HDM Complete 19950701 5th Ed

CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENTOF TRANSPORTATION
manual change
- transmjttal
Project Development
Highway Design Manual -
*
IN
- DATE
ISSUED 7/1/95
5th Edition Program Manager PAQE 1 OF 7
SUWECT AREA ISSUING UNIT S fate and Local Project
Highway Design - Various Development Program /Office of

Proied Planning and Design
SUPERSEDES MSTRIBUTUW
This is the first metric Highway
Design Manual All manual holders
Attached is the 5th Edition of the Highway Design Manual. This is the first all metric
Highway Design Manual. All manual holders should retain their 4th Edition of the
Highway Design Manual for projects which will use English units and will be
advertised prior to October 1,1996; or have been granted an exception from the Federal
metric mandate.
The most significant change to this 5th Edition is that the metric system of weights and
measures has been utilized. The conversion process used a combination of hard
conversions (new, rounded, rationalized metric values) and soft conversions (exact
metric equivalents).
Several sections throughout the manual have only minor changes. These changes were
made to correct spelling, improve grammar, clarify issues or reflect Caltrans
reorganization. More significant changes are described below.
General Changes Throughout Manual
Reference to AASHTO's "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets" has
been changed to the 1994 version.
Reference to AASHTO's "Roadside Design Guide" has been changed to the 1995
version.
Reference to the 1985 version of the Transportation Research Board's "Highway

Capacity Manual" has been changed to the 1994 version.
Side slopes shall now be expressed as nondimensional ratios with the vertical
component first and then the horizontal component (Y:X). For slopes less than 45",the
vertical component shall be unitary (for example 1:20). For slopes over 45", the
horizontal component shall be unitary (for example 5:l).
Manual Change Transmittal
July 1,1995
Page 2
The standards for roads under others jurisdiction have been modified so that, when
applicable, AASHTO standards are mandatory and local standards are advisory.
Specific Changes to Indexes
-
Index 44.3 The discussion on emergency relief funding has been updated.
-
Index 62.5 Revisions were made for consistency with the Project Development
Procedures Manual.
-
Tables 82.1A & 82.18 These tables were rewritten so that they list all standards. In
past editions these tables listed index numbers which contained one or more standard.
Index 102.1 - The traffic volumes for design capacities have been modified.
-
Index 110.4 The discussion on wetlands protection has minor modifications.
Index 110.6 & 110.7 - The discussions on traffic control plans and safety reviews have
been modified to include bicycle and pedestrian traffic as well as Transportation
Management Plans.
Topic 113 - This is a new section which discusses the Geotechnical Design Report.
Topic 114 - The Materials Report discussion has been relocated from Topic 113 to Topic
114.
The passing and stopping sight distance for vertical and horizontal curves is now
shown in table format.
Index 203.6 - Language has been added to the horizontal, reversing curves section,
which suggests using a minimum of 120 m tangent between reversing curves when
feasible.
July 1,1995
Page 3
Index 204.4 - The advisory standard on vertical curves has been rewritten making the
minimum length of vertical curve dependent on speed and algebraic grade difference.
Index 204.5(4)- Language was added so that turnout lengths can be extended with the
approval of the Traffic Reviewers.
Index 208.l(b) - This section was rewritten to state that the clear width of structures with
approach shoulder widths of 1.2 m or less shall be 1.2 m.
Index 208.1(2)(a)- The text discussing overcrossing widths on roads under other
jurisdiction was deleted because it is already discussed in Index 308.1.
Index 208.10(7) - Most of the discussion on bridge approach railing has been deleted.
Designers should refer to the Traffic Manual for detailed information on bridge
approach railing.
Index 305.6 - The discussion and standards for median shoulders and cross slopes has
been deleted. This information can be found in Indexes 302.1 and 302.2.
Index 403.3 - The discussion on angles of intersections for at-grade intersections has
been rewritten.
-
Figure 403.3 This is a new figure illustrating the angle of intersection for at-grade
intersections.
-
Index 405.1(2) & Figure 405.7 The definition for driver set back at intersections has
been modified to be dependent on the shoulder width.
Index 405.3(2) - A short discussion has been added on the use of gutter pans within the
shoulder of right-turn lanes.
-
Figure 405.5 This figure has been modified so that there is only one example of a
median opening.
July 1,1995
Page 4
Index 502.2 - The advisory standard for isolated off ramps and partial interchanges has
been modified.
Index 502.3(3)(a) & Figure 502.3 - The Type F1 interchange has been split into two types
(Alt A and Alt 8).
Index 504.3 - The advisory standard for ramp design speed has been modified to discuss
ramps with "through" moves.
Index 504.2 & Figure 504.2A - The definition for the "D" distance on exit ramps has been
modified and renamed deceleration length or "DL" distance.
Index 504.3(2) & Figure 504.3A - The definition for driver setback at intersections has
been modified to be dependent on the shoulder width.
The October 20,1993 memorandum entitled "Interim Highway Design Manual Change -
Chapter 600t', signed by D. H. Benjamin, has been incorporated throughout Chapter 600.
This memorandum discusses the use of concrete shoulders and tied and sealed joints.
The portion of this memorandum which discussed the 20-year design period for new AC
has also been included in the Highway Design Manual in Index 603.2. Discussion on
staging the construction of AC pavement structural sections has also been added to Index
603.2.
Information pertaining to the Geotechnical Design Report has been incorporated

throughout the chapter. Information on the Geotechnical Design Report can be found in
Topic 113.
Index 601.1 - The discussion on the Pavement Design and Rehabilitation Committee
(PDRC) has been modified.
Table 607.2 - The PCCP structural sections have been modified to incorporate a uniform
thickness of treated permeable bases (TRB).
Table 609.3 - The life-cycle cost procedure format has been clarified.
Indexes 611.7,611.8 & 611.9 - The existing text has been modified to discuss the Capital
Preventive Maintenance (CAPM) Program.
July 1,1995
Page 5
Index 611.8 - Text has been added to discuss PCCP slab replacement at locations where
edge drains exist. The text on PCCP subsealing and installation of edge drains as part of
PCCP rehabilitation strategies has been eliminated.
Index 611.1l(3) - Per the January 12,1993 "Memorandum of Understanding on the Use
of Asphalt" with the Department of Fish and Game and the January 27,1993
memorandum entitled "Department of Fish and Game Agreement on AC Grindings,
Chunks and Pieces" issued by the Divisions of Construction, Maintenance, and State
and Local Project Development and the Environmental Division, a new section has been
added which discusses the use of AC grindings and chunks.
Topic 706 - Revisions to this section were made to clarify components of irrigation
crossovers for highway construction projects, and water supply lines and sprinkler
control conduits for bridges.
Reference to the term "gage" as a measure of thickness for metal pipe material has been
deleted. Metal pipe thickness will be shown to the nearest 0.1 mm in this manual for
brevity, although the Standard Specifications and other reference specifications will
show metal pipe thickness to the nearest 0.01 mm. Where the new text indicates that the
designer should consider using "the next size thicker" metal pipe, it will have the same
meaning as previous references to "2 gage thicker".
Designers should be aware that not all organizations will use units consistent with
adopted nationwide standards. Current plans call for AASHTO (with likely extension
to HEC and HDS manuals, HYDRAIN, etc.) to adopt the centimeter as the unit of
measure for rainfall intensity, rainfall depth, runoff depth, and for the development of
unit hydrographs. Most other AASHTO applications will abide by the millimeter
convention. Where alternate measurement units are called for in reference documents
or computer programs provided by outside agencies, special care should be taken to
verify all design parameters and results.
Index 819.2 & Figure 819.2C - USGS currently has no schedule for converting the
Regional Flood-Frequency Equations to the metric system. Until such time as USGS is
able to provide the conversions, the Highway Design Manual items referenced will
remain in English units.
Index 829.8 - In this section on jacking and tunneling, previous information on where to
file request for classification relative to gas and vapor conditions has been updated.
There are now two different locations to submit to, depending on project location.
July 1,1995
Page 6
-
Index 835.3 A new AC dike, Type F, is discussed. This 100 mm high dike has a profile
similar to a Type A dike. At the request of FHWA the Type F dike will replace Type A
dike for all new installations where dike is to be placed under the face of metal beam
guardrailing. See Standard Plan A87 for details.
-
Figure 864.38 Nomograph for solution of the Manning Equation have been deleted
from the Highway Design Manual.
-
Index 873.3(2), Figures 873.3A & 873.3D, & Table 873.38 Conversion of the
nomographs for rock slope stream-bank and shore protection to the metric system is not
feasible at this time. For continuity, the associated text and table will not be converted
until the nomographs can be revised.
Extensive revisions were made throughout this chapter to update, clarify and organize
the information according to current policy, standards and guidelines. Particular
attention was paid to issues of safety. Items such as safety concepts, reduced pesticide
use, remote irrigation control systems (RTCS), use of California native plants and
wildflowers, plants with thorns or known to be poisonous, planting of noise barrier
features, planting of noise barriers on safety shaped barriers, planting of vines on
bridges, water conservation, locating irrigation components, manifolding control valves,
and use of overhead irrigation systems have been revised or added to these guidelines.
-
Index 1003.1(1) Language was added to clarify the required graded area adjacent to
bike paths.
Index 1003.1(2) - Language was added discussing that a 3 m vertical clearance over bike
paths should be considered.
-
Index 1003.1(4) A paragraph was added discussing bicycle path intersections. Also,
some language was added discussing curb cuts and ramps at intersections.
Index 1003.1(8) - The discussion on horizontal alignment and superelevationwas

rewritten. The suggested superelevation for bike paths range from 2 to 5 percent with
variable friction factors.
Figure 1003.1C - The formula and figure for curve radii and superelevation have been
revised for a variable friction factor.
July 1,1995
Page 7
-
h d e x 1003.1(9) An additional paragraph was added discussing stopping sight
distances on bicycle paths.
-
Index 1003.1(11) An additional paragraph was added discussing lateral clearances on
horizontal curves.
-
Index 1003.1(13) Text was added discussing smooth riding surfaces and paving
requirements at intersections.
-
Index 1003.1(16) This is a new section which discusses lighting requirements on bike
paths.
-
Index 1003.2 Clarified minimum width requirements for bike lanes. Suggested
additional widths when there are high parking volumes, high parking turnover,
substantial truck traffic or high speeds.
-
Index 1003.4 This section on bicycles on freeways was completely rewritten.
Index 1003.5 - This section on multipurpose trails was completely rewritten.
The entire chapter on noise abatement was rewritten. This chapter provides design
standards, access considerations and aesthetics of noise barriers. Additional
information can be found in the Project Development Procedures Manual and the
Environmental Handbook.
Implementation Instructions
The attached sheets and revised standards contained herein are effective July 1,1995,
and shall be applied to on-going metric projects in accordance with Index 82.5 of the
Highway Design Manual. Projects which are designed and advertised in English units
should continue to use the 4th Edition of the Highway Design Manual.
Attachments
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1,1995
FOREWORD
Purpose Form
This manual was prepared by the of The loose-leaf form was chosen because it
Project Planning and Design, State and Local facilitates change and expansion. New in-
Project Development Program. The manual structions will be issued as sheets in the format
establishes uniform policies and procedures to of this manual; these may consist of additional
cany out the highway design functions of the sheets or new sheets to be substituted for those
California Department of Transportation superseded.
(Caltrans). It is neither intended as, nor does it
establish, a legal standard for these functions. Organization of the Manual
The policies established herein are for the A decimal numbering system is used which
information and guidance of the officers and permits identification by chapter, topic, and
employees of the Department. index, each of which is a subdivision of the
preceding classification. For example:
Many of the instructions given herein are subject
to amendment as conditions and experience Chapter 40 Federal-aid
seem to warrant. Special situations may call for Topic 42 Federal-aid System
variation from policies and procedures, subject
to Office of Project Planning and Design Index 42.2 Interstate
approval, or such other approval as may be The upper corner of each page shows the page
specifically provided for. number and the date of issue.
It is not intended that any standard of conduct or
@ duty toward the public shall be created or Use of the Table of Contents
imposed by the publication of this manual. The Table of Contents gives the index number
Statements as to the duties and responsibilities and page number for each topical paragraph
of any given classification of officers or together with corresponding dates of issue. The
employees mentioned herein refer solely to holder of the manual should insert the title and
duties or responsibilities owed by those in such the appropriate dates of new instructions as they
classification to their superiors. However, in are received. Revised Table of Contents will be
their official contacts, each employee should issued as the need arises.
recognize the necessity for good relations with
the public. Use of the English and Metric Editions
Scope of the Highway Design Manual
This manual is not a textbook or a substitute for This Fifth Edition of the Highway Design
engineering knowledge, experience, or Manual is in metric units. All projects designed
judgment. It includes techniques as well as and constructed in metric units should follow
graphs and tables not ordinarily found in the standards in this manual per the instructions
contained in Index 82.5, "Effective Date for
textbooks. These are intended as aids in the Implementing Revisions to Design Standards".
quick solution of field and office problems. Projects designed and constructed in English
Except for new developments, no attempt is units should continue to follow the standards in
made to detail basic engineering techniques; for the Fourth Edition of the Highway Design
these, standard textbooks should be used. Manual.
July 1,1995
Metric Basics
I Measurable Attribute - Basic Units Unit Expression I
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Luminous intensity candela cd
Time second S
Time hour h
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
1 Volume of liquid liter L
-
IMeasurable Attribute Special Names Unit Expression
Frequency of a periodic phenomenon hertz
Force newton
Energy/worklquantity of heat joule
Power watt
Pressure/stress pascal
Celcius temperature Celsius
Quantity of electricity/electrical charge coulomb
Electric potential volt
Electric resistance ohm
I Luminous flux lumen lm I
Luminance lux lx (lm/m2)or
(cd/m2)
-
Measurable Attribute Derived Units Unit Expression
Acceleration meter per second squared rn/s2
Area square meter m2
Area hectare ha (10000 m2)
II Densitylmass
Volume
Velocity
kilogram per cubic meter
cubic meters
meter per second
m3
d s I
Mass
- -~ - - tonne
- - -- -- . tonne (1000ke)
- .- - - - -
. - g l r
Multiplication Factors Prefix Symbol Pronunciations

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~lo9 = gigs G jig' a (i as in jig, a as in a-bout)
1 000O00= lo6 mega M as in mega-phone
l000= Id kilo k kill' oh
100 = lo2 *hecto h heck' toe
10 = 10' *deko da deck' a (a as in a-bout)
0.1 = 10" *deci d as in deci-ma1
0.01 = 1u2 *centi c as in centi-pede
0.001 = lu3 milli m as in mili-tary
0.000 001 = micro C1 as in micro-phone
0.000000 001 = lu9 nano n nan' oh (an as in ant)
* to be avoided where possible
July 1,1995
Common Conversion Factors to Metric
mi 1.6093 km
yd 0.9144 m
Volume ft3 0.0283 m3
gal 3.785 * L
fl oz 29.574 mL *
yd3 0.7646 m3
acre ft 1233.49 m3
Mass oz 28.3 5 g
lb 0.4536 kg
kip (1,000 lb) 0.4536 tonne (1000 kg)
short ton 907.2 kg
(2,000 lb)
short ton 0.9072 brine (1000
kg)
Density lb/yd3 0.5933 kdm3
lb/ft3 16.0185 kdm3
Pressure psi 6894.8 Pa
ksi 6.8948 MPa (Nlmm')
lbf/ftz 47.88 Pa
Velocity ftls 0.3048 mls
mph 0.4470 mls
mph 1.6093 kmlh
Temp "F t 0, = (t of-32)/1.8 OC
* Use Capital "L" for liter to eliminate confusion with the numeral " 1"
Land Surveying Conversion Factors
1 Class Multidv :
rn - 1 By: To Get 1
Area acre 4046.8726 1 mz
acre 0.404 69 ha (10 000 m')
1200/3937** m
Code
July 1.1995
Table of Contents
Topic Mex Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
-
CHAPTER 10 OFFICE OF PROJECT PLANNING AND DESIGN
Organization and Functions
11.1 Organization 10-1 July 1, 1995
11.2 Functions 10-1 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 20 DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES
Highway Route Numbers
2 1.1 Legislative Route Numbers and Descriptions 20- 1 July 1, 1995
21.2 Sign Route Numbers 20- 1 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 40 FEDERAL-AID
Enabling Legislation
41.1 General 40- 1 July 1, 1995
Federal-Aid System
42.1 National Highway System 40- 1 July 1, 1995
42.2 Interstate 40- 1 July 1, 1995
Federal-Aid Programs
43.1 Surface Transportation Program (STP) 40- 1 July 1, 1995
43.2 Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement 40-2 July 1, 1995
g r a m (CMAQ)
43.3 Bridge .Replacement and Rehabilitation Program 40-2 July 1, 1995
43.4 Federal Lands Program 40-2 July 1, 1995
43.5 Special Programs 40-2 July 1, 1995
Funding Dettambtion
44.1 Punding Eligibility 40-2 July 1, 1995
44.2 Federal Participation Ratio 40-2 July 1, 1995
44.3 Emergency Relief 40- 2 July 1, 1995
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Topic Index Subject Page Page C
Number Number Date
-
CHAPTER 60 NOMENCLATURE
61 Abbreviations
6 1.1 Official Names 60- 1 July 1, 1995
62 Definitions
62.1 Geometric Cross Section July 1, 1995
62.2 Highway Structures July 1, 1995
62.3 Highway Types July 1, 1995
62.4 Interchanges and Intersections at Grade July 1, 1995
62.5 Landscape Architecture July 1, 1995
62.6 Rightofway July 1, 1995
62.7 Structural Design of the Roadbed July 1, 1995

62.8 Traffic July 1, 1995
62.9 Drainage 60-7 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 80 APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS
81 Project Development Overview
8 1.1 Philosophy 80- 1 July 1, 1995
82 Application of Standards
82.1 Highway Design Manual Standards 80- 1 July 1, 1995
82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Design 80-2 July 1, 1995
82.3 Use of FHWA and AASIITO Standards and Policies 80-3 July 1, 1995
82.4 Mandatory Procedural Requirements 80-3 July 1, 1995
82.5 Effective Date for Implementing Revision to Design 80-3 July 1, 1995
Standards
July 1,1995
m Topic Index
Number
Table of Contents
Subject Page
Number
Page
Date
-
CHAPTER 100 BASIC DESIGN POLICIES
Design Speed
101.1 Selection of Design Speed July 1, 1995
101.2 Design Speed Standards July 1, 1995
Highway Capacity
102.1 Design Capacities July 1, 1995
102.2 References 100-3 July 1, 1995
Design Designation
103.1 Relation to Design July 1, 1995
103.2 Design Period July 1, 1995
Controi of Access
104.1 General Policy 100-3 July 1, 1995
104.2 Access Openings 100-3 July 1, 1995
104.3 Frontage Roads 100-4 July 1, 1995
104.4 Protection of Access Rights 100-4 July 1, 1995
104.5 Relation of Access Opening to a Median Opening 100-5 July 1, 1995
104.6 Cross References 100-5 July 1, 1995
Pedestrian Facilities
105.1 Sidewalks July 1, 1995
105.2 Pedestrian Grade Separations July 1, 1995
105.3 Accessibility Requirements July 1, 1995
105.4 Guidelines for the Location and Design of 100-8 July 1, 1995
Wheelchair Ramps
Stage Construction and Utilization of Local Roads
106.1 Stage Construction 100-9 July 1, 1995
106.2 Utilization of Local Roads 100-9 July 1, 1995

