anyone
Not cost effective
Uncertainty bc the judge makes the decision
Maynard v. Hill – The marriage contract is unlike other contractual relationships in that it
creates a special relationship that can be altered only by governmental action. Other contracts
may be modified, restricted, enlarged, or terminated by the mutual consent of the parties
themselves.
o Shows how strong the state interest is in marriage
Simeone v. Simeone – Wife signed a pre-nup on her wedding night without counsel,
agreeing to support payments of $200/week with a maximum of $25,000. Wife challenges
the enforceability
o Contracting parties are bound regardless of whether the terms were read and fully
understood (absent fraud, misrepresentation, or duress)
Requires full and fair disclosure of the financial positions of the parties
The wife and husband discussed the pre-nup multiple times
o A prenup agreement is enforceable even if it is not reasonable and even if the weaker
party did not have counsel
o Concurrence – courts must protect the weaker party
Ansin v. Caven-Ansin – the parties entered into a post-nup agreement, after two years of
marriage, contemplating divorce
o Factors for determining enforceability:
Absence of fraud or coercion in obtaining the agreement
All assets were fully disclosed by both parties before execution
Each spouse knowingly and explicitly agreed in writing to waive the right to a
judicial equitable division of assets and all marital rights
The terms are fair and reasonable at the time of execution and at the time of
divorce
o Post-nup agreements are not per se contrary to public policy
Long v. Long – before wife filed for divorce from husband, she had an attorney prepare a
decree establishing property distribution, child support, custody and visitation, and alimony.
The terms clearly favored her. She discussed w/ husband and agreed, but husband claimed he
was drunk at the time.
o Courts favor and enforce stipulated settlement agreements between divorcing parties
if possible, even if the terms unreasonably favor one side, unless so lopsided that they
shock the conscience
o Best interests doctrine is one of the most important things in separation agreements –
the third party, the court, makes the final decision b/c the children’s interests are so
important
PARENTING
THE LIMITS OF PARENTAL AUTHORITY
Standard – BEST INTEREST OF THE CHILD
o Who decides what is in the child’s best interest?
State or parent?
Triangular relationship between state, parent, child
Parents get to decide what is in the best interest of the child when there
is a conflict
State comes in in an emergency (“welfare” protection)
o Court must decide whether there is an emergency
Pierce v. Society of Sisters – Mandate requiring parents to send their children to public
school
o Court talks about Meyer v. Nebraska, where there was a challenge to a statute that
said no German allowed to be taught in schools
The act unreasonably interfered with the liberty of parents to direct the
upbringing and education of children under their control
o The state has an interest to educate and can regulate education, but cannot require all
children to attend public school
Children are not the mere creature of the state
o Parents have a constitutional right to direct their children’s education and the
upbringing of their children that the state cannot interfere with
Prince v. Massachusetts – Aunt, who had custody of niece, was prosecuted for bringing her
out to distribute Jehovah Witness pamphlets
o Two interests:
State’s interest in the child “working” late hours – child labor – dangerous so
the state is especially empowered to prohibit it
Parents right to give their children religious trainings (and the child’s right to
observe these)
o The state can prohibit children from public proclamation of religion
Parents can make martyrs of themselves, but cannot make martyrs of their
children
In the Matter of RT – CPS took custody of ∆’s children after receiving reports that ∆ lacked
adequate housing for them. CPS provided a case plan, but she failed in every aspect of the
plan. After two years, CPS petitioned to terminate her parental rights.
o Failure to provide adequate care for a child despite financial and physical ability to do
so warrants terminating parental rights, but poverty alone does not
UNMARRIED FATHERS
Equal protection – sex classifications here against unwed fathers – traditional assumption that
bio mother has stronger bond w/ child (as seen as in the tender years doctrine, now
unacceptable)
Stanley v. Illinois – father and mother lived together, unmarried, and had three kids. The
mother died and the kids became wards of the state
o Presumption that unwed fathers are unfit parents (moral judgment)
Stereotype that fathers cannot care for child
o If the father were married to the mother he would have been given a hearing
o State’s argument:
The law protects the moral, emotional, mental, and physical welfare of the
child
o Due Process – father was not recognized as a parent and did not receive a hearing re:
termination of his parental rights
o Equal Protection – depriving unwed fathers – marital (unwed) and gender-based
(fathers) classifications
o Court says that removing the children could be in contrast to the states goal and there
MUST be a hearing – violation of both DP and Equal Protection clauses
o Their biology MATTERS – cannot take away their parental rights just because they
are unmarried
Lehr v. Robertson – child was adopted by the mother’s husband without notice to the
biological father, who was not as involved in child’s life. The father never filed with the
putative father registry (not mothers – discrimination against fathers)
o Court says biology is not enough, must act like the father and create a relationship w/
the child or have signed up on the putative registry
o The Due Process Clause does not require notice of an adoption proceeding to be
given to a biological father who may be an interested party to the proceeding.