July 1.1995
Table of Contents
Topic Index Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
107 Roadside Installations

107.1 Roadway Connections July 1, 1995
107.2 Maintenance Yards and Police Facilities on Freeways July 1, 1995
107.3 Location of Border Inspection Stations July 1, 1995
108 Coordination with Other Agencies
108.1 Divided Nonfreeway Facilities July 1, 1995
108.2 Bus Loading Facilities July 1, 1995
108.3 Coordination with the FHWA July 1, 1995
109 Scenic Values in Planning and Design
109.1 Basic Precepts July 1, 1995
109.2 Design Speed July 1, 1995
109.3 Aesthetic Factors July 1, 1995
110 Spedal Considerations
110.1 Design for Overloaded Material Hauling Equipment July 1, 1995
110.2 Control of Water Pollution July 1, 1995
110.3 Control of Air Pollution July 1, 1995
110.4 Wetlands Protection July 1, 1995
110.5 Earthquake Consideration July 1, 1995
110.6 Traffic Control Plans July 1, 1995
110.7 Safety Reviews July 1, 1995
110.8 Value Analysis July 1, 1995
110.9 Proprietary Items July 1, 1995
111 ~terialSittsandDtpposrlSitts
111.1 General Policy July 1, 1995
111.2 Investigation of Local Materials Sources July 1, 1995
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Nwnber Number Date
1 1 1.3 Materials Information Furnished to Prospective 100-27 July 1, 1995

Bidders
1 1 1.4 Materials Arrangements 100-28 July 1, 1995
1 1 1.5 Procedures for Acquisition of Material Sites and 100-28 July 1, 1995
Disposal Sites
1 1 1.6 Mandatory Material Sites and Disposal Sites on 100-29 July 1, 1995
Federal-aid Projects
112 Contractor's Yard and Plant Sites
112.1 Policy 100-30 July 1, 1995
1 12.2 Locating a Site 100-30 July 1, 1995
113 Geotechnical Design Report
113.1 Policy 100-30 July 1, 1995
1 13.2 Content 100-30 July 1, 1995
-<
1 1 3.3 Submittal and Review 100-30 July 1, 1995

114 Materials Report
114.1 Policy 100-30 July1,1995
1 14.2 Content 100-31 July 1, 1995
1 1 4.3 Submittal and Review 100-31 July1,1995
-
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS
201 Sight Distance
201.1 General 200-1 July 1, 1995
201.2 Passing Sight Distance 200-1 July 1, 1995
201.3 Stopping Sight Distance 200-1 July 1, 1995
201.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade Crests 200-5 July 1, 1995
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade Sags 200-5 July 1, 1995
e 201.6
201.7
Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Decision Sight Distance
200-5
200-5
July 1, 1995
July 1, 1995
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
--
202 Superelevation
202.1 Basic Criteria July 1, 1995
202.2 Standards for Superelevation July 1, 1995
202.3 Restrictive Conditions July 1, 1995
202.4 Axis of Rotation July 1, 1995
202.5 Superelevation Transition July 1, 1995
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves July 1, 1995
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and County Roads July 1, 1995
203 Horizontal Alignment

203.1 General Controls July 1, 1995
203.2 Standards for Curvature July 1, 1995
203.3 Alignment Consistency July 1, 1995
203.4 Curve Length and Central Angle July 1, 1995
203.5 Compound Curves July 1, 1995
203.6 Reversing Curves July 1, 1995
203.7 Broken Back Curves July 1, 1995
203.8 Spiral Transition July 1, 1995
203.9 Alignment at Bridges July 1, 1995
204 Grade
204.1 General Controls July 1, 1995
204.2 Position with Respect to Cross Section July 1, 1995
204.3 Standards for Grade July 1, 1995
204.4 Vertical Curves July 1, 1995
204.5 Sustained Grades July 1, 1995
204.6 Grade Line of Structures July 1, 1995
204.7 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment July 1, 1995

Table of Contents
Number Number Date
204.8 Separate Grade Lines July 1, 1995

205 Road Connections and Driveways
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways July 1, 1995
205.2 Private Road Connections July 1, 1995
205.3 Urban Driveways July 1, 1995
205.4 Driveways on Frontage Roads and in Rural Areas July 1, 1995
205.5 Financial Responsibility July 1, 1995
206 Pavement Transitions
206.1 General Transition Standards July 1, 1995
206.2 Pavement Widenings July 1, 1995
206.3 Pavement Reductions July 1, 1995
a 207
206.4 Temporary Freeway Transitions
Airway-Highway Clearances
July 1, 1995
207.1 Introduction July 1, 1995

207.2 Clearances July 1, 1995
207.3 Submittal of Airway-Highway Clearance Data July 1, 1995
208 Bridges and Grade Separation Structures
208.1 Bridge Width July 1, 1995
208.2 Cross Slope July 1, 1995
208.3 Median July 1, 1995
208.4 Bridge Sidewalks July 1, 1995
208.5 Open End Structures July 1, 1995
208.6 Pedestrian Overcrossings and Undercrossings July 1, 1995
208.7 Equestrian Undercrossings July 1, 1995
208.8 Cattle Passes, Equipment, and Deer Crossings July 1, 1995
208.9 Railroad Underpasses and Overheads July 1, 1995
vii
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Topic Index Subjed Page Page 0
Number Number Date
-- --
208.1 0 Bridge Railings
209 Curbs and Gutters

209.1 General Policy 200-48 July 1, 1995
209.2 Types and Uses 200-48 July 1, 1995
209.3 Position of Curbs 200-48 July 1, 1995
209.4 Curbs on Frontage Roads and Streets 200-49 July 1, 1995
209.5 Curbs for Bridges and Grade Separation Structures 200-49 July 1, 1995
209.6 Gutter Cross Slopes 200-49 July 1, 1995
210 Earth Retaining Systems

2 10.1 Types and Uses 200-49 July 1, 1995
2 10.2 Alternative Earth Retaining Systems (AERS) 200-54 July 1, 1995
2 10.3 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposals (CRIP) 200-55 July 1, 1995
2 10.4 Aesthetic Consideration 200-55 July 1, 1995
210.5 Safety Railing, Fences, and Concrete Barriers 200-55 July 1, 1995
2 10.6 Design Responsibility 200-55 July 1, 1995
2 10.7 Guidelines for Plan Preparation 200-56 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION
301 Traveled Way Standards
301.1 Traveled Way Width 300- 1 July 1, 1995
30 1.2 Cross Slopes 300-1 July 1, 1995
302 Shoulder Standards

302.1 Width 300- 1 July 1, 1995
302.2 Cross Slopes 300- 1 July 1, 1995

July 1,1995
e Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
303 Dikes and Side Gutters

303.1 Asphalt Concrete Dikes
303.2 Side Gutters
304 Side Slopes
304.1 Side Slope Standards 300-3 July 1, 1995
304.2 Clearance From Slope to Right of Way Line 300-3 July1,1995
304.3 Slope Benches and Cut Widening 300-3 July 1, 1995
304.4 Contour Grading and Slope Rounding 300-4 July 1, 1995
304.5 Stepped Slopes 300-4 July 1, 1995
305 Median Standards
305.1 Width 300-4 July 1, 1995
a 305.2 Median Cross Slopes 300-6 July1,1995

305.3 Median Barriers 300-6 July 1, 1995
305.4 Median Curbs 300-6 July1,1995
305.5 Paved Medians 300-6 July 1, 1995
305.6 Separate Roadways 300-6 July1,1995
306 Right of Way
306.1 General Standards
306.2 Right of Way Through the Public Domain
307 Cross Sections for State Highways
307.1 Warrants 300-8 July 1, 1995
307.2 Two-lane Cross Sections for New Construction 300-8 July 1, 1995
307.3 Two-lane Cross Sections for RRR Projects 300-8 July 1, 1995
307.4 Multilane Divided Cross Sections 300-11 July1,1995
e 307.5 Multilane All Paved Cross Sections with Special

Median Widths
300- 11 July 1, 1995
July 1.1995
Topic Index
Number
Table of Contents
Subject Page
Number
Page
Date
e
307.6 Multilane Cross Sections for RRR Projects July 1, 1995
308 Cross Sections for Roads Under Other Jurisdictions
308.1 City Streets and County Roads July 1, 1995
309 Clearances Clearances
309.1 Horizontal Clearances July 1, 1995
309.2 Vertical Clearances July 1, 1995
309.3 Tunnel Clearances July 1, 1995
309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated Structures July 1, 1995
309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to Railroads July 1, 1995
310 Frontage Roads
3 10.1 Cross Section July 1, 1995
3 10.2 Outer Separation July 1, 1995
3 10.3 Headlight Glare July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 400 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE
401 Factors Affecting Design
401.1 General 400- 1 July 1, 1995
40 1.2 The Driver 400- 1 July 1, 1995
40 1.3 The Vehicle 400- 1 July 1, 1995
401.4 The Environment 400- 1 July 1, 1995
40 1.5 The Pedestrian 400- 1 July 1, 1995
401.6 The Bicyclist 400- 1 July 1, 1995
402 Operational Features Affecting Design
402.1 Capacity 400- 1 July 1, 1995
402.2 Accidents 400-2 July 1, 1995
July 1, 1995
Table of Contents
0 Topic Index Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
403 Principles of Channelization

403.1 Preference to Major Movements July 1, 1995
403.2 Areas of Conflict July 1, 1995
403.3 Angle of Intersection July 1, 1995
403.4 Points of Conflict July 1, 1995
403.5 Speed-change Areas July 1, 1995
403.6 Turning Traffic July 1, 1995
403.7 Refuge Areas July 1, 1995
403.8 Prohibited Turns July 1, 1995
403.9 Effective Signal Control July 1, 1995
403.10 Installation of Traffic Control Devices July 1, 1995
403.1 1 Summary July 1, 1995
403.12 Precautions July 1, 1995
404 Design Vehicles

404.1 Offtracking 400-4 July 1, 1995
404.2 Design Vehicles 400-4 July 1, 1995
404.3 Turning Templates 400-4 July 1, 1995
405 Intersection Design Standards

405.1 Sight Distance July 1, 1995
405.2 Left-turn Channelization July 1, 1995
405.3 Right-turn Channelization July 1, 1995
405.4 Traffic Islands July 1, 1995
405.5 Median Openings July 1, 1995
405.6 Access Control July 1, 1995
405.7 Public Road Intersections July 1, 1995
405.8 City Street Returns and Comer Radii July 1, 1995

July 1,1995
Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
e
Number Number Date
405.9 Widening of 2-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections 400- 18 July 1, 1995
406 Ramp Intersection Capacity Analysis 400-21 July 1, 1995
407 Truck and Bus Turning Templates 400-25 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES
501 General
50 1.1 Concepts 500- 1 July 1, 1995
501.2 Warrants 500- 1 July 1, 1995
501.3 Spacing 500- 1 July 1, 1995
502 Interchange Types Interchange Types

502.1 General 500- 1 July 1, 1995
502.2 Local Street Interchanges 500- 1 July 1, 1995
502.3 Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges 500-7 July 1, 1995
503 Interchange Design Procedure

503.1 Basic Data 500- 10 July 1, 1995
503.2 Approval 500- 10 July 1, 1995
504 Interchange Design Standards

504.1 General 500- 10 July 1, 1995
504.2 Freeway Entrances and Exits 500- 10 July 1, 1995
504.3 Ramps 500- 13 July 1, 1995
504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connections 500-20 July 1, 1995
504.5 Auxiliary Lanes 500-22 July 1, 1995
504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at Interchanges 500-22 July 1, 1995
504.7 Weaving Sections 500-23 July 1, 1995
504.8 Access Control 500-24 July 1, 1995

July 1.1995
e Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
-
CHAPTER 600 DESIGN OF THE PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL SECTION
601 General Considerations in Design of the Pavement Structural Section
601.1 Introduction 600- 1 July 1, 1995
601.2 Structural Section Design Objectives 600-2 July 1, 1995
60 1.3 Basic Structural Elements of the Roadway 600-2 July 1, 1995
602 Structural Section Design Procedures Structural Section Design Procedures

602.1 Information to be Submitted to the Office of Project 600-2 July 1, 1995
Planning and Design
603 Traffic Data for Structural Section Design Trac Data for Structural Section Design
603.1 Introduction 600-5 July 1, 1995
603.2 Design Period 600-6 July 1, 1995
a 603.3
603.4
Truck Traffic Projection
Traffic Index
600-6
600-8
July 1, 1995
July 1, 1995
604 Basement Soils
604.2 Determination of Design R-Value 600- 10 July 1, 1995
604.3 Borrow 600-11 July1,1995
604.4 Compaction 600-11 July1,1995
605 Subbases and Bases
605.2 Aggregate Subbase (AS) 600-1 2 July 1, 1995
605.3 Aggregate Bases (AB) 600- 13 July 1, 1995
605.4 Stabilized Bases and Subbases 600- 13 July 1, 1995
605.5 Cement Treated Bases (CTB)
605.6 Lean Concrete Base (LCB)
605.7 Asphalt Concrete Base (ACB)
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
605.8 Treated Permeable Bases (TPB) 600- 14 July 1, 1995
605.9 Lime Treated Subbase (LTS) 600- 14 July 1, 1995
606 Drainage of the Pavement Structural Section

606.2 Flexible Pavement Structural Section Drainage 600- 14 July 1, 1995
606.3 Rigid Pavement Structural Section Drainage 600- 19 July 1, 1995
607 Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Structural Section Design
607.2 Design Procedure for Rigid Pavement 600-22 July 1, 1995
607.3 Structural Section Geometry 600-26 July 1, 1995
607.4 Portland Cement Concrete Shoulders and Ramps 600-26 July 1, 1995
607.5 Asphalt Concrete Shoulders 600-28 July 1, 1995
607.6 Pavement Joints 600-28 July 1, 1995
607.7 Concrete Pavement Texturing 600-29 July 1, 1995
608 Asphalt Concrete Pavement Structural Section Design

608.2 Asphalt Concrete Pavement Materials Types 600-29 July 1, 1995
608.3 Asphalt Surface Treatments 600-3 1 July 1, 1995

608.4 Design Procedure for Flexible Pavement 600-32 July 1, 1995
608.5 Shoulder Structural Section Design 600-41 July 1, 1995
608.6 Ramp Structural Section Design 600-4 1 July 1, 1995
608.7 Structural Section Design for Appurtenant Facilities 600-4 1 July 1, 1995
609 Selection of Pavement Type for New Construction

609.2 Pavement Type Determination 600-44 July 1, 1995
609.3 Economic Analysis 600-44 July 1, 1995
xiv
July 1, 1995
a Topic Index
Number
Table of Contents
Subject Page
Number
Page
Date
610 Structure Approach Pavement and Structure Abutment Embankment Design

6 10.1 Introduction 600-46 July 1, 1995
6 10.2 Functional Area Responsibilities 600-48 July 1, 1995
6 10.3 Structure Approach Pavement Systems 600-52 July 1, 1995
610.4 Structure Approach Pavement System -New 600-53 July 1, 1995
Construction
610.5 Structure Approach Slab-Rehabilitation Projects 600-55 July 1, 1995
61 1 Pavement Structural Section Rehabilitation

Pavement Management System July 1, 1995
Pavement Rehabilitation Project Development July 1, 1995
Procedures
General Pavement Structural Section Failure Types July 1, 1995
PCCP Failure Types July 1, 1995
ACP Failure Types July 1, 1995
General Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies July 1, 1995
PCCP Rehabilitation Strategies July 1, 1995
ACP Rehabilitation Strategies July 1, 1995
6 11.10 Traffic Handling and Safety 600-70 July 1, 1995
6 11.ll Conservation of Materials and Energy 600-70 July 1, 1995
612 Pavement Structural Section Definitions 600-72 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS
701 Fences
70 1.1 Policy and Purpose of Fences 700- 1 July 1, 1995
701.2 Fences on Freeways and Expressways 700- 1 July 1, 1995
a 701.3 Fences on Other Highways 700-3 July 1, 1995

July 1.1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
702 Miscellaneous Traffic Items

703 Special Structures and Installation
703.1 Truck Weighing Facilities 700-3 July 1, 1995
703.2 Rockfall Restraining Nets 700-4 July 1, 1995
704 Contrast Treatment
704.1 Policy 700-4 July 1, 1995
705 Materials and Color Selection
705.1 Special Treatments and Materials 700-4 July 1, 1995
705.2 Colors for Steel Structures 700-4 July 1, 1995
706 Roadside Treatment

706.1 Vegetation Control 700-5 July 1, 1995
706.2 Topsoil 700-5 July 1, 1995
706.3 Irrigation Crossovers for Highway Construction 700-5 July 1, 1995
Projects
706.4 Water Supply Line (Bridge) and Sprinkler Control 700-5 July 1, 1995
Conduit for Bridge
706.5 Water Supply for Future Roadside Rest Areas, Vista 700-6 July 1, 1995
Points, or Planting
707 Slope Treatment Under Structures
707.1 Policy 700-6 July 1, 1995
707.2 Guidelines for Slope Treatment 700-6 July 1, 1995
707.3 Procedure 700-7 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 800 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
801 General
80 1.2 Drainage Design Philosophy 800-1 July 1, 1995
xvi
July 1. 1995
a Topic Index
Number
Table of Contents
Subject Page
Number
Page
Date
801.3 Drainage Standards 800-1 July 1, 1995

801.4 Objectives of Drainage Design 800-2 July 1, 1995
801.5 Economics of Design 800-2 July 1, 1995
801.6 Use of Drainage References 800-2 July 1, 1995
802 Drainage Design Responsibilities

802.1 Functional Organization 800-3 July 1, 1995
802.2 Culvert Committee 800-5 July 1, 1995
802.3 Joint Bank Protection Committee 800-5 July 1, 1995
803 Drainage Design Policies

803.1 Basic Policy 800-5 July 1, 1995
803.2 Cooperative Agreements 800-6 July 1, 1995
• 804
803.3 Up-Grading Existing Drainage Facilities
Floodplain Encroachments
800-6 July 1, 1995
804.1 Purpose July 1, 1995
804.2 Authority July 1, 1995

804.3 Applicability July 1, 1995
804.4 Definitions July 1, 1995
804.5 Procedures July 1, 1995
804.6 Responsibilities July 1, 1995
804.7 Preliminary Evaluation of Risks and Impacts July 1, 1995

804.8 Design Standards July 1, 1995
805 Preliminary Plans Preliminary Plans
805.1 Required FHWA Approval 800-8 July 1, 1995
805.2 Bridge Preliminary Report 800-8 July 1, 1995
805.3 Pumping Station 800-10 July 1, 1995
805.4 Storm Drain Systems 800-10 July1,1995
xvii
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Topic Index Subject Page Page C
Number Number Date
805.5 Unusual Hydraulic Structures 800-10 July 1, 1995