o The Equal Protection Clause is not violated when the state treats one parent who has
an established custodial relationship with the child differently from the other parent
who either abandoned or never established a relationship with the child
Michael H. v. Gerald D. – Gerald and Carole were married. Carole had an affair and had a
child w/ Michael. Gerald and Carole separated. Michael petitioned to establish his paternity
but Carole started seeing Michael again so withdrew it. Then Carole started seeing Gerald
again. Michael brought suit, claiming that the law at issue denied him an opportunity to
establish his paternity.
o DP Clause traditionally protects only relationships developed w/in the unitary family
No precedent exists that addresses specifically the power of the natural father
to assert parental rights over a child born into a woman’s existing marriage w/
another man
o Traditionalist notion of family unit – view that it is not good for a child to have
multiple fathers and instability
o Majority views that Gerald, the husband, is the recognized father, even though no
biological connection – both fathers establish relationships, but the marital
relationship trumps b/c of the importance of the family unit and marriage
Summary
o Stanley – biology matters bio-dad has a DP right
o Lehr – need both biology + relationship (narrowed Stanley)
o Michael H – biology + relationship + no harm to “unitary family”
HYPO:
Bio father, who is not married to bio mother, comes to you asking about his rights to his child
o Make sure he goes to putative registry, ensure that he has a relationship with his child
o Highlights how much protection a marriage license provides w/ married fathers for
constitutional rights
What if mother remarries?
o Putative registry important and establishing a relationship w/ the child. It might be
very difficult b/c no marriage license.
TRANS AND GENDER-NONCOMFORMING PARENTS
JK v. Registrar – π is transgender woman who has two naturally conceived children from
her marriage. She challenged a requirement that she be recorded as “father” in her children’s
birth certificates.
o State recognizes the transition and the same-sex marriage, but still leaves the birth
certificates as father
Would infringe on children’s rights re: birth certificate
o Public interest in the administrative process
Beatie v. Beatie – π was transitioning to a man and married his wife in Hawaii (while as a
man), who could not have children. π did not complete his transition yet, so he gave birth to
their children. Obergefell was decided after this case. After moving to Arizona, they wanted
to divorce, but AZ did not recognize same sex marriages and thus could not divorce (said that
he was a woman b/c he gave birth).
o Court attributed giving birth as a female trait, and transition was challenged.
o This denial creates custody and divorce issues
THE EXTENDED FAMILY
Troxel v. Granville – WA statute that any person could petition for visitation rights, and
they would be granted if in the best interest of the child. The father’s parents petitioned for
visitation rights after his death. The mother limited visitation to once/mo.
o Liberty interest – the interest of parents in the care, custody, and control of their
children
The statute disregarded the parental right to direct their child’s upbringing,
which is a fundamental right, and is therefore unconstitutional
o There is a presumption that the fit parent is acting in the best interest of the child
The state statute took that presumption away and was too broad
Any third party seeking visitation could subject any visitation decision
by a parent to state court review
No requirement that a court accord the parent’s decision any
presumption of validity or any weight whatsoever
Sometimes there is a tension b/w best interest and parental right of how to
upbring their own children
How broad is parental rights? Parental rights are heavily protected
If a statute is too broad, such as this one, then it will be
unconstitutional
o Third-parties have significantly less rights compared to parents
ADOPTION
Types of adoption:
o Agency Adoption – adoption through a government or licensed agency
o Private Adoption – adoption between mother and family (social services
organization)
Vela v. Marywood – an unwed mother signed an irrevocable relinquishment affidavit giving
up her baby, even though she wanted a relationship w/ the child.
o There must be clear and convincing evidence that she voluntarily executed the
affidavit
o The termination of parental rights require:
Best interest of the child
Parent’s rights acknowledged and protected
o Required complete disclosure about the sharing plan and that the plan was not legally
binding
o If biological parents’ rights are terminated, then the parental rights to that child are
the adoptive parents’
Bio mother would turn into a third-party
Petition of R.M.G. – White foster parents and biological grandparents fighting each other to
adopt black child.
o What is best for the child?