805.6 Levees and Dams Formed by Highway Fills 800-10 July 1, 1995
805.7 Geotechnical 800-10 July 1, 1995
805.8 Data Provided by the District 800-10 July 1, 1995
806 Definitions of Drainage Terms
806.1 Introduction
806.2 Drainage Terms
807 Selected Drainage References
807.2 Federal Highway Administration Hydraulic 800-24 July 1, 1995
Publications
807.3 American Association of State Highway and 800-26 July 1, 1995
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
807.4 California Department of Transportation 800-27 July 1, 1995
807.5 U.S. Department of Interior - Geological Survey 800-27 July 1, 1995
(USGS)
807.6 U.S. Department of Agriculture - Soil Service (SCS) 800-27 July 1, 1995
807.7 California Department of Water Resources and 800-27 July 1, 1995
Caltrans
807.8 University of California - Institute of Transportation 800-27 July 1, 1995
and Traffic Engineering (I'TTE)
807.9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 800-27 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 810 HYDROLOGY
811 General
81 1.2 Objectives of Hydrologic-Analysis 810-1 July1,1995
81 1.3 Peak Discharge 810-1 July 1, 1995
81 1.4 Flood Severity 810-2 July 1, 1995
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
8 Topic Index Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
8 11.5 Factors Affecting Runoff July 1, 1995
812 Basin Characteristics

812.1 Size July 1, 1995
812.2 Shape July 1, 1995
812.3 Slope July 1, 1995
812.4 LandUse July 1, 1995
8 12.5 Soil and Geology July 1, 1995
812.6 Storage July 1, 1995
8 12.7 Elevation July 1, 1995
8 12.8 Orientation July 1, 1995
813 Channel and Floodplain Characteristics

8 13.1 General July 1, 1995
8 13.2 Length and Slope July 1, 1995
8 13.3 Cross Section July 1, 1995
8 13.4 Hydraulic Roughness July 1, 1995
8 13.5 Natural and Man-made Constrictions July 1, 1995
8 13.6 Channel Modifications July 1, 1995
8 13.7 Aggradation - Degradation July 1, 1995

813.8 Debris July 1, 1995
814 Meteorological Characteristics

814.1 General July 1, 1995
8 14.2 Rainfall July 1, 1995
8 14.3 Snow Snow July 1, 1995

8 14.4 Evapo-transpiration July 1, 1995
8 14.5 Tides and Waves July 1, 1995
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
815 Hydrologic Data

8 15.1 General 810-6 July 1, 1995
8 15.2 Categories 810-6 July 1, 1995
8 15.3 Sources 810-6 July1,1995
815.4 StreamFlow 810-8 July 1, 1995
8 15.5 Rainfall 810-8 July1,1995
8 15.6 Adequacy of Data 810-8 July1,1995
816 Runoff
8 16.1 General 810-8 July1,1995
8 16.2 Overland Flow 810-9 July1,1995
8 16.3 Subsurface Flow 810-9 July 1, 1995
8 16.4 Detention and Retention 810-9

810-9
July 1, 1995
July 1, 1995
e
816.5 Flood Hydrograph and Flood Volume
8 16.6 Time of Concentration 810-9 July1,1995

817 Flood Magnitude
8 17.1 General 810-12 July1,1995
8 17.2 Measurements 810-13 July1,1995
818 Flood Probability and Frequency

8 18.1 General 810-13 July1,1995
8 18.2 Establishing Design Flood Frequency 810-14 July 1, 1995
8 19 Estimating Design Discharge

8 19.1 Introduction 810-14 July1,1995
8 19.2 Empirical Methods 810-14 July1,1995
8 19.3 Statistical Methods 810-19 July 1, 1995

8 19.4
8 19.5
Hydrograph Methods
Transfer of Data
810-20
810-20
July 1, 1995
July1,1995
e
XX
July 1, 1995
e Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
8 19.6 Hydrologic Computer Programs 810-21 July1,1995
-
CHAPTER 820 CROSS DRAINAGE
821 General
82 1.2 Hydrologic Considerations 820- 1 July 1, 1995
821.3 Selection of Design Flood 820-1 July 1, 1995
82 1.4 Headwater and Tailwater 820-2 July 1, 1995
821.5 Effects of Tide and Wind 820-3 July1,1995
822 Debris Control

822.1 Introduction 820-3 July1,1995
822.2 Debris Control Methods 820-3 July 1, 1995
822.3 Economics 820-3 July 1, 1995
822.4 Classification of Debris 820-3 July 1, 1995
822.5 Types of Debris Control Structures 820-3 July 1, 1995
823 Culvert Location

823.2 Alignment and Slope 820-3 July1,1995
824 Culvert Type Selection

824.2 Shape and Cross Section 820-4 July 1, 1995
825 Hydraulic Design of Culverts
825.2 Culvert Flow 820-4 July 1, 1995
I
825.3 Computer Programs 820-5 July 1, 1995
I 825.4 Coefficient of Roughness 820-5 July1,1995

July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
826 Entrance Design

826.2 End Treatment Policy 820-6 July 1, 1995
826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs 820-6 July 1, 1995
826.4 Improved Inlet Designs 820-7 July 1, 1995
827 Outlet Design
827.1 General 820-7 July 1, 1995
827.2 Embankment Protection 820-7 July 1, 1995
828 Diameter and Length
828.2 Minimum Diameter 820-8 July 1, 1995
828.3 Length 820-8 July 1, 1995
829 Special Considerations
829.1 Introduction July 1, 1995
829.2 Bedding and Backfill July 1, 1995
829.3 Piping July 1, 1995
829.4 Joints July 1, 1995
829.5 Anchorage July 1, 1995
829.6 Irregular Treatment July 1, 1995
829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts July 1, 1995
829.8 Jacking and Tunneling July 1, 1995
829.9 Dams July 1, 1995
829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box Modifications July 1, 1995
July 1, 1995
e Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
-
CHAPTER 830 ROADWAY DRAINAGE
831 General
83 1.1 Basic Concepts 830- 1 July 1, 1995
83 1.2 Highway Grade Line 830-1 July 1, 1995
83 1.3 Design Storm and Water Spread 830-1 July 1, 1995
83 1.4 Other Considerations 830-2 July1,1995
83 1.5 Computer Programs 830-4 July 1, 1995
832 Hydrology
832.2 Rational Method 830-4 July 1, 1995
832.3 Time of Concentration 830-4 July 1, 1995
833 Roadway Cross Sectioss
833.2 Freeways 830-5 July 1, 1995
833.3 Conventional Highways 830-5 July1,1995
834 Roadside Drainage
834.1 General 830-5 July1,1995
834.2 Median Drainage 830-5 July 1, 1995
834.3 Ditches and Gutters 830-5 July 1, 1995
834.4 Overside Drains 830-6 July 1, 1995
835 Dikes and Berms
835.1 General 830-7 July 1, 1995
835.2 Earth Berms 830-7 July 1, 1995
835.3 Asphalt Concrete Dikes 830-7 July 1, 1995
July 1,1995
Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
a
Number Number Date
836 Curbs and Gutters

836.1 General 830-8 July 1, 1995
836.2 Gutter Design 830-8 July1,1995
837 Inlet Design
837.1 General 830-9 July 1, 1995
837.2 Inlet Types 830-9 July1,1995
837.3 Location and Spacing 830-1 1 July 1, 1995
837.4 Hydraulic Design 830-12 July1,1995
837.5 Local Depressions 830-14 July1,1995
838 Storm Drains

838.1 General 830-15 July1,1995
838.2 Design Criteria 830-15 July1,1995
838.3 Hydraulic Design 830-15 July1,1995
838.4 Standards 830-15 July 1, 1995
838.5 Appurtenant Structures 830-16 July1,1995
839 Pumping Stations

839.1 General 830-17 July1,1995
839.2 Pump Type 830-17 July 1, 1995
839.3 Design Responsibilities 830-17 July1,1995
839.4 Surface Inlets 830- 18 July 1, 1995
839.5 Maintenance Consideration 830-18 July1,1995
-
CHAPTER 840 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
841 General
84 1.2 Subsurface (Groundwater) Discharge 840-1 July 1, 1995
xxiv
July 1,1995
a Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
84 1.3 Preliminary Investigations 840-1 July 1, 1995

84 1.4 Exploration Notes 840-1 July 1, 1995
84 1.5 Category of System 840-2 July 1, 1995
842 Pipe Underdrains
842.1 General 840-3 July 1, 1995
842.2 Single Installations 840-3 July 1, 1995

842.3 Multiple Installations 840-3 July 1, 1995
842.4 Design Criteria 840-3 July 1, 1995
842.5 Types of Underdrain Pipe 840-4 July 1, 1995
842.6 Design Service Life 840-4 July 1, 1995

842.7 Pipe Selection 840-5 July 1, 1995
@ -
CHAPTER 850 PHYSICAL STANDARDS
851 General
85 1.1 Introduction 850- 1 July 1, 1995
85 1.2 Selection of Material and Type 850- 1 July 1, 1995
852 Design Service Life
852.1 Basic Concepts 850- 1 July 1, 1995
853 Alternate Materials
853.1 Basic Policy 850-3 July 1, 1995
853.2 Alternative Selection 850-6 July 1, 1995
853.3 Alternative Pipe Culvert List 850-7 July 1, 1995
854 Kinds of Pipe Culverts
854.1 Reinforced Concrete Pipe 850-7 July 1, 1995
854.2 Cast-in-Place Non-reinforced Concrete Pipe 850-1 1 July 1, 1995
e 854.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe and Pipe Arches 850- 12 July 1, 1995
xxv
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
854.4 Corrugated Aluminum Pipe and Pipe Arches 850-16 July1,1995

854.5 Special Purpose Types 850-17 July 1, 1995
854.6 Structural Metal Plate 850-17 July 1, 1995

854.7 Concrete Box and Arch Culverts 850-33 July1,1995
854.8 Plasticpipe 850-33 July 1, 1995
854.9 Minimum Height of Cover 850-33 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 860 OPEN CHANNELS
861 General
861.2 Hydraulic Considerations 860-1 July 1, 1995
861.3 Selection of "Design Flood" 860-1 July 1, 1995
861.4 Safety Considerations 860-2 July 1, 1995
861.5 Maintenance Consideration 860-2 July 1, 1995
861.6 Economics 860-2 July 1, 1995

861.7 Coordination with Other Agencies 860-2 July 1, 1995
861.8 Environment 860-2 July 1, 1995
861 Channel Location

862.1 General 860-3 July 1, 1995
862.2 Alignment and Grade 860-3 July 1, 1995
863 Channel Section
863.1 Natural Channels 860-3 July 1, 1995
863.2 Triangular V-Ditch 860-5 July 1, 1995

863.3 Trapezoidal 860-5 July 1, 1995
863.4 Rectangular 860-5 July 1, 1995
xxvi
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
864 Hydraulic Design of Channels

864.1 General 860-5 July 1, 1995
864.2 Flow Classifications 860-5 July 1, 1995
864.3 Open Channel Flow Equations 860-6 July 1, 1995
864.4 Water Surface Profiles 860-9 July 1, 1995
864.5 Stage-Discharge Relationships 860-10 July 1, 1995
865 Channel Changes

865.1 General 860- 10 July 1, 1995
865.2 Design Considerations 860-10 July 1, 1995
866 Freeboard Considerations

866.1 General 860-10 July 1, 1995
e 866.2 Height of Freeboard 860-11 July1,1995
-
CHAPTER 870 CHANNEL AND SHORE PROTECTION EROSION CONTROL -
871 General
87 1.2 Design Philosophy 870-1 July 1, 1995
87 1.3 Selected References 870-2 July 1, 1995
872 Planning and Location Studies

872.1 Planning 870-3 July 1, 1995
872.2 Class and Type of Protection 870-4 July 1, 1995
872.3 Site Consideration 870-4 July 1, 1995
872.4 Data Needs 870-10 July 1, 1995
873 Design Concepts

a 873.2 Design High Water and Hydraulics 870- 11 July 1, 1995

July 1,1995
Topic Index
Number
Table of Contents
Subject Page
Number
Page
Date
e
873.3 Armor Protection 870- 17 July 1, 1995
873.4 Training Systems 870-36 July 1, 1995
873.5 Design Check List 870-44 July 1, 1995
874 Definitions 870-45 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 880 UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL
881 General
88 1.1 Introduction 880-1 July1,1995
88 1.2 Recharge Consideration 880-1 July1,1995
88 1.3 Maintenance Considerations 880-1 July 1, 1995
88 1.4 Economics 880-1 July1,1995
88 1.5 References
882 Infiltration Systems
882.1 Basins 880-1 July1,1995
882.2 Trenches 880-1 July1,1995

882.3 Wells 880-2 July 1, 1995
883 Environmental Considerations 880-2 July 1, 1995
884 Legal Considerations
884.1 General
-
CHAPTER 890 STORM WATER MANAGEMENT
891 General
89 1.2 Philosophy 890-1 July 1, 1995
89 1.3 Strategies 890-1 July 1, 1995
891.4 Type of System
'
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
-
CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
90 1 General
901.1 Office of Landscape Architecture 900-1 July 1, 1995
90 1.2 Cross References 900- 1 July 1, 1995
902 Highway Planting Standards and Guidelines

902.1 General 900- 1 July 1, 1995
902.2 Sight Distance and Clear Recovery Zone Standards 900-3 July 1, 1995
902.3 Planting Guidelines 900-4 July 1, 1995
902.4 Irrigation Guidelines 900-5 July 1, 1995
903 Safety Roadside Rest Area Standards and Guidelines

903.1 Minimum Standards 900-6 July 1, 1995
0 903.2 General Notes 900-6 July 1, 1995
903.3 Function 900-7 July 1, 1995
903.4 SiteFeasibility 900-7 July 1, 1995
903.5 Facilities and Features 900-7 July 1, 1995
904 Vista Point Standards and Guidelines

904.1 General 900- 12 July 1, 1995
904.2 Site Selection 900-12 July 1, 1995
904.3 Design Features and Facilities 900-13 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 1000 BIKEWAY PLANNING AND DESIGN
1001 General Information
1001.1 Definitions 1000- 1 July 1, 1995
1001.2 Streets and Highways Code References 1000- 1 July 1, 1995
1001.3 Vehicle Code References 1000- 1 July 1, 1995
xxix
July 1,1995
Table of Contents
Number Number Date
1002 General Planning Criteria

1002.2 The Role of Bikeways 1000-2 July 1, 1995
1002.3 The Decision to Develop Bikeways 1000-2 July 1, 1995
1002.4 Selection of the Type of Facility 1000-2 July 1, 1995
1003 Design Criteria
1003.1 Class I Bikeways 1000-4 July 1, 1995
1003.2 Class I1 Bikeways 1000-15 July 1, 1995
1003.3 Class 111Bikeways 1000-21 July 1, 1995
1003.4 Bicycles on Freeways 1000-22 July 1, 1995
1003.5 Multipurpose Trails 1000-23 July 1, 1995
1003.6 Miscellaneous Bikeway Criteria 1000-23 July 1, 1995
1004 Uniform Signs, Markings and Traffic Control Devices
1004.2 Bike Path (Class I) 1000-27 July 1, 1995
1004.3 Bike Lanes (Class 11) 1000-27 July 1, 1995
1004.4 Bike Routes (Class 111) 1000-28 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 1100 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE ABATEMENT
1101 General Requirements
1101.1 Introduction 1100-1 July1,1995
1101.2 Objective 1100-1 July1,1995
1101.3 Terminology 1100-1 July1,1995
1101.4 Procedures for Assessing Noise Impacts 1100-2 July 1, 1995
1101.5 Prioritizing Construction of Retrofit Noise Barriers 1100-2 July 1, 1995
XXX
July 1, 1995
e Topic Index
Table of Contents
Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
1102 Design Criteria

1102.1 General 1100-2 July 1, 1995
1102.2 Noise Barrier Location 1100-2 July 1, 1995
1102.3 Noise Barrier Heights 1100-2 July 1, 1995
1102.4 Noise Barrier Length 1100-3 July1,1995
1102.5 Alternative Noise Barrier Designs 1100-3 July 1, 1995
1102.6 Noise Barrier Aesthetics 1100-5 July 1, 1995
1102.7 Maintenance Consideration in Noise Barrier 1100-5 July 1, 1995