The trial court went with the grandparents bc of race factor (said both families
were suitable)
The social worker said blood relative is best for the child
Agency psychiatrist says cross racial adoption is always harmful and should
be discouraged
o Whether the use of race in determining the adoption is necessary to achieve the
child’s best interest
o Compared to Loving (where the goal was white supremacy), this is trying to protect
the best interest of the child and her culture
o Cannot consider the best interest of the child without considering race
Race is just one of the factors, not determinative
Must see how the families actually operate on race
o 3 Step Evaluation:
How each family’s race is likely to affect the child’s development of a sense
of identity, including racial identity
How the families compare in this regard
How significant the racial differences b/w the families are when all the factors
relevant to adoption are considered together
Banks, The Color of Desire
o Facilitative accommodation – adoption agencies classification of children on the basis
of race facilitates and promotes the exercise of racial preferences by prospective
adoptive parents
Black children are categorically denied – if we allow racial preferences, white
children will be picked more than black children
o In class discussion of dating vs. adoption and discrimination within them
Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl – mom gave birth to a baby and father was a Native
American who was not there for the baby. Mom decided to give the baby up for adoption and
had to give notice to the biological father, who protested this. Statute stated that a Native
American father’s parental rights could not be involuntarily terminated b/c wanted to protect
Native American culture.
o Biological father loses here; adoptive parents have parental rights over the child
o Biological father renounced his right before the child was even born
o Only in Stanley the unwed father wins out of the four cases we have reviewed.
This case highlights that unwed fathers still have little protection (2013 case
here)
Southern Equality – a MI statute prohibited adoptions by same-sex couples.
o A ban on adoption based on classifications violates Obergefell, the Equal Protection
clause and the Due Process clause
o How does it relate to Obergefell? – looks at Obergefell more broadly and asks what
the scope of Obergefell is – it was about marriage and was not written as an anti-
discrimination case; however, extended its holding to include marital benefits,
including adoption rights
NONMARRIAGE
** parties agree that they are not married, but one asserts legal claims to the other’s assets **
** acting married + K = only get what was in K **
Marvin v. Marvin – π and ∆ lived together, K that π would take care of ∆ and house and ∆
would financially support her. They broke up, ∆ paid for 1st year and then refused spousal
support. (π gave up career to take care of ∆)
o This looks like traditional marriage
o Consideration for the K – giving up her career and performing homemaker services
His consideration was financial support
Does the sexual relationship constitute consideration?
o ∆ argues that K was immoral and enforcement violates public policy (void due to
public policy)
Diff. b/w this K and prostitution bc this was a long-term commitment – sex as
consideration for a K
good sex – marriage bad sex – prostitution
Court says as long as you can sever other parts from the sex, K b/w
cohabitants is enforceable
o K between unmarried partners are enforceable, even if sex is involved
o Diff b/w this and common law marriage:
No intent to marry
Only get what is in the agreement (common law get all benefits of marriage)
Blumenthal v. Brewer – a same-sex couple had a long-term, domestic relationship and
shared their assets, but were not married. When relationship ended, ∆ sought for common
law restitution, seeking an equal division of all assets. The state prohibited common law
marriage, so ∆’s counterclaim was dismissed.
o Is K enforceable? Majority says the couple does not have mutual property rights –
legislature must set the policy re: common law marriage, not the court. Majority also
says, using Obergefell, that marriage is the key institution and if they permit this, then
marriage loses its status.
o Dissent: Agreements should be enforced and recognized – (Majority view of states:
most states have Marvin-like cases (while not recognizing common law marriage)
and rights of cohabitants are recognized in one way or another
Not common law marriage, just recognizing contracts
Does recognizing rights of cohabitants hurt the marriage institution?
o Could undermine institution of marriage, but what is fair to cohabitants who
participate in what looks like a marriage?
Even if it does undermine, might be fairer to give some rights to cohabitants
GROUPS
Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas – 6 students trying to rent a house. Land restricted to one-
family dwelling.
o One-family dwelling – must be related by blood, adoption, or marriage, living and
cooking together OR no more than two people
o City has an interest – decrease noise, crowds, more traffic, parties, drugs, alcohol
o It is okay to limit to family connection in a zoning ordinance
Does not interfere w/ a fundamental right – legislative discretion, not judicial
discretion
o Contrasts Moore b/c Moore involves family – here, under “family” in the statute, the
6 students do not fit within that definition
o “Family” is often defined strategically in statutes per government’s interests
Depends on the legal context
EXTENDED FAMILY
Moore v. City of East Cleveland – ordinance limiting area to housing for “family”
o 4 categories considered family in their definition of family:
Husband/wife of the nominal head of household
Unmarried children of the nominal head of household (but cannot have their
own children)
Father/mother of nominal head of household or their spouse
Not more than 1 dependent child of head of household and the child of such
dependent child
o Court says these definitions are too narrow and cuts into the core of family and is thus
unconstitutional
The ordinance prevents related people from living together
Belle Terre the people were not related
o The ordinance is dividing families
o Comparing Troxel – the grandparents were seeking visitation and there was a parent
Here, the grandparent was acting as the parent
DIVORCE
Two types of divorce
o Fault Based
Specific reason/reasons for the ending of the marriage
More blaming and accusing
Harder to prove
Traditionally, all states had fault-based divorce
o No Fault
Just not working out, no one is blamed specifically
Enables privacy
Most states now have no fault and fault based
Before no fault, if a couple could not find a reason, then they could not
divorce
Enough that one party wants a divorce – marriage is perceived as fallen apart
NY has both fault-based and no-fault divorce – has both options for those who are extremely
wrong
FAULT BASED DIVORCE
Fault in New York:
o Adultery
o Abandonment
o Cruelty
o Imprisonment
Adultery
Edwards v. Edwards – couple were married. After an incident that husband characterizes as
“a misunderstanding,” husband filed for divorce and wife counterclaimed for divorce,
alleging inappropriate marital conduct and adultery. Wife walked in on husband and a
woman wearing only a pink thong.
o Adultery is notoriously hard to prove and courts usually rely on circumstantial
evidence which may include admissions of the spouses, alleged lovers, testimony of
private investigators and other witnesses tending to show adultery
Most successful cases have a combination of such evidence
Abandonment/Desertion
Jenkins v. Jenkins – wife left alcoholic/abusive husband – husband claims abandonment
o If there is a justification for leaving, it is not abandonment
o Abandonment:
Party has w/drawn from the common dwelling
Party left w/out lawful cause or justification
Party has constantly refused to return to live with the other
o Note 2 – constructive abandonment – when a spouse refuses to engage in sexual
relations or when spouse refuses to socially interact
Cruelty
Benscoter v. Benscoter – husband alleges wife was cruel to him (i.e., verbally abused him).
Wife had MS and thought husband was cheating.
o Court says husband had to show clearly and indubitably his status as the injured and
innocent spouse
He did not meet burden to prove cruelty
He cannot discard his partner just b/c she is sick
Immoral to divorce and if he doesn’t support wife, then state will – one of the
points of marriage is to take care of the unit and its children
o Fault based divorce is looking for a guilty spouse and an innocent spouse
Recrimination (accusation)
Rankin v. Rankin – husband filed for divorce claiming cruelty, wife claims husband was
physically abusive
o Cruelty – actual personal violence or a reasonable apprehension thereof, or such a
course of treatment as endangers life or health and renders cohabitation unsafe
A single instance is sufficient if severe and constitutes atrocity
o Divorce is not justified by the fact that the parties do not get along well together (in
fault-based only jurisdiction)
o If both are equally at fault and neither can clearly be said to be the innocent and
injured spouse no divorce
Has been limited or abolished in most states – in other states, the concept has been limited by
granting a divorce to both spouses, requiring that recrimination must be pleaded by a party
rather than raised by the court, and/or adopting the doctrine of comparative rectitude
Condonation (a defense to divorce where the spouse against whom a divorce is sought defends
on the grounds that the complaining spouse accepted or forgave the spouse for the misconduct)
Willan v. Willan – husband files for divorce alleging abuse, the parties had sex before the
husband left – court held that husband freely engaged in sex, which amounted to condonation
of any cruel conduct on the part of wife
o Condonation – after the alleged act, the spouse acts in a way that condones the act or
shows that the wife has been reinstated as the wife
NO FAULT DIVORCE
In re Marriage of Dowd – couple seeking divorce based on irreconcilable differences –
required that they lived separately for two years, but they lived together even though husband
slept on couch
o Can the parties be considered separated when there is no physical separation?
Court says yes – looking at whether the relationship has broken down
Grimm v. Grimm – husband says divorce violates his religion
o What if one party wants a divorce but the other does not think there is irreconcilable
differences?