Design
1102.8 Emergency Access Considerations in Noise 1100-6 July 1, 1995
Barrier Design
1102.9 Drainage Openings in Noise Barrier 1100-6 July 1, 1995
xxxi
July 1,1995
List of Figures
Figure Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
-
CHAPTER 20 DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES
21.1 Interstate Highway System in California 20-2 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 60 NOMENCLATURE
62.2 Types of Structures 60-3 July 1, 1995
-
Passing Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves July 1, 1995
Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves July 1, 1995
Stopping Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves July 1, 1995
Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves July 1, 1995
Superelevation Transition July 1, 1995
Superelevation of Compound Curves July 1, 1995
Comfortable Speed on Horizontal Curves July 1, 1995
Vertical Curves July 1, 1995
Critical Lengths of Grade for Design July 1, 1995
Access Openings on Expressways July 1, 1995
Typical Two-lane to Four-lane Transitions July 1, 1995
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Civil Airports) July 1, 1995
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Heliport) July 1, 1995
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements July 1, 1995
(Military Airports)
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements July 1, 1995
(Navy Carrier Landing Practice Field)
Offsets to Safety-shape Barriers July 1, 1995
Vehicular Railings for Bridge Structures July 1, 1995
Combination Railings for Bridge Structures July 1, 1995
Pedestrian Railings for Bridge Structures July 1, 1995
-
305.6 Optional Median Design for Freeways with 300-7 July 1, 1995
Separate Roadways
307.2 Geometric Cross Sections for Two-lane Highways 300-9 July 1, 1995
(New Construction)
307.4 Geometric Cross Sections for Freeways and Expressways 300- 12 July 1, 1995
xxxii
July 1, 1995
List of Figures
Number Number Date
Geometric Cross Sections for All Paved Multilane 300-13 July 1, 1995
Highways
42 000 km Department of Defense Priority Network 300- 17 July 1, 1995
-
Angle of Intersection July 1, 1995
Design Vehicles July 1, 1995
Standard Left-turn Channelization July 1, 1995
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization July 1, 1995
(Widening on One Side of Highway)
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization (Widening July 1, 1995
on Both Sides in Urban Areas with Short Blocks
Traffic Island Designs July 1, 1995
Typical Design for Median Openings July 1, 1995
Public Road Intersections July 1, 1995
Widening of Two-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections July 1, 1995
Spread Diamond July 1, 1995
Tight Diamond July 1, 1995
Two-quadrant Cloverleaf July 1, 1995
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks--15 m Radius July 1, 1995
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks-- 18 m Radius July 1, 1995
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks--15 m Radius July 1, 1995
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks-- 18 m Radius July 1, 1995
Bus Wheel Tracks--12.8 m Radius July 1, 1995
-
Typical Local Street Interchanges 500-2 July 1, 1995
Typical Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges 500-4 July 1, 1995
Single Lane Freeway Entrances and Exits 500- 11 July 1, 1995
Location of Freeway Ramps on a Curve 500- 12 July 1, 1995
Location of Ramp Intersections on the Crossroads 500- 15 July 1, 1995
Transition from a Single-lane Exit Ramp to Two-lanes 500- 17 July 1, 1995
Two-Lane Entrance and Exit Ramps 500- 18 July 1, 1995
Diverging Branch Connections 500-2 1 July 1, 1995
Design Curve for Freeway and Collector
Weaving Sections 500-25 July 1, 1995
July 1.1995
List of Figures a
Number Number Date
504.7B Lane Configuration of Weaving Sections 500-26 July 1, 1995
504.7D Level of Service D Procedure 500-28 July 1, 1995
504.7E Level of Service D Procedure 500-29 July 1, 1995
504.8 Typical Examples of Access Control at Interchanges 500-30 July 1, 1995
-
Basic Structural Elements of the Roadway July 1, 1995
Typical AC Section with TPB Drainage Layer July 1, 1995
Cross Drain Interceptor Trenches July 1, 1995
Cross Drain Interceptor Details-For Use with
Treated Permeable Base (TPB) July 1, 1995
Concrete Pavement Details (Concrete Shoulders) July 1, 1995
Concrete Pavement Details (Asphalt Concrete Shoulders) July 1, 1995
Concrete Pavement Details-Tapered Cross Section
For 3 or More Lanes One Direction July 1, 1995
Flexible Pavement Structural Section Design July 1, 1995
Limits of Structure Approach Embankment Material July 1, 1995
Type 45 Structure Approach Layout July 1, 1995
Approach Slab Edge Details July 1, 1995
Abutment Drainage Details July 1, 1995
Structure Approach Drainage Details (Rehabilitation) July 1, 1995
Structure Approach Pavement Transition July 1, 1995
Details (Rehabilitation)
-
CHAPTER 800 GENERAL ASPECTS OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
804.7 Floodplain Evaluation Report Summary 800-9 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 810 HYDROLOGY
816.5 Typical Flood Hydrograph 810-9 July 1, 1995
816.6A Overland Time of Concentration Curves 810-10 July 1, 1995
816.6B Velocities for Upland Method of Estimating Time 810-1 1 July 1, 1995
of Concentration
819.2A Runoff Coefficients for Undeveloped Areas 810-16 July 1, 1995
819.2C Regional Flood Frequency Equations 810-18 July 1, 1995
July 1, 1995
List of Figures
Number Number Date
-
Storm Drain Inlet Types 830- 10 July 1, 1995
-
Minimum Thickness of Metal Pipe for 50 Year 850- 15 July 1, 1995
Maintenance Free Service Life
-
CHAPTER 860 OPEN CHANNELS
Nomograph for Solution of Manning's Equation 860-8 July 1, 1995
Specific Energy Diagram 860-8 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 870 CHANNEL AND SHORE PROTECTION
EROSION CONTROL
-
Alternative Highway Locations Across Debris Cone July 1, 1995
Nomenclature of Tidal Ranges July 1, 1995
Significant Wave Height Prediction Nomogragh July 1, 1995
Design Breaker Wave July 1, 1995
Wave Run-up on Smooth Impermeable Slope July 1, 1995
Nomogragh of Stream-Bank Rock Slope Protection July 1, 1995
Rock Slope Protection July 1, 1995
Nomographs for Design of Rock Slope Shore Protection July 1, 1995
PCC Grouted Rock Slope Protection July 1, 1995
Grout Filled Fabric Mattresses July 1, 1995
Soil Cement Slope Protection July 1, 1995
Bridge Abutment Guide Banks July 1, 1995
Typical Groin Layout with Resultant July 1, 1995
Beach Configuration
Alignment of Groins to an Oblique Sea Warrants July 1, 1995
Shortening Proportional to Cosine of Obliquity
Typical Stone Dike Groin Details July 1, 1995
July 1,1995
List of Figures
-
Number Number Date
-
Two-way Bike Path on Separate Right of Way 1000-5 July 1, 1995
Typical Cross Section of Bike Path Along Highway 1000- 5 July 1, 1995
Curve Radii and Superelevations 1000-9 July 1, 1995
Stopping Sight Distance 1000-10 July 1, 1995
Stopping Sight Distances for Crest Vertical Curves 1000-1 1 July 1, 1995
Lateral Clearances on Horizontal Curves 1000- 13 July 1, 1995
Barrier Post Striping 1000- 15 July 1, 1995
Typical Bike Lane Cross Sections (On 2-lane or 1000- 18 July 1, 1995
Multilane Highways)
Typical Bicycle/Auto Movementsa t Intersections of 1000-19 July 1, 1995
Multilane Streets
Bike Lanes Approaching Motorist Right-turn-only Lanes 1000-20 July 1, 1995
Railroad Crossings 1000-25 July 1, 1995
Obstruction Markings 1000-26 July 1, 1995
Bike Lane Signs and Markings 1000-29 July 1, 1995
Bike Route Signing 1000-30 July 1, 1995
July 1.1995
List of Tables
Table Subject Page Page
Number Number Date
-
CHAPTER 80 APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS
82.1A Mandatory Standards 80-5 July 1, 1995
82.1B Advisory Standards 80-8 July 1, 1995
-
101.2 Relation of Conditions to Design Speed 100-2 July 1, 1995
-
Sight Distance Standards July 1, 1995
Decision Sight Distance July 1, 1995
Standard Superelevation Rates July 1, 1995
Standards for Curve Radius July 1, 1995
Maximum Grades for Type of Highway and July 1, 1995
Terrain Conditions
Falsework Span and Depth Requirements July 1, 1995
-
302.1 Standards for Paved Shoulder Width 300-2 July 1, 1995
307.2 Shoulder Widths for Two-lane Roadbed 300-8 July 1, 1995
New Construction Projects
307.3 RRR Width Standards for Bridges and Roadbeds 300- 10 July 1, 1995
309.2 California Routes on the 42 000 km Priority Network 300- 18 July 1, 1995
309.5A Minimum Vertical Clearances Above Highest Rail 300-20 July 1, 1995
309.5B Minimum Horizontal Clearances to Centerline of 300-2 1 July 1, 1995
Nearest Track
July 1,1995
List of Tables
Number Number Date
-
Vehicle Characteristics/Intersection Design Elements 400- 1 July 1, 1995
Comer Sight Distance (7-112 Second Criteria) 400-7 July 1, 1995
Decision Sight Distance 400-7 July 1, 1995
Application of Sight Distance Requirements 400-7 July 1, 1995
Bay Taper for Median Speed-change Lanes 400-9 July 1, 1995
Deceleration Lane Length 400-9 July 1, 1995
Parabolic Curb Flares Commonly Used 400- 15 July 1, 1995
Traffic Flow Conditions at Intersections at Various 400-2 1 July 1, 1995
Levels of Operation
-
504.3 Ramp Widening for Trucks 500-14 July 1, 1995
504.7C Level of Service D Procedure 500-27 July 1, 1995
-
ESAL Constants July 1, 1995
Lane Distribution Factors for Multilane Roads July 1, 1995
Conversion of ESAL to Traffic Index July 1, 1995
Example Determination of the 20 Year Traffic
for an &lane Freeway July 1, 1995
Subbases and Bases July 1, 1995
Design Infiltration Rate July 1, 1995
PCCP Structural Section Thickness Guidelines (mm) July 1, 1995
Asphalt Concrete Types July 1, 1995
Asphalt Surface Treatment July 1, 1995
Gravel Equivalents of Structural Layers (mm) July 1, 1995
Structural Sections for Roadside Rests (Thickness of July 1, 1995
Layers in mm)
Structural Sections for Park and Ride Lots July 1, 1995
Life-Cycle Economic Comparison of Pavement Types July 1, 1995
(35-Year Analysis Period and 5% Discount Rate)
CHAPTER 810 HYDROLOGY -

819.2B Runoff Coefficients for Developed Areas 810-17 July 1, 1995
@ List of Tables
Number Number Date
-
Desirable Roadway Drainage Guidelines 830-3 July 1, 1995
Minimum Pipe Diameter for Storm Drain Systems 830-15 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 840 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
Suggested Depth and Spacing of Pipe Underdrains for 840-5 July 1, 1995
Various Soil Types
-
Manning N-Value for Alternative Pipe Materials 850-2 July 1, 1995
Allowable Alternative Materials 850-4 July 1, 1995
Culvert Joint Property Requirements 850-5 July 1, 1995
Example Listing of Alternative Pipe Culverts and Pipe 850-8 July 1, 1995
Arch Culverts
Limitation on Use of Concrete Pipe by Acidity of 850-9 July 1, 1995
Soil and Water
Guide for Sulfate Resisting Concrete Pipe and Other 850-9 July 1, 1995
Concrete Drainage Structures
Strength and Uses of Reinforced Concrete Pipe for 850- 10 July 1, 1995
Diameters from 300 mm to 2700 mm
Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe Fill Height Table 850- 12 July 1, 1995
Guide for Anticipated Service Life Added to Steel Pipe 850- 13 July 1, 1995
by Protective Coating
Corrugated Steel Pipe, Helical Corrugations 850- 19 July 1, 1995
Corrugated Steel Pipe, Helical Corrugations 850-20 July 1, 1995
Corrugated Steel Pipe, 68 mm x 13 mm Annular 850-21 July 1, 1995
Corrugations
Corrugated Steel Pipe Arches, 68 mm x 13 mm Helical 850-22 July 1, 1995
or Annular Corrugations
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe, Annular Corrugations 850-23 July 1, 1995
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe, Helical Corrugations 850-24 July 1, 1995
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arches, 68 mm x 13 mm 850-25 July 1, 1995
Helical or Annular Corrugations
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 25 mm Ribs July 1, 1995
at 292 mm Pitch
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 19 mm July 1, 1995
Ribs at 191 mm Pitch
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 19 rnm July 1, 1995
Ribs at 191 mm Pitch
July 1.1995
List of Tables
Number Number Date
Structural Steel Plate Pipe, 152 mm x 51 mm 850-29 July 1, 1995
Corrugations
Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arches, 152 mm x 51 mm 850-30 July 1, 1995
Corrugations
Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe, 229 mm x 64 mm 850-3 1 July 1, 1995
Corrugations
Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arches, 850-32 July 1, 1995
229 mm x 64 mm Corrugations
Thermoplastic Pipe Fill Height Tables 850-34 July 1, 1995
Minimum Thickness of Cover for Culverts 850-35 July 1, 1995
CHAPTER 860 OPEN CHANNELS -

Recommended Permissible Velocities for 860-4 July 1, 1995
Unlined Channels
Average Values for Manning's Roughness Coefficient 860-7 July 1, 1995
Guide to Freeboard Height 860- 11 July 1, 1995
-
CHAPTER 870 CHANNEL LININGS
Guide to Selection of Protection 870-3 July 1, 1995
Rock Slope Protection Design Guide 870-23 July 1, 1995
Channel Linings 870-3 1 July 1, 1995
Permissible Velocities for Flexible Channel Linings /'870-35 July 1, 1995
-
Bike Path Design Speeds July 1, 1995
Bikeway Surface Tolerances July 1, 1995
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 10-1
July 1, 1995
( I ) Project Development.
CHAPTER 10 (a) Establish project development process
OFFICE OF PROJECT policies and procedures. Provide assis-
PLANNING AND DESIGN tance to the Districts in implementation.
(b) Develop, publish, and maintain the Proj-
Topic 11 - Organization and ect Development Procedures Manual,
and the Project Development Workflow
Functions Task Manual.
Index 11.1 - Organization (c) Develop policies and procedures for
project-related community relations.
The Office of Project Planning and Design Provide community relations training
(OPPD), a part of the State and Local Project and technical assistance to Project
Development Program (SLPDP), is comprised Development Teams (PDTs) on request.
of the following units: Project Development and Conduct public opinion research on
Quality Management; Cooperative Agreements, request.
Encroachments and Resolutions of Necessity;
Geometric Design and Standards; Structural (d) Process and/or review:
Section and Design Standards; Professional Route Concept Reports.
Development; Value Analysis and Resource
Conservation; Highway Drainage Design Project Study Reports.
Coordination; and Noise Abatement and
Accessibility Design Standards. Finally, the Project Reports (Transmittal Reports
Project Development Coordinators, with the and Environmental Documents).
assistance of the Geometric Reviewers,
represent the Chief, OPPD, in the Caltrans Combined Project Study Report/
@ Districts, maintaining liaison and coordinating Project Report.
District and Headquarters activities.
Project Scope Summary Reports.
As the Chief Design Engineer within the
SLPDP, the Chief, Office of Project Planning Noise Barrier Scope Summary
and Design, is responsible for activities in Reports.
support of the development of transportation
projects as follows: establishes, maintains and New public road connection
monitors the project development process in submittal for CTC approval.
accord with all applicable State and Federal laws
and regulations; establishes engineering Freeway agreements.
standards and procedures for application of
standards on a statewide basis; approves Route and project studies submittal
exceptions to mandatory design standards; to the CTC.
monitors project development related reports ( 2 ) Cooperative Agreements, Encroachments
and other documents prepared and approved in and Resolutions of Necessity.
the Districts for conformance to Caltrans policy
and practice. The Chief, OPPD also is the ex (a) Develop, publish, and maintain the
offrcio California member of the AASHTO Cooperative Agreement Manual.
Subcommittee on Design. (b) Process andlor review:
11.2 Functions Cooperative Agreements.
The major functions of the Office of Project Resolution of necessity
Planning and Design are to: appearances.
10-2 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1, 1995
(c) Approve exceptions to statewide policies

and standards governing encroachments
deviations from mandatory design stan-
dards.
a
and higMow Fisk utili6es within State (g) Provide guidelines and develop policies
highway rights of way. and standards for consideration of non-
(3) Program Review and Evaluation. motorized facilities as an integral part of
(a) Monitor statewide route development the total transportation system.
progress and recommend changes that (h) As Project Manager for the Department's
will improve the effectiveness of the metric conversion, coordinate the devel-
program within the available financial opment of statewide metrication policies
resources. and procedures. Provide technical
(b) Review inventories of State highway expedse to the Districts, Headquarters
needs and proposed additions or Programs and Local Agencies regarding
deletions to the State Highway System. implementation of the International
Provide assistance in the development System of Units (SI).
and review of the State Transportation (i) Maintain liaison with other Caltrans
Improvement Program (STIP) and State Programs and Districts, other State
Highway Operation and Protection agencies, other States, and industry on
Program (SHOPP). matters involving transportation
(c) Conduct special studies to improve facilities.
project development and project (j) Develop and disseminate information
management control systems. relative to new and improved methods
(d) Recommend and participate in studies to and procedures for preparing plans and
improve route study techniques and estimating quantities and costs.
community effects analyses. (k) Provide guidance and liaison for the de-
velopment of highway-related facilities
(4) Design Policies and Standards. of other agencies, such as California
(a) Develop and adopt design methods, agriculture inspection stations, U .S .
policies, and standards for highway and Border Patrol facilities, etc.
other transportation facilities. (5) Drainage and Roadway Structural Design.
(b) Develop, publish and periodically update (a) Review and provide guidance on special
the Highway Design Manual. Coordi- drainage problems and unusual drainage
nate with other Caltrans programs, designs, considering technical and legal
Districts, AASHTO, the FHWA, etc. aspects based on statewide experience
Provide assistance to the Districts in when requested by the Districts.
implementation.
(c) Promote uniformity in the interpretation (b) Provide methods and guidance for
and application of design standards and pavement design and pavement
design rehabilitation.
- -policies.
(d) Encourage cooperation and communica- (c) Review and advise Districts on use of
tion to successfully integrate mandatory material sites and proprietary
environmental considerations and items; advise and assist in obtaining
aesthetics into the project development FHWA approvals where needed.
process. (6) Engineering Management.
(e) Coordinate design activities to promote (a) Program advisor for the Facilities Re-
safety-related design features on a search Program; serves in an advisory
statewide basis. capacity to the Research and
(f) Direct the review of geometric designs
&velc$ment Committee and staff.
bv the Districts and review and
airprove design features containing any
. , Provide coordination and liaison with
(b)
District Project Development personnel.
@
July 1, 1995
• (c) Through the use of Technical

Committees, coordinate the input from
Retaining Walls, rubberized AC, and
sign construction.
all engineering functional areas and
(10)Technology Transfer (72).
industry into the development of
geometric, structural roadbed, (a) Act as liaison to FHWA for the
hydraulics and drainage, and administration of Demonstration,
miscellaneous design standards. Construction-Evaluated, Experimental
(7) Professional Development. Feature and Implementation Projects.
This includes the distribution of various
(a) Develop and implement statewide reports (primarily research types) from
training programs in support of the FHWA and other State Highway
project development process, including Agencies.
on the job training (OJT), Project (II) Noise Abatement.
Engineer, Oversight and Project
Management Academies, special task (a) Act as liaison to developers/vendors of
related training (hydraulics, pavement new noise barrier designlproducts;
design, traffic analysis and management, coordinate Departmental reviewlapproval
etc.), project management and control of their submittals.
systems, etc. Hold Project Engineer (b) Develop standards, guidelines, practices
workshop meetings. Include consultant and procedures relative to the design of
staffs as well as Caltrans personnel noise abatement measures.
where needed and desired.
(c) Ensure statewide compliance with
(8) Value Analysis.
(a) abatement.
-
current design criteria for noise
, , Im~lement and coordinate the use of the
st~cturedValue Analysis (VA) process (d) Maintains liaison with the FI-IWA, and
at various milestones throughout the other Federal, State, and local agencies
project development procedure. regarding noise abatement.
(b) Develop guidelines for the statewide (12 ) Accessibility Design Standardr.
application of VA stressing its use in
developing alternatives for inclusion in (a) Develop standards, guidelines, practices
Project Study Reports. and procedures relative to disabled
(c) Review District VA program for accessibility.
compliance with the Project (b) Ensure statewide compliance with
Development Procedures Manual and the current design criteria for disabled
Value Analysis Guidelines. accessibility.
(9)Resource Conservation. (c) Maintain liaison with the FHWA, and
(a) Implement and coordinate the research other Federal, State, and local agencies
conservation and recycling program. regarding disabled accessibility.
(b) Develop and disseminate information (d) Program Advisor for the HB7 1 program
relative to procedures for salvaging, for compliance with requirements of the
storing, and reusing typical highway Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA).
items such as asphalt concrete, guardrail
hardware, signs, etc.
(c) Assist the Districts in maintaining an
inventory of recycled material for
potential use on highway projects.
e (d) Develop Wovative uses of recycled

materials in special applications such as
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE)
July 1,1995
system are not duplicated on another system.