Only one party must prove that the relationship is no longer functioning
o It is not enough that a defendant maintains hope for reconciliation to support a finding
that the marriage has not irretrievably broken down
o Statute was neutral and reasonable in the light that some marriages simply breakdown
through no fault of either party
Massar v. Massar – agreement that neither spouse will claim fault in divorce, will separate
for 18 months and then get a no-fault divorce. Wife violated agreement and filed for divorce
based on cruelty
o Husband gave consideration for the agreement by moving out of the home
o Wife argues that the agreement violates public policy bc she was waiving her right to
certain causes of action – wants a per se rule
Could cause someone to stay in abusive relationship
o Court declines to adopt per se rule
These agreements are generally enforceable as long as they are fair and
equitable
Couples can waive their rights to certain divorce actions
In re Marriage of Cooper – husband has affair, couple agreed that IF husband causes a
divorce, he will be liable for certain expenses. Husband continues affair and moves out
wife wants enforcement of agreement (more $)
o Court says K is unenforceable bc it regulates the intimacies of marriage
Do not want the agreement to be built on guilt, infidelity/cheating
o Court wants to move away from fault-based divorces and does not want to inject fault
back into divorce through these agreements
o While adultery is a ground for fault-based divorce, this is too much
Aflalo v. Aflalo – wife wants the court to compel the husband to give her a Jewish divorce
“get”
o Equal Protection – different classification for men and women, because only men
can grant a “get”
Vs. First amendment freedom of religion – can the courts force a religious
divorce
o The court will not enforce a Jewish divorce bc it would lower the wall separating
church and state
Can only grant civil divorce
CHILD CUSTODY
Applying the Best Interest Standard
** Standard is BEST INTEREST OF THE CHILD **
Child Custody Act –
Tender years doctrine discriminates against fathers and is no longer valid
Arneson v. Arneson – father and mother disagreed on who should have custody over their
child. Father has cerebral palsy and uses a wheelchair but considered himself independent
and able to care for their child.
o Cannot presume that a disability limits parental ability and must weigh other factors,
including:
Parent’s current and future physical capabilities
Management of the disability
Other family members adjustment to it, and
Any special contributions the parent makes despite the disability
o Trial court in this case properly considered these factors when awarding wife with
custody. Affirmed.
Hollon v. Hollon – husband and wife had a child. Husband moved out of the home and wife
continued to raise child. Female roommate moved in and the two women lived together with
their children. The father sued for custody alleging that they were in a homosexual
relationship
o When determining child’s best interest, court must weigh:
The age, health, and sex of the child;
The parent who had primary care of the child prior to the divorce
The parenting skills of the parents
The parents’ employment situations
The age and physical and mental health of the parents
The emotional ties of the parents to the child
The moral fitness of the parents
The child’s record in the home, school, and community
The preference of the child, if he or she is old enough to legally state a
preference
The stability of the parents’ home environments
o A homosexual relationship cannot be a defining consideration in determining custody
The trial judge placed too much weight upon the “moral fitness” factor and
ignored other factors
Palmore v. Sidoti – after mother and father divorced, mother began cohabitating with a
black man and father sued for sole custody
o Equal Protection issue
o The lower court did not focus directly on parental qualifications – it was based on
race
There was not a strong enough state interest to justify this racial classification
o The court cannot make a custody determination solely based on a child or parent’s
race
o Arguments that the kid will be stigmatized and subjected to bias do not work in this
situation
Jones v. Jones – In custody dispute, wife claims husband was awarded custody based on his
Native American ethnicity
o In determining the best interests of the children in a custody dispute, race as it relates
to a child’s ethnic heritage and which parent is more prepared to expose the child to
can be a factor
o Difference b/w Jones & Palmore – in Palmore race was used to the detriment of the
child, but here, ethnicity is being used to the benefit of the child
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN CUSTODY
Ford v. Ford – wife filed for divorce due to domestic violence.
o In making a custody determination, the primary consideration is the best interest of
the child. It is typically in the child’s best interest to have a meaningful relationship
with both parents, but that may not be the case if one parent is a perpetrator of
domestic violence and in that instance, friendly parent statutory provisions should not
be invoked
Alternative Approaches
Weisberger v. Weisberger – husband and wife divorced w/ three children w/ wife being
primary caretaker. They agreed to joint custody w/ wife having physical custody and that the
children would be raised Hasidic. Husband moved for modification of the agreement after
three years on the grounds that wife violated children’s practices of Hasidic.
o Individual parties may negotiate a shared-parenting agreement but the court may
determine that such an agreement is not in the best interests of the child.
o Enforcement of this agreement was not in the best interests of the child. Wife had
always been children’s primary caretaker and had closest relationship w/ children.
Pusey v. Pusey – tender year presumption that mother should have custody when the
children are young (mothers get custody more often than fathers)
o Court disavowed tender years presumption
Making decision based on gender is not necessarily in the child’s best interest
o If all else is equal, a gender-based presumption is improper, if not constitutional
o Not about mothers, but primary caregivers
Garska v. McCoy – father sues for custody, never really had relationship with child. Mother
was going to allow grandparents to “adopt” child so it could have health insurance
o Presumption that the primary caregiver is the more fit parent
This presumption provides protection to the primary care giver in a custody
dispute
Young v. Hector – father asserts that he spends so much time w/kids that he should be the
primary caretaker. Mother worked long hours as an attorney.
o Court said no, the nanny took care of the kids & the mother financially provided –
father is a loser
VISITATION
Non-custodian parents are entitled to reasonable visitation rights
o Unless visitation would seriously endanger child
Modification when in the best interest of the child (compare to custody – must be significant
change of circumstances)
Roberts v. Roberts – mother and father divorced and after visiting court several times,
agreed that wife would have primary physical custody over the children. Father moved to
suspend/modify visitation. Children were apprehensive about visiting father and would fake
being sick.
o Factors courts must consider in determining which custodial arrangement serves
children’s best interests:
Children’s needs
Relationship with each parent and preferences,
Each parent’s involvement, role, parenting abilities, and ability to resolve
disputes and support the child’s relationship with the other parent
o Evidence showed that father’s conduct was causing serious psych and emotional
injury to children
o Court rejected father’s free exercise of religion claim, saying it based its decision not
on his religion, but on his treatment of children and mother.
Eldridge v. Eldridge – father wants to limit the visitation so that at overnights the mother’s
partner is not there (mother is in relationship w/another woman)
o Father argues he does not want child to be exposed to immoral behavior
o Court says there was no evidence of harm from the partner being there
o Visitation is a legal right – not restricted unless the child is in danger
STEPPARENTS
In re Marriage of DePalma – while deployed, dad wanted the step-mom to care for the
children during his parenting time
o Mother arguing right of first refusal – when the father is unavailable, she has the right
to have the kids
o Court does not give step-mom parental rights
It is through the father’s right to parent the children
Father is a fit parent, presumption he is acting in best interest of the
children for step-mother to watch them
Edwards v. Edwards – step-father was granted visitation and decision-making power over
step-child
o Mother argues that he has no standing bc he is not bio dad
o In exceptional cases, where it is in the best interest of the child, step-parents will be
awarded visitation
To prevent serious harm/detriment to the child
o Step-father was the only dad she knew
o They could have prevented this by having the non-bio parent adopt the child
De Facto Parents
A current or recent caretaker of a child and who has been found to have assumed, on a day-
to-day basis, the role of a parent to the child
Conover v. Conover – before getting married, two females, M and B, used artificial
insemination to conceive and B gave birth. The couple married six months after and then
separated a year later. M continued seeing the child until B objected. B filed for divorce,
stating that the couple shared no children.
o A de facto parent has standing to seek custody or visitation as a parent, not as a third
party
o Four-part test:
Biological parent consented to and fostered third-party’s relationship w/ child
Living together in same household
Third-party must have assumed responsibility for child’s care, education and
support and taken on a parental role long enough to establish a bonded,
parental relationship
Lengthy time where third-party was serving in parental role
Most jurisdictions now recognize de facto parent status or something similar
Tri-Parenting
Dawn M. v. Michael M. – marriage b/w husband and wife, and tried to have a child but
couldn’t. A third woman was added to the relationship, and she became pregnant with
husband. All three raised the child. Husband and wife divorced and wife moved out with the
other woman.
o A child’s de facto third parent may establish legal tri-custody rights
o Wife always acted as child’s de facto parent – child called both women mommy and
would be devastated if child could not see wife.