CHAPTER 20 Odd numbered routes are generally south to
DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY north and even numbered routes are generally
west to east.
ROUTES
( I ) Interstate and Defense Highways. The
Topic 21 - Highway Route
Interstate System is a network of freeways
of national importance, created by Congress
Numbers and constructed with Federal-aid Interstate
System funds. Routes in the system are
-
Index 21.1 Legislative Route Numbers signed with the Interstate route shields (See
Index 41.2 and Figure 2 1.1). Routes in
and Descriptions
one or two-digit numbers are north-south or
The Legislature designates all State highway east-west through routes. Routes in three-
routes and assigns route numbers. The de- digit numbers, the first of which is odd, are
scription and number of each route are contained interstate spur routes. For example, I- 110 is
in Chapter 2, Article 3 of the Streets and a spur route off of 1-10. Routes in three-
Highways Code. These route numbers are used digit numbers, the first of which is even, are
for all administrative purposes. loops through or belt routes around cities.
The Legislature has stated its intent that the 1-805 in San Diego is an example of a loop
routes of the State Highway System serve the off of 1-5. The numbering of Interstate
State's heavily traveled rural and urban corri- routes was developed by AASHTO with
dors, that they connect the communities and concurrence by the states.
regions of the State, and that they serve the Renumbering of Interstate routes requires
State's economy by connecting centers of com- the approval of AASHTO to assure
merce, industry, agriculture, mineral wealth, conformity with established numbering
@ and recreation. procedures. Such revisions also are a
A legislative route description generally runs system action that must be approved by the
south to north or west to east. To the extent Federal Highway Administrator.
possible, the number used on each route's guide The Transportation Systems Information
signs is the same as the legislatively designated Program is responsible for processing
route number. requests for changes to the system to
A specific location on any State highway is AASHTO and FHWA for their
described by its kilometer post designation consideration.
(formerly known as post miles). Kilometer (2) United States Numbered Routes. United
posts (KP) start at the west or south county line States Numbered Routes are a network of
and end at the east or north county line. Until State highways of statewide and national
the corporate database is complete, kilometer importance. These highways can be
posts are determined by soft converting the post conventional roadways or freeways.
mile data. The conversion will be made by
multiplying the post miles by 1.6093. All The establishment of a U.S. number as a
equations, prefixes and suffixes shall be guide for interstate travel over certain roads
retained. Post mile information is available in has no connection with Federal control, any
the State Highway Log and on post mile maps Federal-aid System, or Federal construction
distributed by the Office of Office Engineer. financing. The Executive Committee of
AASHTO, with the concurrence of the
21.2 Sign Route Numbers states, has full authority for numbering U.S.
routes.
Each route in the State Highway System is
given a unique number for identification and The Transportation Systems Information
signed with distinctive numbered Interstate, Program is responsible for processing
requests for numbering U.S. routes to
@ U.S. or California State route shields to guide
public travel. Route numbers used on one AASHTO for their consideration.
July 1,1995
Figure 21.1
Interstate Highway System

in California
1.xl.r 1 1OOC
(3) State Sign Routes. State Sign Routes are

state highways within the State, other than
the above signed routes, which are
distinctively signed to serve intrastate and
interstate travel desires.
( 4 ) Business Routes. A Business Route
generally is a local street or road in a city or
urban area, designated by the same route
number as the through Interstate, U.S., or
State highway to which it is connected, with
the words "Business Route" attached to the
identifying route shields. The Business
Route designation provides guidance for the
traveling public to leave the main highway at
one end of a city or urban area, patronize
local businesses, and continue on to rejoin
the main route at the opposite end of the city
or urban area.
The Transportation System Information
Program is responsible for approval of
Business Route designations. Applications
for Business Route designation and signing
must be made by written request from the
local government agency to the Chief of the
Transportation System Information
Program. U.S. and Interstate Business
Routes require approval by the AASHTO
Executive Committee.
J U I ~1, 1995
Highway System. The National Highway

CHAPTER 40 System must be designated by law by
September 30, 1995. In the interim, the
FEDERAL-AID National Highway System will consist of
highways classified as principal arterials. The
Topic 41 - Enabling Legislation final system will consist of 250 000 km (+/-
5%) of major roads in the United States.
Included will be all Interstate routes, a large
Index 41.1 - General percentage of urban and rural principal arterials,
the defense strategic highway network, and
The Intermodal Surface Transportation strategic highway connectors.
Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1991 is the first
transportation legislation since the Interstate
System was enacted. ISTEA has changed the 42.2 Interstate
established Federal-Aid system. During the 20 As a result of ISTEA the Interstate System is a
years prior to ISTEA there were four Federal- part of the NHS, but will retain its separate
Aid systems: Interstate, Primary, Secondary, identity and receive separate funding. Under
and Urban. Now, instead of four Federal-aid ISTEA the Interstate Program will include:
systems there are two, the National Highway Completion funding for Interstate Construction,
System (NHS) and the Interstate System, which Interstate Substitute highway projects, and an
is a component of the National Highway Interstate Maintenance program to rehabilitate,
System. restore, and resurface the Interstate system.
ISTEA has created new federal-aid programs. Reconstruction is also eligible for funding if it
The Surface Transportation Program can be does not add capacity, except for high
used on Interstate, National Highway System, occupancy vehicle (HOV) or auxiliary lanes.
and all roads functionally classified by FHWA
@ as other than local or rural minor collectors.
The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality
-
Topic 43 Federal-Aid
Improvement Program is directed towards Programs
transportation projects which will contribute to
Clean Air Act requirements in non-attainment 43.1 Surface Transportation Program
areas for ozone and carbon monoxide. The (STP)
Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program
is continued. The Surface Transportation Program is a new
funding program which may be used for roads
A variety of other programs also exist to provide (including NHS) that are not functionally
flexibility in determining transportation classified as local or rural minor collectors.
solutions and promote a multi-modal system These roads are now collectively referred to as
approach. Some of these programs include Federal-aid roads.
those that target funding for transit projects such
as commuter and high-speed rail systems while The STP includes safety and enhancement
others provide funds for environmental programs. Ten percent of the STP funds must
enhancement such as habitat mitigation and be used for safety construction activities, hazard
wetland banking. Numerous other funding elimination and rail-highway crossings.
categories are also available for use during the Another ten percent of the program is designated
six year term of the act. for transportation enhancement, which
encompasses a broad range of environmental
Topic 42 - Federal-Aid System related activities. The remainder of the STP
funds are divided as follows; 50% is to be
divided between areas of the State based on
42.1 National Highway System population; the remaining 30% can be used in
any area.
After consultation with the States, the Secretary
of Transportation will propose a National
43.2 Congestion Mitigation and Air

Quality Improvement Program (CMAQ) -
Topic 44 Funding
The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality
Determination
Improvement Program directs funds toward
transportation projects in Clean Air Act non- 44.1 Funding Eligibility
attainment areas for ozone and carbon
monoxide. Projects using CMAQ funds will Each Federal program has certain criteria and
contribute to meeting the attainment of national requirements. During design the project
ambient area air quality standards. CMAQ engineer is to consult with the FHWA reviewer
funds may not be used for projects which will to determine the appropriate Federal program
increase capacity for single occupant vehicles. each individual project is eligible for and the
Exceptions might include HOV lanes which level of future Federal involvement. The final
allow single occupant vehicles at other than peak determination to request Federal participation
travel times or auxiliary lanes. will be made by Caltrans, Budgets Program,
Federal Resource Branch.
43.3 Bridge Replacement and
Rehabilitation Program
The Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation 44.2 Federal Participation Ratio
Program is continued in order to provide
assistance for any bridge on public roads. ISTEA has increased the percentage of Federal
Caltrans, Division of Structures, develops a participation in several programs and fund
bridge sufficiency rating for bridges on the State types. The Interstate System reimbursement
system and sets a sufficiency threshold for the allotment remains unchanged at 90%. The
use of Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation remainder of projects on the NHS, STP and
Funds. CMAQ reimbursement allotments are 80%.
FHWA determines the final detailed ratio based
43.4 Federal Lands Program on formula applied to each State. Contact
Caltrans, Budgets Program, Federal Resources
The Federal Lands Program authorizations are Branch for the most current reimbursement
available through three categories: Indian rates.
Reservation roads, Parkways and Park roads,
and Public Lands Highways (which 44.3 Emergency Relief
incorporates the previous Forest Highway
category). Emergency opening projects are funded 100%
for the first 180 days following a disaster. For
43.5 Special Programs restoration projects and emergency opening
projects after 180 days Federal participation is
Special Program funds are allocated for projects pro-rated.
which generally fall into the following groups:
Special Projects-High Cost Bridge, Congestion
Relief, High Priority Corridors on the NHS,
Rural and Urban Access, Priority Intermodal
and Innovative Projects; National High Speed
Ground Transportation Programs; Scenic
Byways Program; Use of Safety Belts and
Motorcycle Helmets; National Recreational
Trails Program; Emergency Relief.
July 1, 1995
speed change, or for other purposes

CHAPTER 60 supplementary to through traffic
NOMENCLATURE movement.
(b) Lane Numbering--On a multilane road-
Topic 61 - Abbreviations way, the traffic lanes available for
through traffic traveling in the same di-
rection are numbered from left to right
Index 61.1 - Official Names when facing in the direction of traffic
flow.
AASHTO American Association of State (c) Multiple Lanes--Freeways and conven-
Highway and Transportation tional highways are sometimes defined
Officials by the number of through traffic lanes
DOT U.S. Department of Transpor- in both directions. Thus an &lane
tation freeway has 4 through traffic lanes in
each direction. Likewise, a 4-lane
FHWA Federal Highway Administra- conventional highway has 2 through
tion traffic lanes in each direction.
Caltrans or California Department of (d) Median Lane--A speed change lane
Department Transportation within the median to accommodate left
CFR Code of Federal Regulations turning vehicles.
CTC or California Transportation (e) Separate Turning Lane--An auxiliary
Commission Commission lane for traffic in one direction which
OPPD Office of Project Planning and has been physically separated from the
Design intersection area by a traffic island.
District Department of Transportation (f) Speed Change Lane--An auxiliary lane,
Districts including tapered areas, primarily for
the acceleration or deceleration of
FAA Federal Aviation Administration vehicles entering or leaving the through
PUC Public Utilities Commission traffic lanes.
PS&E Plans, Specifications, and (g) Traffic Lane--The portion of the
Estimate traveled way for the movement of a
STIP State Transportation Improve- single line of vehicles.
ment Program (2) Median. The portion of a divided highway
Dos Division of Structures separating the traveled ways for traffic in
opposite directions.
METS Office of Materials Engineering
and Testing Services (3) Outer Separation. The portion of an arterial
highway between the traveled ways of a
OSF Office of Structural roadway for through traffic and a frontage
Foundations street or road.
ESC Engineering Service Center (4) Roadbed. That portion of the roadway
extending from curb line to curb line or
Topic 62 - Definitions shoulder line to shoulder line. Divided
highways are considered to have two
roadbeds.
62.1 Geometric Cross Section (5) Roadside. A general term denoting the area
( I ) Lane. adjoining the outer edge of the roadbed.
Extensive areas between the roadbeds of a
(a) Auxiliary Lane--The portion of the divided highway may also be considered
roadway for weaving, truck climbing, roadside.
July 1,1995
(6) Roadway. That portion of the highway

included between the outside lines of the
( 2 ) Controlled Access Highway. In situations
where it has been determined advisable by
8
sidewalks, or curbs and gutters, or side the Director or the CTC, a facility may be
ditches including also the appertaining designated a "controlled access highway"
structures, and all slopes, ditches, chan- in lieu of the designation "freeway". All
nels, waterways, and other features neces- statutory provisions pertaining to freeways
sary for proper drainage and protection. and expressways apply to controlled access
highways.
(7) Shoulder. The portion of the roadway
contiguous with the traveled way for (3) Conventional Highway. A highway
accommodations of stopped vehicles, for without control of access which may or
emergency use, and for lateral support of may not be divided. Grade separations at
base and surface courses. intersections or access control may be used
when justified at spot locations.
(8) Traveled Way. The portion of the roadway
for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of (4) Highway.
shoulders. (a) Arterial Highway--A general term
denoting a highway primarily for
62.2 Highway Structures through traffic usually on a continuous
(1) Illustration of Types of Structures. Figure route.
62.2 illustrates the names given to common (b) Bypass--An arterial highway that
types of structures used in highway con- permits traffic to avoid part or all of an
struction. This nomenclature must be used urban area.
in all phases of planning.
(c) Divided Highway--A highway with
(2) Bridges. Structures that span more than separated roadbeds for traffic in
6.1 m over a waterway, measured under opposing directions.
the copings along the centerline of the road
and multiple span structures where the indi- (d) Major Street or Major Highway--An
vidual spans are in excess of 3 m, mea- arterial highway with intersections at
sured from center to center of supports grade and direct access to abutting
along the centerline of the road. property and on which geometric
(3) Culverts. See Index 806.1. design and traffic control measures are
used to expedite the safe movement of
through traffic.
62.3 Highway Types
(I) Freeway. A freeway, as defined by (e) Radial Highway--An arterial highway
statute, is a highway in respect to which the leading to or from an urban center.
owners of abutting lands have no right or (f) Through Street or Through Highway--
easement of access to or from their abutting Every highway or portion thereof at the
lands or in respect to which such owners entrance to which vehicular traffic from
have only limited or restricted right or intersecting highways is regulated by
easement of access. This statutory stop signs or traffic control signals or is
definition also includes expressways. controlled when entering on a separate
The engineering definitions for use in this right-turn roadway by a yield-right-of-
manual are: way sign.
(a) Freeway--A divided arterial highway (5) Parkway. An arterial highway for non-
with full control of access and with commercial traffic, with full or partial
grade separations at intersections. control of access, and usually located
within a ark or a ribbon of ark-like
(b) Expressway--An arterial highway with
at least partial control of access, which
may or may not be divided or have
grade separations at intersections.
July 1, 1995
Figure 62.2
Types of Structures
UNDERPASS OVERHEAD BRIDGE & OVERHEAD
L
, III
State -Hiahwa.r . \
VIADUCT BRIDGE
a7-$F. ~
<y
OVERCROSSING
J B
UNDERCROSSING
91yiLhiay
/
3 ~~
SEPARATION
'\
July 1, 1995
(6) Scenic Highway. An officially designated

portion of the State Highway System
change of traffic between two or more
roadways on different levels.
e
traversing areas of outstanding scenic (6)Interchange Elements.
beauty which together with the adiacent
scenii corridors -requires special scenic (a) Branch Connection--A multilane
conservation treatment. connection between two freeways.
(7) Street or Road. (b) Freeway-to-freeway Connection--A
(a) Cul-de-sac Street--A local street open single or multilane connection between
at one end only, with special provisions freeways.
for turning around. (c) Ramp--A connecting roadway between
(b) Dead End Street--A local street open at a freeway or expressway and another
one end only, without special highway, road, or roadside area.
provisions for turning around. (7) Intersection. The general area where two
(c) Frontage Street or Road--A local street or more roadways join or cross, within
or road auxiliary to and located on the which are included roadside facilities for
side of an arterial highway for service traffic movements in that area.
to abutting property and adjacent areas (8) Island. A defined area between traffic
and for control of access. lanes for control of vehicle movements or
(d) Local Street or Local Road--A street or for pedestrian refuge. Within an
road primarily for access to residence, intersection a median or an outer separation
business, or other abutting property. is considered an island.
(e) Toll Road, Bridge or Tunnel--A (9) Minimum Turning Radius. The radius of
highway, bridge, or tunnel open to the path of the outer front wheel of a
traffic only upon payment of a direct vehicle making its sharpest turn.
toll or fee. (10)Skew Angle. The complement of the acute
angle between two centerlines which cross.
62.4 Interchanges and Intersections at (11) Weaving Section. A length of one-way
Grade roadway, designed to accommodate
( I ) Channelization. The separation or weaving, at one end of which two one-way
regulation of conflicting traffic movements roadways merge and at the other end of
into definite paths of travel by the use of which they separate.
pavement markings, raised islands, or
other suitable means to facilitate the safe 62.5 Landsca~eArchitecture
and orderly movement of both vehicles and ( I ) Highway Planting. Vegetation placed for
pedestrians. aesthetic, safety, environmental mitigation,
(2) Geometric Design. Geometric design is the or erosion control purposes, including
arrangement of the visible elements of a necessary irrigation systems, inert
road, such as alignment, grades, sight materials, mulches and appurtenances.
distances, widths, slopes, etc. Highway planting provides for a level of
(3) Gore. The area immediately beyond the planting that makes the right of way
divergence of two roadbeds bounded by compatible with the surrounding
the edges of those roadbeds. environment up to the allowable maximum
cost-per-hectare, as determined by the
(4) Grade Separation. A crossing of two Office of Landscape Architecture (adjusted
highways or a highway and a railroad at annually). Highway planting is warranted
different levels. on new highways where adjacent
(5) Interchange. A system of interconnecting properties are developed at the time the
roadways in conjunction with one or more highway contract is accepted; on existing
grade separations providing for the inter- highways where adjacent properties have
been developed at the time the highway
July 1,1995
contract is accepted for construction of a ( 5 ) Erosion Control. Vegetation, such as

new interchange or major modification of grasses and wildflowers, and other
an existing interchange; and on existing materials, such as straw, fiber, stabilizing
highways where adjacent properties were emulsion, protective blankets, etc., placed
developed on or before June 30,1987. to stabilize areas disturbed by grading
In addition, highway planting may be operations, reduce loss of soil due to the
required to satisfy written agreements or action of water or wind, and prevent water
memorandum of understanding between pollution.
the State and another governmental agency, (6) Landscaped Freeway. A designation, as
or mitigate impacts as required in an defined in Chapter 6, Title 4 of the
environmental document or by court order. California Administrative Code, given to a
Highway planting shall be used to reduce section of freeway relative to the regulation
adverse environmental impacts associated of outdoor advertising displays.
with short and long term impacts. If (7) Safety Roadside Rest. A roadside area
legally required, the allowable maximum provided for motorists to stop and rest for
cost-per-hectare can be exceeded. short periods. It includes paved parking
( 2 ) Revegetation. Planting of indigenous areas, drinking water, toilets, tables,
plants to replace natural vegetation that is benches, telephones, information panels,
damaged or removed as a result of highway and may include other facilities for
construction projects or permit motorists (see Topic 903).
requirements. This work may include (8) Vista Point. A paved area beyond the
provisions for irrigation. shoulder which permits travelers to safely
( 3 ) Replacement Planting. Planting to replace exit the highway to stop and view a scenic
area. In addition to parking areas, trash
a planting (installed by Caltrans or others)
that is damaged or removed during
highway construction activity, including
receptacles, interpretive displays, and in
some cases rest rooms, drinking water and
irrigation modification andlor replacement. telephones may be provided -(see Topic
904).
Unless the environmental document or
memorandum of understanding with the 62.6 Right of Way
local agency specifies otherwise, highway
planting work including replacement is ( I ) Acquisition. The process of obtaining right
done as a separate contract from the of way.
highway construction work. Exceptions (2) Air Rights. The property rights for the
may be permitted with approval of the control or specific use of a designated
Office of Landscape Architecture District airspace involving a highway.
Coordinator when justified.
(3) Appraisal. An expert opinion of the market
(4) Highway Planting Restoration. The value of property including damages and
renovation or rehabilitation of planting special benefits, if any, as of a specified
areas and irrigation systems to reduce date, resulting from an analysis of facts.
maintenance expenditures, improve (4) Condemnation. The process by which
roadside working conditions, reduce water property is acquired for public purposes
consumption or utilize nonpotable water. through legal proceedings under power of
Restoration is justified when capital costs
can be recovered through maintenance eminent domain.
savings within 12 years. Improvement of (5) Control of Access. The condition where
working conditions, installation of Remote the right of owners or occupants of
Irrigation Control System (RICS), and abutting land or other persons to access in
conversion to nonpotable water does not connection with a highway is fully or
require a 12 year payback. partially controlled by public authority.
July 1,1995
(6) Easement. A right to use or control the term is commonly abbreviated as ADT or
property of another for designated AADT.
purposes. (2) Delay. The time lost while traffic is im-
(7) Eminent Domain. The power to take pri- peded by some element over which the
vate property for public use without the driver has no control.
owner's consent upon payment of just (3) Density. The number of vehicles per
compensation. kilometer on the traveled way at a given
(8) Encroachment. Occupancy of project right instant.
of way by non-project structures or objects (4) Design Vehicles. See Topic 404.
of any kind or character.
(5) Design Volume. A volume determined for
(9) Inverse Condemnation. The legal process use in design, representing traffic expected
which may be initiated by a property owner to use the highway. Unless otherwise
to compel the payment of just compen- stated, it is an hourly volume.
sation where the property has been taken or
damaged for a public purpose. (6) Diverging. The dividing of a single stream
of traffic into separate streams.
(10) Negotiation. The process by which
property is sought to be acquired for (7) Headway. The time in seconds between
project purposes through mutual agreement consecutive vehicles moving past a point in
upon the terms for transfer of such a given lane, measured front to front.
Property- (8) Level of Service. A rating using qualitative
(11)Partial Acquisition. The acquisition of a measures that characterize operational
portion of a parcel of property. conditions within a traffic stream and their
(12) Relinquishment. A transfer of the State's
right, title, and interest in and to a
highway, or portion thereof, to a city or
perception by motorists and passengers.
(9) Merging. The converging of separate
streams of traffic into a single stream.
e
county. (10) Running Time. The time the vehicle is in
(13) Right of Access. The right of an abutting motion.
land owner for entrance to or exit from a (11)Spacing. The distance between con-
public road. secutive vehicles in a given lane, measured
(14) Severance Damages. Loss in value of the front to front.
remainder of a parcel which may result (12) Speed.
from a partial taking of real property andlor
from the project. (a) Design Speed--A speed selected to
establish specific minimum geometric
(15) Vacation. The reversion of title to the design elements for a particular section
owner of the underlying fee where an of highway.
easement for highway purposes is no
longer needed. (b) Running Speed--The speed over a
specified section of highway, being the
62.7 Structural Design of the Roadbed distance divided by running time. The
average for all traffic, or component
See Chapter 600 for definition of structural thereof, is the summation of distances
section terms. divided by the summation of running
times.
62.8 Traffic
(13) Traffic Control Devices.
(I) Annual Average Daily Traffic. The average
24 hour volume, being the total number (a) Traffic Markings--All lines, words, or
during a stated period divided by the
number of days in that period. Unless
otherwise stated, the period is a year. The
symbols, except signs, officially placed
within the roadway to regulate, warn,
or guide traffic.
a
July 1, 1995
@ (b) Traffic Sign--A device mounted on a