NY now recognizes three legal parents
HYPO: In “Bargaining of the Shadow of the Law,” the authors discuss two elements: money and
custody. Explain this proposition and in the light of this insight, which of the three seems most
fair: legal and physical custody of children, 50/50 custody or no presumption at all? Be specific
and use case law to support your position
First discuss the presumption is with equitable distribution in custody matters and then based
off of this, discuss bargaining powers of both parties – money and custody may increase or
decrease
Primary caregiver presumption
o If the parent is not the primary caregiver, but really wants more visitation rights, we
can offer as a bargaining chip more distribution of the property or more money in
order to get more time with the children.
o Vice versa: if your client is the primary caregiver, we can say, you will probably get
custody – do you want to receive more money to give your spouse more?
o Pusey and Garska
50/50 presumption
o Primary caregiver might be unfair b/c it forces the other parent to give up more
money. 50/50 of custody – if client wants more or less, they can bargain with more
property or money distribution
Now if the parent wants primary care, he or she will have to give up money or
property
Child Support
Generally longer than spousal support
o Different b/c supporting child as if never divorced – accommodation to children’s
needs
In New York – income of parent 1 + income of parent 2 (combined)
o Number parents pay together (NY):
1 child = 17%
2 children = 25%
3 children = 29%
4 children = 31%
5 or more = no less than 35%
o Non-custodial parent pays custodial parent
Pro-rated based on individual income
o Income capped at $145k, but after court has discretion and does not have to follow %
HYPO: Spouse A and B have two children in NY. A – $75k yearly. B – $25k yearly. How
much child support will each of them be responsible for? Who will pay whom if there is
primary custody? What if there is joint custody?
o Combined = $100k. 25% of $100k = $25,000
o Spouse A – 75% of $25,000 = $18,750 (per year)
o Spouse B – 25% of $25,000 = $6,250 (per year)
o Spouse A gets primary custody and Spouse B only gets visitation:
Spouse B would pay $6,250.
o Joint custody:
Higher income spouse would pay the lower income payer, as if lower income
spouse had received primary custody (Spouse A would pay Spouse B).
The percentages are discretionary – do not want to punish the higher income spouse
Parties may also contract for less if reasonable
o Must submit to the court for approval
Solomon v. Findley – mother wants father to contribute to child’s college education
(agreement that father would pay beyond minority for college education)
o Court says K is enforceable bc it was independent of dissolution decree
If not for K, father could not be ordered to pay post-minority support
Curtis v. Kline – state law that separated, divorced, or unmarried parents subject to a support
obligation must provide support for post-minority education
o Equal Protection – classification based on marital status
o Court says unconstitutional – divorce cannot limit freedom w/regards to kids
Stanton v. Stanton – statute said minority lasts until 21 for males but 18 for females
o Equal Protection – sex classification
Even if stereotype based on maturity and higher education
Little v. Little – father wants to pay less child support bc income will go down when he goes
to law school
o Modification of child support is not allowed when the parent is voluntarily leaving
their job
Places child in financial peril
Increase in earnings after law school are not guaranteed
Could pay child support and pay for law school with student loans
o Modification of child support is intermediate balancing test
What is the financial impact of the parents decision on the child/children the
support order protects?
If it places child in financial peril = NO modification
Smith v. Smith – original award was $460/mo. Later modified to $4,300/mo. bc father’s
salary increased significantly – “significant change of circumstances” can lead to
modification
o Father asks courts to deviate from guidelines bc the kid does not need that much
money
Father already voluntarily paid double of original award and child lived a
good lifestyle
o The expenses of the child were only $3,500, father must pay 88% of that b/c that is
his share of monthly income
Court does not want a transfer of wealth between parents
Rose v. Moody – mother has custody of 2 of 3 children, subsists entirely on social security.
Other child lives w/ her mother. State argued that mother has to pay her mother minimum
child support payment per state statute.
o Federal statute = no income no child support payment
o NY State statute = min. child support of $25/mo.
o Court says federal statute trumps state
o Cannot force people to pay symbolic payments when they cannot afford them
ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
SURROGACY
Two types
o Full surrogacy – when the biological mother (egg donor) and the gestational carrier
are the same person
K not enforceable
o Gestational Surrogacy – when gestation and genetics are not the same person, the
child goes to whoever was intended to raise the child
Movement towards enforceability
Three questions for surrogacy cases:
o Is surrogacy illegal?
o Is the K enforceable?
o Who is the legal parent?