fixed or portable support, conveying a
message or symbol to regulate, warn,
or guide traffic.
(c) Traffic Signal--A power operated traffic
control device except signs, barricade
warning lights, and steady burning
electric lamps, by which traffic is
regulated, warned, or alternately
directed to take specific actions.
(14) Volume. The number of vehicles passing a
given point during a specified period of
time.
(15) Weaving. The crossing of tr&c streams
moving in the same general direction
accomplished by merging and diverging.
(16)Ramp Metering. A traffic management
strategy which utilizes a system of traffic
signals on freeway entrance and connector
ramps to regulate the volume of traffic
entering a freeway corridor in order to
maximize the efficiencv of the freewav and
thereby minimize t h i total delay i i the
transportation corridor.
62.9 Drainage
See Chapter 800 for definition of drainage
terms.
July 1,1995
0 CHAPTER 80
for construction on the basis of overall system
benefits as well as community goals, plans, and
APPLICATION OF DESIGN values.
STANDARDS Decisions must also emphasize different
transportation modes working together effec-
tively.
Topic 81 - Project Development The goal is to increase highway mobility and
Overview safety in a manner that is compatible with, or
which enhances, adjacent community values and
-
Index 81.1 Philosophy plans.
The Project Development process seeks to
provide a degree of mobility to users of the
transportation system that is in balance with
-
Topic 82 Application of
other values. In the development of
Standards
transportation projects, social, economic, and
environmental effects must be considered fully 82.1 Highway Design Manual Standards
along with technical issues so that final ( I ) General. The highway design criteria and
decisions are made in the best overall public policies in this manual provide a guide for
interest. Attention should be given to such the engineer to exercise sound judgment in
considerations as: applying standards, consistent with the
(a) Need for safe and efficient above Project Development philosophy, in
transportation. the design of projects.
(b) Attainment of community goals and The design standards used for any project
should equal or exceed the minimum given
0 objectives.
(c) Needs of low mobility and
in the Manual to the maximum extent
feasible, taking into account costs, traffic
disadvantaged groups. volumes, traffic and safety benefits, right of
(d) Costs of eliminating or minimizing way, socio-economic and environmental
adverse effects on nahral resources, impacts, etc. The philosophy provides for
environmental values, public services, use of lower standards when such use best
aesthetic values, and community and satisfies the concerns of a given situation.
individual integrity. Because design standards have evolved over
many years, many existing highways do not
(e) Planning based on realistic financial conform fully with current standards. It is
estimates. not intended that current manual standards
(f) The cost, ease, and safety of maintaining be applied retroactively to all existing State
whatever is built. highways; such is neither warranted nor
economically feasible. However, when
Proper consideration of these items requires that warranted, upgrading of existing roadway
a facility be viewed from the perspectives of the features such as guardrail, lighting,
user, the nearby community, and larger superelevation, roadbed width, etc., should
statewide interests. For the user, efficient travel be considered, either as independent projects
and safety are paramount concerns. At the same or as part of larger projects. A record of the
time, the community often is more concerned decision not to upgrade the existing non-
about local aesthetic, social, and economic standard mandatory features shall be
impacts. The general population, however, provided through the exception process (See
tends to be interested in how successfully a Index 82.2).
project functions as part of the overall
transportation system and how large a share of
available capital resources it consumes.
@ Therefore, individual projects must be selected
July 1,1995
In this manual design standards are catego- Caution must be exercised when using other
rized in order of importance in development Caltrans publications which provide
of a safe State highway system operating at guidelines for the design of highway
selected levels of service commensurate with facilities, such as HOV lanes. These
projected traffic volumes and highway publications do not contain design
classification. standards; moreover, the designs suggested
(2) Mandatory Standards. Mandatory design in these publications do not always meet
standards are those considered most es- Highway Design Manual Standards.
sential to achievement of overall design Therefore, all other Caltrans publications
objectives. Many pertain to requirements of must be used in conjunction with this
law or regulations such as those embodied manual.
in the FHWA's 13 controlling criteria (see 82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Design
below). Mandatory standards use the word
"shall" and are printed in Boldface type (1)Mandatory Standards. To promote
(see Table 82.1A). uniform practice on a statewide
(3)Advisory Standards. Advisory design basis, deiign features or elements
standards are important also, but allow which deviate from the mandatory
greater flexibility in application to standards indicated herein shall re-
accommodate design constraints or be quire the approval of the Chief,
compatible with local conditions on Office of Project Planning and
resurfacing or rehabilitation projects. Design. This approval authority has
Advisory standards use the word "should" been delegated to the Project
and are indicated by Underlining, (see Table Development Coordinators.
82.1B). The current procedures and documentation
(4) Permissive Standards. All standards other requirements pertaining to the approval
than mandatory or advisory, whether in- process for exceptions to mandatory design
dicated by the use of "should" or "may", are standards are contained in the July 25, 1994
permissive with no requirement for memorandum signed by W.P. Smith.
application intended. Design exception approval must be obtained
(5) Controlling Criteria. The FHWA has prior to District approval of the PSR, or any
designated thirteen controlling criteria for se- other project initiation document (i.e.,
lection of design standards of primary PSSR, PEER, combined PSRIPR). The
importance for highway safety, listed as text of the project initiation report must
follows: design speed, lane width, shoulder include a brief description of the
width, bridge width, horizontal alignment, nonstandard features, as well as a reference
vertical alignment, grade, stopping sight to all approved Fact Sheets and their
distance, cross slope, superelevation, approval dates by OPPD andor FHWA
horizontal clearance, vertical clearance and (when applicable).
bridge structural capacity. All but the last of If the need for a design exception is
these criteria are also designated as identified after approval of the project's
geometric criteria. initiation report, the above described
The design standards related to the 12 geo- consultation and documentation process
metric criteria are designated as mandatory shall be initiated immediately, and must be
standards in this manual (see Index 82.1(2) completed prior to reaching the next project
and Table 82.1A). milestone. The text of the engineering
report associated with the next project
(6) Other. In addition to the design standards in milestone (i.., Project Report,
this manual, the Traffic Manual contains Supplemental PR, PAR, etc.) must include
standards relating to signs, delineation, the design exception reference normally
barrier systems, signals, and lighting. The provided in the project initiation report (see
Ramp Meter Design Guidelines contains above).
standards relating to ramp meters.
July 1, 1995
During the construction phase of a project, 82.3 Use of FHWA and AASHTO
Fact Sheets must be prepared (by Project Standards and Policies
Development staff) to document any The standards in this manual generally conform
nonstandard features proposed in a Contract to the standards and policies set forth in the
Change Order. Such Change Orders shall AASHTO publication, "A Policy on Geometric
not be executed until the proposed design Design of Highways and Streets" (1994) and "A
exception has been approved (at least Policy on Design Standards-Interstate System"
verbally) by the appropriate Caltrans and (1988). A third AASHTO publication
FHWA (if required) authority (ies). If "Roadside Design Guide" (1995) focuses on
verbal approval is granted to expedite creating safer roadsides. These three
Change Order execution, the Fact Sheet documents, along with other AASHTO &
must be completed and approved FHWA publications cited in 23 CFR Ch 1, Part
immediately thereafter. 625, Appendix A, contain most of the current
The Interrnodal Surface Transportation AA$H~opolicies and standards, and are
Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA) allows approved references to be used in conjunction
significant delegation to the states by FHWA with this manual.
to approve and administer portions of the AASHTO policies and standards, which are
Federal-Aid Transportation Program. established as nationwide standards, do not al-
California has accepted the maximum ways satisfy California conditions. When stan-
delegations offered as outlined in the May dards differ, the instructions in this manual
27, 1992 memorandum signed by W.P. govern, except when necessary for FHWA pro-
Smith. If required, FHWA approval of ject approval (Index 108.3, Coordination with
exceptions to mandatory design standards the FHWA).
related to the 13 controlling - criteria should
be sought as early in the project 82.4 Mandatory Procedural
development process as possible. Requirements
However, formal approval shall not be
requested until the appropriate Project Required procedures and policies for which
Development Coordinator has approved the Caltrans is responsible, relating to project
design exception. clearances, permits, licenses, required tests,
documentation, value engineering, etc., are in-
FHWA approval is not required for excep- dicated by use of the word "must". Procedures
tions to "Caltrans-only" mandatory and actions to be performed by others (subject
standards. Table 82.1A identifies these to notification by Caltrans), or statements of fact
mandatory standards. are indicated by the word "will".
For local facilities crossing the State right of
way see Index 308.1. 82.5 Effective Date for Implementing
( 2 ) Advisory Standards. The authority to Revisions to Design Standards
approve exceptions to advisory standards Revisions to design standards will be issued
has been delegated to the District Directors. with a stated effective date. It is understood that
Proposals for exceptions from advisory all projects will be designed to current standards
standards should be discussed with the unless an exception has been approved in
Project Development Coordinators during accordance with Index 82.2.
development of the approval documentation. On projects where the project development
The responsibility for the establishment of process has started, the following conditions on
procedures for review, documentation, and the effective date of the new or revised
long term retention of approved exceptions standards will be applied:
from advisory standards has also been
delegated to the District Directors. For all projects where the PS&E has not
been finalized, the new or revised design
standards shall be incorporated unless this
would impose a significant delay in the
July 1,1995
project schedule or a significant increase in

the project engineering or construction
costs. The Project Development Coordina-
tor will make the final determination on
whether to apply the new or previous design
standards on a project-by-project basis for
roadway features.
For all projects where the PS&E has been
submitted to Headquarters Office Engineer
for advertising or the project is under
construction, the new or revised standards
will be incorporated only if they are
identified in the Change Transmittal as
requiring special implementation.
For locally-sponsored projects, the Oversight
Engineer shall inform the funding sponsor
within 15 working days of the effective date of
any changes in mandatory or advisory design
standards as defined in Index 82.2.
July 1,1995
Table 82.1A
Mandatory Standards
CHAPTER 80 APPLICATION OF Topic 205 Road Connections and
DESIGN STANDARDS Driveways
Index 205.1 Sight Distance Requirements
Topic 82 Application of Standards
for Access Openings on
Index 82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Expressways
Design
Topic 208 Bridges and Grade
Separation Structures
Index 208.1 Bridge Width
Topic 101 Design Speed
208.10 Bridge Approach Railings*
Index 101.1 Technical Reductions of Design
speed CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS
101.1 Selection of Design Speed - SECTION
Local Facilities
Topic 301 Pavement Standards
Selection of Design Speed -
Local Facilities - with Index 301.1 Lane Width
Connections to State Facilities 301.2 Cross Slopes
Design Speed Standards 301.2 Algebraic Differences in Cross
Control of Access Slopes
Topic 104
Index 104.4 Protection of Access Rights* Topic 302 Shoulder Standards
Index 302.1 Shoulder Width
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND 302.2 Shoulder Cross Slopes
STRUCTURE STANDARDS
Topic 305 Median Standards
Topic 201 Sight Distance
Index 305.1 Median Width*
Index 201.1 Sight Distance Standards
Topic 307 Cross Sections for State
Topic 202 Superelevation Highways
Index 202.2 Standards for Superelevation Index 307.2 Shoulder Width for Structural
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets Section on Two-lane Cross
and County Roads Sections for New Construction
Topic 203 Horizontal Alignment Shoulder Standards for Two-lane

Cross Sections for New
Index 203.1 Horizontal Alignment - Local Construction
Facilities
Two-lane Cross Sections for
Horizontal Alignment and RRR Projects -Roadbed Width
Stopping Sight Distance
Two-lane Cross Sections for
Topic 204 Grade RRR Projects - Bridge Width
Index 204.1 Standards for Grade - Local Bridge Rail and Guardrail on
Facilities RRR Projects
204.3 Standards for Grade Topic 308 Cross Sections for Roads
204.6 Vertical Falsework Clearances* Under Other Jurisdictions
Index 308.1 Cross Section Standards for City
Streets and County Roads withoul
* Connection to State Facilities
Caltrans-only Mandatory Standard
July 1,1995
-
Table 82.1A
Mandatory Standards
(Cont.)
308.1 Minimum Width of 2-lane 405.1 Sight Distance at Public Road

Structures for City Streets and Intersections
County Roads without 405.1 Sight Distance at Private Road
Connection to State Facilities Intersections
308.1 Cross Section Standards for 405.2 Left-turn Channelization - Lane
City Streets and County Roads Width
with Connection to State
Facilities 405.2 Two-way Left-turn Lane Width
Minimum Width of 2-lane Right-turn Channelization -
Structures for City Streets and Width
County Roads with Connection
to State Facilities CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC
Topic 309 Clearances INTERCHANGES
Index 309.1 Horizontal Clearances and Topic 501 General
Stopping Sight Distance Index 501.3 Interchange Spacing
Clear Recovery Zone Topic 504 Interchange Design
Vertical Clearances - Major Standards
Structures Index 504.2 Location of Freeway Entrances
Vertical Clearances - Minor & Exits
structures Ramp Deceleration Lane and
Vertical Clearances -42 000 km "DL," Distance
Priority Network Ramp Lane Width
Horizontal Tunnel Clearances Ramp Shoulder Width
Vertical Tunnel Clearances Ramp Lane Drop Taper
Lateral Clearance for Elevated Distance Between Ramp
Structures* Intersection and Local Road
Structures Across or Adjacent to Intersection
Railroads - Vertical Clearance Freeway-to-freeway
Topic 310 Frontage Roads Connections - Shoulder Width
Index 310.1 Frontage Road Width* 504.8 Access Control along Ramps
504.8 Access Control at Ramp
CHAPTER 400 INTERSECTIONS AT Terminal
GRADE
CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS
Topic 405 Intersection Design STANDARDS
Standards
Topic 701 Fences
Index 405.1 Driver Set Back
Index 701.2 Fences on Freeways and
Expressways*
*
July 1,1995
Table 82.1A
Mandatory Standards
(Cont.)
1003.2 Class I1 Bikeways Adjacent to

CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE Parking*
ARCHITECTURE
1003.2 Class I1 Bikeway Widths where
Topic 903 Safety Roadside Rest Area Parking is Permitted*
Design Standards
1003.2 Class I1 Bikeway Widths where
Index 903.5 Rest Area Ramp Design Parking is Prohibited*
Topic 904 Vista Point Standards and 1003.2 Class I1 Bikeways Adjacent to
Guidelines Part-time Parking*
Index 904.3 Vista Point Ramp Design
1003.2 Class I1 Bikeways Widths in
Undeveloped Areas*
CHAPTER 1000 BIKEWAY PLANNING
AND DESIGN 1003.2 Class I1 Bikeway Delineation*
Topic 1002 General Planning Criteria 1003.6 Bicycles Traveling against
Traffic*
Index 1002.1 Resurfacing Requirements*
1003.6 Bikeway Overcrossing
1002.1 Shoulder Requirements when Structures*
Adding Lanes*
@ Topic 1003 Design Criteria
1003.6 Drainage Inlet Grates on
Bikeways*
Index 1003.1 Class I Bikeway Widths* Topic 1004 Uniform Signs, Markings
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Horizontal and Traffic Control
Clearance* Devices
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Structure Index 1004.1 Uniform Signs, Markings and
Width* Traffic Control Devices*
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Vertical 1004.3 Class I1 Bikeway Signing*

Clearance* 1004.3 Class I1 Bikeway Pavement
1003.1 Physical Barriers Adjacent to Markings*
Class I Bikeways 1004.3 Class I1 Bikeway Pavement
1003.1 Class I Bikeway in Medians* Markers*
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Design Speeds*

CHAPTER 1100 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC
1003.1 Speed Bumps on Class I NOISE ABATEMENT
Bikeways*
Topic 1102 Design Criteria
1003.2 Class I1 Bikeway Design*
Index 1102.2 Horizontal Clearance to Noise
1003.2 Class I1 Bikeway Widths Barrier
Adjacent to Parking Stalls*
1102.2 Noise Barrier on Safety Shape
Concrete Barrier
*
July 1,1995
Table 82.18
Advisory Standards
CHAPTER 100 BASIC DESIGN POLICIES Superelevation in Restrictive

Situations
Topic 101 Design Speed
Index 101.1 Selection of Design Speed - Superelevation of Compound
Local Facilities Curves
Selection of Design Speed - Superelevation on City Streets

Local Facilities - with and County Roads
Connections to State Facilities Topic 203 Horizontal Alignment
Topic 104 Control of Access Index 203.1 Horizontal Alignment - Local
Index 104.5 Relation of Access Opening to Facilities
Median Opening Standards for Curvature
Topic 105 Pedestrian Facilities Alignment Consistency and
Index 105.4 Access at Bridges and Curbs Design Speed
105.4 New Construction, Two Ramp 203.5 Compound Curves
Design 203.6 Reversing Curves
105.4 One Ramp Design Topic 204 Grade
105.4 Location of Curb Ramps Index 204.1 Standards for Grade - Local
105.4 Curb Ramp Design Facilities
Topic 107 Roadside Installations Standards for Grade

Index 107.1 Standards for Roadway Ramp Grades
Connections
Vertical Curves
Number of Exits and Entrances Decision Sight Distance at
Allowed at Roadway Climbing Lane Drops
Connections
Falsework Span and Depth
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN Requirements
AND STRUCTURE Design Speeds for Horizontal
STANDARDS and Vertical Curves
Topic 201 Sight Distance Topic 205 Road Connections and
Index 201.3 Stopping Sight Distance on Driveways
Grades Index 205.1 Access Openings on
201.7 Decision Sight Distance Expressways
Topic 202 Superelevation Topic 206 Pavement Transitions

Index 202.2 Superelevation on Same Plane Index 206.3 Lane Drop Transitions
for Rural Two-lane Roads 206.3 Lane Width Reductions
Adverse Superelevation for
Drainage
Superelevation Transition
Superelevation Runoff
July 1,1995
Table 82.1B
Advisory Standards
(Cont.)
Topic 208 Bridges and Grade 309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to

Separation Structures Railroads - Vertical Clearance
Index 208.3 Decking of Bridge Medians Topic 310 Frontage Roads
Minimum Width of Pedestrian Index 310.2 Outer Separation - Urban Areas
Overcrossings 310.2 Outer Separation - Rural Areas
Ramp Requirements on
Pedestrian Separation Structures CHAPTER 400 INTERSECTIONS AT
Protective Screening on
GRADE
Overcrossings Topic 403 Principles of
208.10 Bicycle Railing Channelization
Index 404.3 Angle of Intersection
Topic 209 Curbs and Gutters
Index 209.1 Use of Curbs Topic 404 Design Vehicles
Index 404.3 STAA Truck-turn Template
Topic 210 Earth Retaining Systems
Index 210.5 Cable Railing 404.3 California Truck-turn Template
Topic 405 Intersection Design
@ CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS
SECTION Index 405.1
Standards
Comer Sight Distance at Public
Road Intersections
Topic 301 Pavement Standards
Index 301.2 Algebraic Differences of Cross 405.1 Decision Sight Distance at
Slopes Intersections
Topic 304 Side Slopes 405.5 Emergency Openings and Sight
Distance
Index 304.1 Side Slope Standards
405.5 Median Opening Locations
Topic 305 Median Standards
Index 305.1 Median Width
CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC
305.2 Median Cross Slopes INTERCHANGES
305.4 Median Curbs Topic 502 Interchange Types
Topic 308 Cross Sections for Roads Index 502.2 Isolated Ramps and Partial
Under Other Jurisdiction Interchanges
Index 308.1 Cross Section Standards for City Topic 504 Interchange Design
Streets and County Roads without Standards
Connection to State Facilities Index 504.2 Freeway Entrance and Exit
308.1 Minimum Shoulder Width Design
Requirements for Bicycles
504.2 Collector-distributor
Topic 309 Clearances Deceleration Lane and "DL"
Index 309.1 Clear Recovery Zone Distance
309.1 Safety Shaped Barriers at Retain- 504.2 Paved Width at Gore

ing, Pier, or Abutment Walls 504.2 Auxiliary Lanes
309.3 Horizontal Tunnel Clearances 504.2 Freeway Exit Design Speed
July 1,1995
Table 82.18
Advisory Standards
(Cont.)
Decision Sight Distance at Distance Between Sucessive

Exits Exits
Design Speed and Alignment Freeway-to-freeway
Consistency at Inlet Nose Connections Design Speed
Freeway Ramp Grades Profile Grades on Freeway-to-
freeway Connectors
Differences in Pavement Cross
Slopes at Freeway Entrances Single-lane Connector Design
and Exits
Single-lane Connector
Vertical Curves at Freeway Widening for Passing
Exits
Volumes Requiring Branch
Crest Vertical Curves at Connectors
Freeway Exit Terminus
Merging Branch Connector
Sag Vertical Curves at Freeway Design
Exit Terminus
Diverging Branch Connector
Ascending Entrance Ramps Design
with Sustained Upgrades
Merging Branch Connector
Ramp Design Speed Auxiliary Lanes
Ramp Lane Drop Taper Diverging Branch Connector
Auxiliary Lanes
Ramp Lane Drops and Auxiliary
Lanes Freeway-to-freeway Connector
Lane Drop Tapers
Ramp Terminals and Grade
Auxiliary Lanes
Ramp Terminals and Sight
Distance Mainline Lane Reduction at
Interchanges
Free Right Turns at Ramp
Terminals Weaving Sections
Distance between Ramp Weaving Length
Intersection and Local Road
Intersection Access Control at Ramp
Terminal
Entrance Ramp Lane Drop
Single-Lane Ramp Widening CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS
for Passing STANDARDS
Two-lane Exit Ramps Topic 701 Fences
Two-lane Exit Ramps and Index 701.2 Fences on Freeways and
Auxiliary Lanes Expressways
Distance Between Successive

On-ramps
July 1, 1995
Table 82.1B
Advisory Standards
(Cont.)
CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE
Topic 902 Planting design standards
Index 902.2 Sight Distance and Safety
Requirements for Planting
902.2 Clear Recovery Zone and Trees
902.2 Minimum Setback of Trees
Topic 904 Vista Point Design
Standards
Index 904.3 Vista Point Connection Design
July 1, 1995
special situations may arise in which

CHAPTER 100 engineering, economic, environmental, or other
BASIC DESIGN POLICIES considerations make it impractical to provide the
minimum elements established by the design
speed. The most likely examples are partial or
Topic 101 - Design Speed brief horizontal sight distance restrictions, such
as those imposed by bridge rails, bridge
-
Index 101.1 Selection of Design
Speed
columns, retaining walls, sound walls, cut
slopes, and median barriers.
Design speed is defined as: "a speed selected to The cost to correct such restrictions may not be
establish specific minimum geometric design justified. Technically, this will result in a
elements for a particular section of highway". reduction in the effective design speed at the
These design elements include vertical and location in question. Such technical re-
horizontal alignment, and sight distance. Other ductions in design speed shall be
features such as widths of pavement and discussed with and documented as
shoulders, horizontal clearances, etc., are required by the Project Development
generally not directly related to design speed. Coordinator.
The choice of design speed is influenced Local streets or roads within the State
principally by the character of terrain, economic right of way shall have minimum design
considerations, environmental factors, type and speeds conforming to AASHTO
anticipated volume of traffic, functional classifi- standards, as per the functional
cation of the highway, and whether the area is classification of the facility
rural or urban. A highway in level or rolling . . .in. question.
If the local apency hav i n- ~jmsdcbon over the
terrain justifies a higher design speed than one facility in auestion maintains design standards
in mountainous terrain. Where a difficult loca- that exceed AASHTO standards. then the local
tion is obvious to approaching drivers, they are a~encv
- - standards should ~ D D ~ V ,
more apt to accept a lower design speed than
where there is no apparent reason for it. As Where the local facility connects to a
discussed under Topic 109, scenic values are freeway or expressway (such as ramp
also a consideration in the selection of a design terminal intersections), the design
speed. speed of the local facility shall be a
minimum of 55 kmth. However. the design
A highway carrying a large volume of traffic speed should be 75 km/h when feasible.
may justify a higher design speed than a less
important facility in similar topography, partic- Every effort should be made to avoid decreasing
ularly where the savings in vehicle operation the design speed of a local facility through the
and other costs are sufficient to offset the in- State's right of way, and all due consideration
creased cost of right of way and construction. should be given to local plans to upgrade or
A lower design speed, however, should not be improve the facility in the near future.
assumed for a secondary road where the
topography is such that drivers are likely to
travel at high speeds. 101.2 Design Speed Standards
Subject to the above considerations, as high a The following table shows appropriate
design speed as feasible should be used. It is ranges of design speeds that shall be
preferable that the design speed for any section used for various conditions:
of highway be a constant value. However,
during the detailed design phase of a project,
July 1, 1995
Table 101.2 Topic 102 - Highway Capacity 0

Relation of Conditions to 102.1 Design Capacities
Design Speed Design capacity is the maximum volume of
traffic for which a projected highway can pro-
Conditions Design Speed vide a selected level of service. Design capacity
(kmlh) varies with a number of factors, including:
LIMITED ACCESS TYPES (a) Level of service selected.
(b) Width of lanes.
Freeways and expressways in 80- 130
mountainous terrain (c) Number of lanes.
Freeways in urban areas 90- 130 (d) Presence or absence of shoulders.
Freeways and expressways in 110-130 (e) Grades.
rural areas
(f) Horizontal alignment.
Expressways in urban areas 80-1 10
(g) Operating speed.
CONVENTIONAL HIGHWAYS
(h) Lateral clearance.
Rural
(i) Side friction generated by parking,
Flat terrain drive ways, intersections, and
Rolling terrain 80- 100 interchanges.
Mountainous terrain 60-80 (j) Volumes of trucks, buses, recreational
vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians.
Urban
(k) Spacing and timing of traffic signals.
Arterial streets 60- 100
Arterial streets with 50-70 Freeways should be designed to accommodate
extensive development the design year traffic and to operate at a
specified level of service. For a rough ap-
LOCAL FACILITIES proximation of the number of lanes required on
(Within State right of way) a multilane freeway, use the following design
year peak hour traffic volumes at the specified
Facilities crossing a freeway or AASHTO (1) level of service:
expressway, connecting to a
conventional highway or
traversing a State facility
Level of Traffic Volume
Facilities connecting to a 55M/75* Service (Average Vehicles Per
freeway or expressway Lane Per Hour)
Urban C-E 1400-2000

(1) If outside of State right of way and no Rural C-D 1000-1200
specific local standards apply, the minimum
design speed shall be 50 krnth.
Traffic volumes can be adjusted for the effect of
grades and the mix of autos, trucks, and
recreational vehicles if a more refined calculation
is desired. In those cases, consult the
"Highway Capacity Manual", 1994 (see refer-
ence below).
C
July 1, 1995
102.2 References 103.2 Design Period

More detailed data on design capacity are Geometric design of new facilities should nor-
available in the "Highway Capacity Manual", mally be based on estimated traffic 20 years
published by the Transportation Research Board after completion of construction. With justifica-
in 1994. tion, design periods other than 20 years may be
approved by the District Director with concur-
Topic 103 - Design Designation rence by the Headquarters Project Development
Coordinator.
103.1 Relation to Design Safety, Resurfacing, Restoration, and Re-
habilitation (RRR), and operational improve-
The design designation is a simple, concise ment projects should be designed on the basis of
expression of the basic factors controlling the current ADT.
design of a given highway. Following is an ex-
ample of this expression: For structural section design period, see Index
603.2.
ADT (2000) = 9800 D = 60%
ADT (2020) = 20 000 T = 12% Topic 104 - Control of Access
DHV= 3000 V = llOkm/h
104.1 General Policy
The notation above is explained as follows:
Control of access is achieved by acquiring rights
ADT (2000) -- The average daily traffic, in of access to the highway from abutting property
number of vehicles, for the construction owners and by permitting ingress and egress
year. only at locations determined by the State.
ADT (2020) -- The average daily traffic for On freeways, direct access from private
the future year used as a target in design. property to the highway is prohibited without
DHV -- The two-way design hourly exception. Abutting ownerships are served by
volume, vehicles. frontage roads or streets connected to inter-
changes.
D -- The percentage of the DHV in the direc-
tion of heavier flow. 104.2 Access Openings
T -- The character of the traffic. This is ex- The number of access openings on highways
pressed by the truck increment (T) as a per- with access control should be held to a rnini-
cent of the DHV (excluding recreational mum. (Private property access openings on
vehicles). freeways are not allowed.) Parcels which have
V -- Design speed in km/h. access to another public road or street as well as
frontage on the expressway are not allowed
Within a project, one design designation should access to the expressway. In some instances,
be used except when: parcels fronting only on the expressway may be
given access to another public road or street by
(a) The design hourly traffic warrants a constructing suitable connections if such access
change in the number of lanes, or can be provided at reasonable cost.
(b) A decided change in topography dictates With the exception of extensive highway
a change in design speed. frontages, access openings to an expressway are
The design designation should be given in the limited to one opening per parcel. Wherever
Project Report and should appear on the typical possible, one opening should serve two or more
cross section for all new highway construction parcels. In the case of a large highway frontage
projects. under one ownership, the cost of limiting access
to one opening may be prohibitive, or the
0 property may be divided by a natural barrier
such as a stream or ridge, making it necessary to
July 1,1995
provide an additional opening. In the latter frontage road should be provided (see
case, it may be preferable to connect the Index 104.2).
physically separated portions with a low-cost ( 2 ) New Alignment. Frontage roads generally
structure or road rather than permit two are not provided on freeways or express-
openings. ways on new alignment since the abutting
104.3 Frontage Roads property owners never had legal right of ac-
cess to the new facility. They may be pro-
( I ) General Policy. vided, however, on the basis of
(a) Purpose--Frontage roads are provided considerations mentioned in (1) above.
on freeways and expressways: (3) Existing Alignment. Where a freeway or
expressway is developed parallel to an ex-
To control access to the through isting highway or local street, all or part of
lanes, thus increasing safety for the existing roadway often is retained as a
traffic. frontage road. In such cases, if access to re-
maindsrs of land on the sid; of the freeway
To provide access to abutting land or expressway right of way opposite the old
ownerships. road cannot be provided by other means, a
Restore continuity of the local street frontage road must be constructed to serve
or road systems. the landlocked remainders or the remainders
must be purchased outright. The decision
Provide for nonmotorized traffic that whether to provide access or purchase
might otherwise desire to use the should be based on considerations of cost,
freeway. right of way impacts, street system conti-
nuity and similar factors (see (1) above).
Provide continuity even though it did (4) Railroad Crossings. Frontage roads on one
not exist before when unreasonable or both sides of a freeway or expressway on
circuity of travel would be incurred new alignment, owing to safety and cost
due to freeway construction without considerations, frequently are terminated at
a frontage road. the railroad right of way.
(b) Economic Considerations--In general, a Any new railroad grade crossings and grade
frontage road is justified on freeways separations, and any relocations or al-
and expressways if the costs of terations of existing crossings must be
constructing the frontage road are less cleared with the railroad and approved by
than the costs of providing access by the PUC.
other means. Right of way
considerations often are a determining ( 5 ) Frontage Roads Financed by Others.
factor. Thus, a frontage road would be Frontage roads which are not a State respon-
justified if the investment in construction sibility under this policy may be built by the
and extra right of way is less than either State upon request of a local political
the severance damages or the costs of subdivision, a private agency, or an
acquiring the affected property in its en- individual. Such a project must be covered
tirety. Frontage roads may be required by an agreement under which the State is
to connect parts of a severed property or reimbursed for all construction, right of
to serve a landlocked parcel resulting way, and engineering costs involved.
from right of way acquisition.
104.4 Protection of Access Rights
(c) Access Openings--Direct access to the
through lanes is allowable on For proper control of acquired access
expressways. When the number of rights, fencing or other approved
access openings on one side of the barriers shall be installed on all
expressway exceeds three in 500 m, a controlled access highways except as
provided in Index 701.2(3)(e).
July 1,1955
8 104.5 Relation of Access Opening to a

Median Opening
to connect with existing or planned
sidewalks. Construction of planned
sidewalks should be imminent. Within the
foregoing criteria, sidewalks can be part of
. . the original project or added later when the
ogenin~is dmctly o~uositethe median opening. surrounding area develops.
Details on access openings are given under (4) Overcrossing Approaches. Where side-
Index 205.1. walks are planned on overcrossing
structures, the fill should be widened to
104.6 Cross References provide for future sidewalks where they are
not now warranted.
(a) Access Control at Intersections at Grade
(see Index 405.6). (5) School Pedestrian Walkways. A pedestrian
walkway should be considered when all of
(b) Access Control at Interchanges (see the following conditions are fulfilled:
Index 504.8).
(a) The highway lies on the "Suggested
-
Topic 105 Pedestrian Route to School"; and
(b) Existing road shoulders outside the trav-
Facilities
eled way are less than 2 m wide; and
105.1 Sidewalks (c) More than 20 children per day use the
route walking to or from school, and ve-
The State may assume financial responsibility hicular traffic exceeds 100 vehicles per
for the construction of sidewalks under the hour during those periods of the day;
conditions described below. (See the Project and
Development Procedures Manual for further
0 discussion of State's responsibility in providing
pedestrian facilities.)
(d) The governing board of the school dis-
trict officially requests the pedestrian
walkway improvements; and
( 1 ) Replacement in Kind. Where existing
sidewalks are to be disturbed by highway (e) Revision of the "Suggested Route to
construction, the replacement applies only to School" or the attendance boundaries to
the frontages involved and no other eliminate the condition is impractical.
sidewalk construction, such as closing See Chapter 10 of the Traffic Manual for
existing gaps in sidewalks, is authorized further discussion on school area pedestrian
except: safety.
(a) As part of a right of way agreement. (6) Frontage Roads. Sidewalks may be built
(b) Where the traffic safety or capacity of along frontage roads connecting local streets
the highway will be improved. that would otherwise dead end at the
freeway provided the intersecting streets
( 2 ) Conventional Highways. The roadway have sidewalks. Such sidewalks are
cross section usually provides areas for considered to be replacements of existing
sidewalks. The city, county, or property facilities. Normally, sidewalks should not
owner whose adjacent development be placed on the freeway side of frontage
generated the pedestrian traffic may build roads except where connections must be
sidewalks on State right of way under a made to pedestrian separations.
permit. If the traffic safety or capacity of the
highway will be improved, the State may (7) Separated Cross Streets. Sidewalks may be
contribute towards the cost of building a built on separated cross streets where re-
pedestrian facility. construction of the cross street is made
necessary by the freeway project and where
a (3) Freeway Facilities. Sidewalks may be built
across the freeway right of way on bridges
or through undercrossings where necessary
the criteria of paragraph (3) above apply.
July 1, 1995
(8) Bus Stops. Sidewalks may be built to justified even though the number of
connect bus stops to local streets. pedestrians is small.
(9) Footpaths. Footpaths differ from side- Special consideration should be given to
walks only in standard and cost. Footpaths school crossings. See Chapter 10 of the
must meet accessibility requirements. This Traffic Manual for additional discussion of
includes requirements for grade and cross factors to be analyzed when considering
slope, and the surface must be firm, stable pedestrian structures along school routes.
and slip-resistant. In lieu of PCC or AC, a State participation in the financing of
low cost surfacing such as decomposed pedestrian separations at ramp terminals is
granite may be appropriate. not normally justified because of the
(10) Accessibility Requirements. See Index accident history at these locations.
105.3. Exceptions to this general policy should be
(11) Maintenance. The State is responsible for considered only in special circumstances
maintaining and replacing damaged side- where no less expensive alternative is
walks within the right of way except: feasible.
(a) Where the sidewalk was placed by a pri- Where a pedestrian grade separation is
vate party under encroachment permit justified, an overcrossing is preferred. Un-
that requires the permittee to maintain the dercrossings should be avoided because of
sidewalk, but only if the original permit- the potential for criminal incidents and
tee still owns the abutting property. vandalism. Consideration may be given to
an undercrossing when specifically
(b) Where the city or county has placed non- requested in writing by a local agency, but
standard sidewalks with colored or tex- unobstructed visibility should be provided
tured surfaces, or meandering through the structure and approaches.
alignment. See Maintenance Manual for See Index 105.3 for discussion of provi-
additional discussion on State's
maintenance responsibilities regarding sions for physically disabled persons.
sidewalks. (2) Financing.
105.2 Pedestrian Grade Separations (a) Freeways--Where the pedestrian grade
separation is justified prior to award of
(I) Warrants. The need for a pedestrian grade the freeway contract, the State .should
separation is based on a study of the present pay the full cost of the pedestrian
and future needs of a particular area or facility. In some cases, construction of
community. Each situation should be in- the separation may be deferred;
vestigated and considered on its own merits. however, where the need has been
The study should cover pedestrian established to the satisfaction of the
generating sources in the area, pedestrian Department prior to award of the
crossing volumes, type of highway to be freeway contract, the State should pay
crossed, location of adjacent crossing the entire cost of the separation.
facilities, circuity, zoning, land use,
sociological and cultural factors, and the Local jurisdictions have some control
predominant type and age of persons ex- (by zoning and planning) of
pected to utilize the facility. development that influences pedestrian
traffic patterns. Therefore, where a
Pedestrian patterns should be maintained pedestrian grade separation is justified
across freeway routes where these patterns after the award of a freeway contract, the
have been previously established. Where State's share of the total construction
vehicular crossings are inadequate for cost of the separation should not exceed
pedestrians, separate structures should be 50%. The State must enter into a
provided. In general, if a circuitous route is cooperative agreement with the local
involved, a pedestrian separation may be jurisdiction on this basis.
July 1,1995
m (b) Conventional Highways--Grade separa-