In re Baby M – Mr. S and Mrs. W entered into an agreement where she would be
inseminated w/ Mr. S’s sperm and give the baby to Mr. & Mrs. S. Mrs. W flees w/baby
o Transaction is b/w surrogate (providing egg and gestation) and Mr. S (providing
sperm)
Mrs. S is not in the K bc baby selling is illegal
o The court portrays Mrs. S as anxious to have her own pregnancy bc of mild form of
MS (p. 580)
o Two legal questions:
Whether the K is valid
If the K is invalid, who should get custody
o Court says the K is invalid as against public policy – inherent evil in baby bartering
Consideration was $10k in exchange for the child (Mrs. W gives up all rights)
K was breached bc Mrs. W would not give up parental rights
o Arguments for Mr. S
Cannot buy own baby
He was paying for services
o Reasons to be a surrogate:
Altruism
Financial need
o The court calls Mrs. W the mother, not Mrs. S
Court chooses biological mother over intended mother
o On birth certificate, Mr. & Mrs. W were named as the parents (bc of presumption of
paternity)
o Court worried about class dynamic
Poor women could be exploited by such agreements bc more likely to be
surrogates
o Equal Protection claim – man that is a sperm donor would be treated differently than
a surrogate
Surrogate given more rights than a sperm donor
o Due Process claim – by not recognizing that Mr. S is the bio dad, he is deprived of
his right to procreate
Mrs. W claims she has the right to be w/ her child
o 2 legal parents – custody is determined by the best interest of the child
Factors:
Financial situation
Psychological background
Experience/willingness to parent
Ability to appropriately explain to child about circumstances
In re X & Another – English couple entered into surrogacy K w/Ukranian women
o Surrogacy Laws (conflicting):
United Kingdom:
No surrogacy for profit
Surrogate is legal parent regardless of bio relationship
No surrogacy agreement is enforceable
Children have no right of entry & intended parents cannot confer
nationality
Ukraine:
Commercial surrogacy legal
Surrogate is not the legal parent
K is enforceable
o Are the children born in Ukraine via surrogacy UK nationals?
Under UK laws surrogate is legal parent
o Consequences of the decision
Leaving children stateless (if they do not allow them in)
Bc there is no surrogacy for UK citizens
If they do allow children in
Encourage forum shopping
Creating a gap (law only applies in the UK)
o Looks at the child’s welfare
Rule of no surrogacy in UK stays the same, but making an exception to allow
the children into the country
In re C.K.G. – an unmarried couple decided to have a child via in-vitro fertilization w/donor
eggs but the man’s sperm
o Couple ends up w/triplets break up
o Is the gestational mother who is also the intended mother the legal mother?
Father argues no bc she has no genetic relationship to the children
If not the legal mother then she is the surrogate
o TN courts look at totality of circumstances
Rejects other tests
Intent test – looks at K and who the intended parents are
Genetic test (OH) – says genetic connection is most important
o Court wants to recognize woman as the legal parent
PARENTAGE AND OTHER ISSUES
Married Partners
Strnad v. Strnad – π artificially inseminated w/∆ consent. What is ∆’s parental rights?
o ∆ has right to visitation – has the right to be a parent
o Shift from sperm donations being seen as adultery and immoral to a desirable cure for
male infertility (same for gestational surrogacy)
Okoli v. Okoli – after divorcing, wife asked husband for child support. Children were born
from sperm and egg donors after couple separated, but wife got consent from husband.
Husband was legal father but claimed he was not biological father and did not have to pay
child support.
o Court said he had to pay child support b/c consent requirement is not about
consenting to be a parent but consenting to the procedure
Pavan v. Smith – same sex couple used anonymous sperm donor and non-carrying spouse
was not put on child’s birth certificate even though they were married and non-carrying
spouse consented. Couple claimed this violates Obergefell.
o Equal treatment for same sex couples through Obergefell means that the non-carrying
mother has the same presumption that fathers have
o Obergefell applies to parentage and the presumption of parentage will apply to same
sex couples
o Dissent – Under state law, biological father should be listed on the birth certificate
and marriage/Obergefell has nothing do with this
Uniform Parenting Act (1973)(UPA)
o Donor’s rights – donor of sperm to a married woman cannot claim parental rights
Semen provided to licensed physician
Some states dropped the requirement of marriage and physician
New York – known donor agreements are not enforceable
Unmarried Partners
Charisma R. v. Kristina S. – Same sex couple were not married and non-carrying mother
consented for mother to be inseminated for a child. The couple broke up and the carrying
partner took their child with her. The non-carrying mother filed a petition saying she is the
legal parent of the child
o Non-carrying mother is presumed a legal parent. She raised the child, and openly held
that the child was her own
Conover (revisited) – Same sex couple. One was inseminated w/ sperm donor with partner’s
consent before marriage. Then they married. Custody dispute, then non-bio mom was found
to be de facto parent
o De facto parent v. Uniform Parenting Act:
De facto parenting focuses on best interests of child – e.g., a parent could not
be around when insemination occurred but grew a relationship and became
parent that way)
UPA focuses on intent (has a contract view re: insemination)