tions are not normally provided for
either cars or pedestrians on
constructed in conformance with the State
Building Code.
Subsequent to the passage of the ADA, the
conventional highways. However, in Division of the State Architect (DSA) in the
those rare cases where pedestrian use is Department of General Services revised the
extensive, and where the local agency State Building Code (Title 24 of the California
has requested in writing that a pedestrian Code of Regulations) to generally conform with
separation be constructed, an overcross- the ADAAG. In most cases, the accessibility
ing may be considered. The State's standards in Title 24 are more stringent than
share of the total construction cost of the those in either the ADAAG or UFAS, but in
pedestrian facility should not exceed some cases they are less so. Caltrans has
50%. The State must enter into a co- traditionally followed Title 24 requirements in
operative agreement with the local juris- the design of all facilities. See "Disabled Access
diction on this basis. Regulations, Title 24, Interpretive Manual,"
by DSA.
105.3 Accessibility Requirements
The DSA is empowered to grant exceptions
The requirement to provide equivalent access to from the requirements of Title 24 standards, but
facilities for all individuals, regardless of only when it is evident that "equivalent facil-
disability, is stated in several laws adopted at itation and protection" are provided for the
both the State and Federal level. Two of the disabled.
most notable references are The Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) which was ( 1 ) Policy. The Department's policy is to
enacted by the Federal Government and took follow the requirements of both the UFAS
effect on January 26, 1992, and Section 4450 of and Title 24. This means that both sets of
the California Government Code. standards should be reviewed to determine if
differences exist, and the most stringent
The ADA is federally mandated, comprehensive standard between the two regulations should
civil rights legislation that has, among other
items, revised design standards related to access apply.
for disabled individuals. The ADA currently If, as expected, a modified ADAAG is
allows State and local governments the option to adopted as the Federal standard for State and
use either the Americans with Disabilities Act local governments, new instructions to
Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) or the designers will be distributed and a revision
Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards to the Highway Design Manual will follow.
(UFAS, the existing Federal standard) to assure Plans and specifications pertinent to the
accessibility requirements are achieved. An accessibility requirements for facilities
interim Final Ruling affecting Title I1 of the which are subject to Title 24 must be
ADA (State and local government facilities) has submitted to DSA for review and approval.
been published, with final approval expected by Curb ramps in compliance with Caltrans'
1995, that would make the ADAAG the only standard plans need not be reviewed by
Federally acceptable standard. Any facilities DSA.
constructed by public entities would be required
to comply with the standards stated in the ADA, (2) Procedures. There is no formal approval
at a minimum. process when Federal accessibility standards
(either UFAS or ADAAG) cannot be met.
Section 4450 of the California Government This does not mean that the Federal
Code requires that buildings, structures, side- standards are of less importance or can be
walks, curbs, and related facilities that are ignored. The regulations were written in a
constructed using any State funds, or the funds manner that provides few allowable
of cities, counties, or other political exceptions to meeting the standards and no
subdivisions be accessible to and usable by the single federal entity would be capable of
physically disabled. Section 4450 states that, handling all potential requests.
.) unless provided by law, facilities shall be Documentation in the form of a memo to file
should be retained in the project files that
July 1, 1995
discusses the justification and reasoning for all facilities for use by people on foot or
not meeting the applicable standard. Project in wheelchairs.
Engineers should discuss any proposed
deviation from State of Federal standards DSA approval is not required for local
with their Headquarters Geometric projects with no State funding except for
Reviewer. projects involving schools.
The following procedures were developed to (b) Documentation--Each pedestrian facility
help designers satisfy DSA regulations and must be listed in the PS&E submittal on
the requirements of Title 24, and therefore State-administered projects. Appropriate
reference DSA in several locations. project records should document the fact
that necessary approvals have been
(a) Plan Submittal--The engineer (or archi- obtained from DSA.
tect) in overall charge of the design of a The DOS is responsible for obtaining the
project has basic responsibility for insur-
ing that all plans and specifications for necessary approval from DSA on
the construction or reconstruction of projects that they design. Preliminary
project facilities designed for use by contacts with DSA will establish the
pedestrians conform to the above policy. basic requirements. However, DSA will
In the case of facilities designed by provide written confirmation of
Headquarters' personnel, such as certain compliance only upon receipt of the
roadside rests, vista points, maintenance completed bid package (plans and
facilities, pedestrian separations, etc., it specifications printed for advertising).
may be more convenient for the DOS will provide copies of this approval
Headquarters' designer to make the to the Districts.
submittal to the DSA, even though the (c) State Highways--Any requests for
balance of the project is being designed exceptions to the standards on State
in a District. The designer should highway projects must be processed by
coordinate with the District to determine the District. The request should include
who will carry out this function. Copies adequate detail and supporting exhibits
of any Headquarters' submittals or in duplicate to insure a clear presentation
approvals received from the DSA should of the case. The Access Compliance
be sent to the District. Unit of the DSA in Sacramento should
The details of the pedestrian facilities be contacted to obtain an application
and their relationship to the project as a form and the necessary processing
whole should be clearly depicted, and instructions.
submitted to DSA in a timely manner. It
is preferable that plans for all pedestrian 105.4 Guidelines for the Location and
facilities on a given project be submitted Design of Wheelchair Ramps
at the same time so that their relationship ( I ) Policy. On all State highway projects
to one another will be clear to the adequate and reasonable access for the safe
architectural reviewer. and convenient movement of physically
The Department also has the disabled persons are to be provided across
responsibility to see that plans and curbs that are constructed or replaced at
specifications for pedestrian facilities on pedestrian crosswalks. (This includes all
local projects financed with any State marked and unmarked crosswalks, as
funds administered by the Department defined in Section 275 of the Vehicle Code.)
are forwarded to DSA for review and Access also should be ~rovidedat bridge
approval. This may be accomplished by sidewalk approaches and at curbs in the
including in the applicable agreement vicinity of -pedestrian se~arationstructures.
with the local agency a clause requiring
the local agency to secure DSA approval Where a need is identified at an existing curb
or specific exception for the design of on a conventional highway, a wheelchair
July 1,1995
@ ramp may be constructed either by others

under encroachment permit or by the State.
some form of staged construction should be
considered as an alternative to deferring the
entire project. Stage construction may
(2) Location Guidelines. When locating include one or more of the following:
wheelchair ramps, designers must consider
the position of utilities such as power poles, (a) Shorten the proposed improvement, or
fire hydrants, street lights, traffic signals, divide it into segments for construction
and drainage facilities. in successive years;
On new construction. two ramps should be (b) Reduce number of lanes for initial con-
installed at each corner as shown on the struction. For example, a 4-lane
StandardPlans. For retrofit construction, freeway in a rural area with low current
one ramp at the center of the curb return is traffic volumes might be staged for two
acceptable, but not desirable. The usage of lanes initially with capacity adequate for
the one-ramt, design should be restricted to at least 10 years after construction.
those locations where the volume of vehicles Similarly, a freeway might be
making ripht turns is low. This will reduce constructed initially four or six lanes
the potential frequency of conflicts between wide with provision for future widening
turning vehicles and disabled persons in the median to meet future traffic
entering the common crosswalk area to needs.
cross either street. (c) Save on pavement design. For AC
Ramvs and/or curb openings should be pavement this most often would be done
p l by reducing the surface course thickness
p p with provision for a future overlay to
median islands at intersections. Often. on bring the pavement to full design depth.
traffic signalization, channelization vroiects, (d) Downscope geometric design features.
etc.. curbs are vroposed to be modified onlv This last expedient should be considered
on ~ortionsof an existing intersection. In only as a last resort; geometric features
such as alignment, grade, sight distance,
to installing retrofit wheelchair ramps on all weaving, or merging distance, are dif-
legs of the intersection. ficult and expensive to change once con-
( 3 ) Ramp Design. Wheelchair ramp designs structed.
should conform to current standards. A choice among cost reducing alternatives
Contract plans for ramps that conform to the should be made only after weighing the
details in the Standard Plans do not have to benefits and disadvantages of each, par-
be submitted to DSA for approval. Other ticularly as they apply to interchange
ramp designs that do not conform to the designs, which have a substantial effect on
Standard Plans must be submitted to DSA cost. See Index 502.3(2) for design
for review and approval. Usually special considerations regarding freeway inter-
justification will be needed for any deviation changes.
from standards.
106.2 Utilization of Local Roads
-
Topic 106 Stage Construction In the construction of freeways or other
and Utilization of Local Roads highways by stages or construction units, it fre-
quently becomes necessary to use portions of
106.1 Stage Construction the local road system at one or more stages prior
to completion of the whole route. Usually the
( I ) Cost Control Measures. When funds local road is used as a traversable connection be-
are limited and costs increase, estimated tween the newly completed segment and the
project costs often exceed the amounts existing State highway.
available in spite of the best efforts of the
0 engineering staff. At such times the ad-
vantages of reducing initial project costs by
Where such use of a local road is required, it
may be handled by:
July 1,1995
(a) Temporarily adopting the local road sys-

tem as a traversable State highway, or
responsibilities of each party for con-
struction and maintenance.
0
(b) Designating the local road system as a ( 2 ) Local Roads Used as Detours. In lieu of
detour until the next or final stage is con- temporary adoption by the CTC, a local road
structed. may be designated a detour to serve as a
( I ) Temporary Adoption of Local Roads as connection between the end of State
State Routes. Temporary adoption of a local highway construction and the old State
road system as a traversable route requires highway following completion of a State
CTC action. Temporary adoption should be highway construction unit and pending
used where, for example, one unit of the completion of the next unit. Local road
freeway construction has been completed detours are useful if the adjoining
and the District wishes to route traffic over construction unit is scheduled in a few years
the new roadway without waiting for or less and the local road connection is short
completion of the next succeeding units, and and direct. Adoption by the CTC is not re-
the use of local roads is necessary to connect quired when a local road is designated as a
the freeway with the old State highway. temporary detour.
Temporary adoption is useful where Under Section 93 of the Streets and High-
construction of the next freeway unit is a ways Code, the Department can finance any
number of years in the future. needed improvements required to handle de-
Such a temporary CTC adoption makes it tour traffic during the period the local road is
legally possible to relinquish the old used to provide continuity for State highway
highway portion superseded by relocation. traffic. A cooperative agreement is usually
required to establish terms of financing,
Normally, the Department will finance any construction, maintenance, and liability. If
needed improvement required to handle
traffic during the period the local road sys-
tem is a traversable State route. Financing
the local agency wants more than the mini-
mum work needed to accommodate traffic
on the local road during its use as a State
e
by the local agency is not required. highway, such betterments are to be
However, adoption of the local road by the financed by the local agency.
CTC must precede State financing and con-
struction of the proposed improvements. Section 93 also makes the Department re-
sponsible for restoration of the local road or
When a local facility is adopted as a street to its former condition at the conclu-
traversable route, the Department is sion of its use as a detour. The Department
responsible for all maintenance costs of the is responsible for all reasonable additional
local facility unless otherwise provided for maintenance costs incurred by local agencies
under the terms of a cooperative agreement. attributable to the detour. If a betterment is
The Department normally would not assume requested by the local agency as a part of
maintenance until the road is in use as a restoration it should be done at no cost to the
connection or, when necessary, until the Department.
award of an improvement contract.
Formal concurrence of the local agency must
be obtained before an adoption action is
-
Topic 107 Roadside
Installations
presented to the CTC.
If the local agency wants more improve- 107.1 Roadway Connections
ments than are needed to accommodate
traffic during the period when the local road AU connections to vista ~oints.truck weighing
is used as a State highway connection, or brake ins-pixtion stations. safety rest areas. or
betterments are to be financed by the local any other connections used by the traveling
agency. In such cases a cooperative ublic. should be constructed to standards
agreement would be necessary to define the Dommensurate with the standards established for
the roadwav to which thev are connected. On
freeways - this should- include standard
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 100- 11
July 1, 1995
acceleration and deceleration lanes and all other the highway is undergoing repairs, or is
@ design features required by normal ramp flooded. As to freeway construction, it is
connections (Index 504.2). On conventional considered that the local agency receives ample
highways and expressways, the standard public notice, by virtue of the freeway agreement, of
road connection should be the minimum con- the manner in which all local roads will be
nection (Index 405.7). affected by the freeway, and that the special
notice would therefore be superfluous.
0
to these installations should be allowed. When the notice is required, a letter should be
prepared and submitted to the appropriate
107.2 Maintenance Yards and Police authorities at least 60 days before road revision
Facilities on Freeways will occur. Prior to the submittal of the letter
and before plans are completed, the appropriate
Roadside maintenance yards and police facilities authorities should be contacted and advised of
other than truck weighing installations are not to contemplated plans. The timing of this notice
be provided with direct access to a freeway. should provide ample opportunity for consider-
They should be located on or near a cross road ation of any suggestions or objection made. In
having an interchange which provides for all general, it is intended that the formal notice of
turning movements. This policy applies to all intent which is required by law will confirm the
freeways including Interstate Highways. final plans which have been developed after dis-
cussions with the affected authorities.
107.3 Location of Border Inspection
Stations The PS&E package should document the date
notice was given and the date of reply by the
Other agencies require vehicles entering affected local agencies.
California to stop at buildings maintained by
these agencies for inspection of vehicles and The Office of Project Planning and Design must
cargoes. No such building, parking area, or be notified by letter as soon as possible in all
@ roadway adjacent to the parking area at these cases where controversy develops over the
facilities should be closer than 10 m from the closures to crossing traffic.
nearest edge of the ultimate traveled way of the
highway . 108.2 Bus Loading Facilities
( I ) General. These instructions are applicable
-
Topic 108 Coordination With to projects involving bus loading facilities
on freeways as authorized in Section 148 of
Other Agencies
the Streets and Hiehwavs Code. Instruc-
tions pertaining touthe provisions for mass
108.1 Divided Nonfreeway Facilities public transportation facilities in freeway
Per Section 144.5 of the Streets and Highways corridors, aithorized in Section 150 of the
Code, advance notice is required when a Streets and Highways Code, are covered in
conventional highway, which is not a declared other Caltrans' written directives.
freeway, is to-be divided or separated into During the early phases of the design pro-
separate roadways, if such division or separa- cess, the District must send to the PUC,
tion will result in preventing trac on existing governing bodies of local jurisdictions, and
county roads or city streets from making a direct common carriers or transit authorities
crossing of the State highway at the intersection. operating in the vicinity, a map showing the
In this case, 30 days notice must be given to the proposed location and type of interchanges,
City Council or Board of Supervisors having with a request for their comments regarding
jurisdiction over said roads or streets. bus loading facilities. The transmittal letter
The provisions of Section 144.5 of the Streets should state that bus loading facilities will be
and Highways Code are considered as not constructed only where they are in the public
applying to freeway construction, or to tem- interest and where the cost is commensurate
porary barriers for the purpose of controlling with the public benefits to be derived from
trafic during a limited period of time, as when their construction. It should also state that if
July 1,1995
the agency desires to have bus loading facili- changes. See "A Policy on Geometric
ties included in the design of the freeway Design of Highways and Streets",
that their reply should include locations for AASHTO, 1994, for a discussion of bus
bus stops and any supporting data, such as stop guidelines.
estimates of the number of bus passengers (4) Reports. On projects where all the agencies
per day, which would help to justify their contacted have expressed the view that bus
request. stops are not needed, a report to the Office
(2) Conferences and Hearings. No conferences of Project Planning and Design is not
or hearings are to be held where all of the required. However, a statement to the effect
contacted agencies say that bus loading that the PUC, bus companies, and local
facilities are not required on the proposed governmental agencies have been contacted
freeway. The freeway should be designed regarding bus stops and have made no
without bus loading facilities in these cases. request for their provisions should be
Where any one of the agencies request bus included in the final environmental
loading facilities on the proposed freeway, document or the PS&E submittal, whichever
the District should hold a conference and in- is appropriate.
vite representatives of each agency. For projects where one or more of the agen-
Prior to the conference, the District should cies involved have requested bus loading
prepare geometric designs of the bus loading facilities either formally or informally during
facilities for the purpose of making cost esti- conferences, a complete report should be in-
mates and determining the feasibility of pro- corporated in the final environmental docu-
viding the facilities. Bus loading facilities ment. It should include:
must be approved by the District Director (a) A map showing the section of freeway
with concurrence from the Project involved and the locations at which bus
Development Coordinator (see Topic 82 loading facilities are being considered.
for approvals). (b) A complete discussion of all conferences
(3) Justification. General warrants for the held.
provision of bus loading facilities in terms (c) Data on type of bus service provided,
of cost or number of passengers have not both at present and after completion of
been established. Each case should be the freeway.
considered individually because the number
of passengers justifying a bus loading facil- (d) Estimate of cost of each facility, includ-
ity may vary greatly between remote rural ing any additional cost such as right of
locations and high volume urban freeways. way or lengthening of structures
required to accommodate the facility.
While bus stops at each interchange may be (e) Number of buses per day and the
desirable from the standpoint of convenience number of on and off passengers per
to the patrons, such frequent stops would day served by the existing bus stops and
lengthen the overall running time from point the number estimated to use the
of origin to point of destination. proposed facilities.
It may be preferable for patrons to board and (f) District's recommendation as to the
leave the bus at an off-freeway location provision of bus loading facilities. If the
rather than use stairways or ramps to recommendation is in favor of providing
freeway bus stops. Where existing bus loading facilities, drawings showing
highways with bus service are incorporated location and tentative geometric designs
into the freeway right of way, it may be should be included.
necessary to make provisions for bus
service for those passengers who were
served along the existing highway. This
may be accomplished either by providing
freeway bus loading facilities or by the bus
leaving and reentering the freeway at inter-
July 1, 1995
representative to discuss nonparticipating

@ 108.3 Coordination with the FHWA items and unusual or special design features
( I ) General. As early in the design process as to resolve any differences or to determine if
possible, FHWA representatives who visit additional FHWA approvals are necessary.
the Districts at regular intervals should be The importance of early contact is
kept informed of proposed activities on emphasized to avoid delays when final plans
Federal-aid routes. Formal approval of are prepared.
design standards by the FHWA is required For additional information, see the Project
for all projects which are considered to be Development Procedures Manual.
Interstate Completion projects or new or
reconstruction projects on the Interstate
System costing more than $1,000,000 or
where there is a change in access control.
-
Topic 109 Scenic Values in
Planning and Design
(2) Approvals. The District Directors are re-
sponsible for obtaining formal FHWA 109.1 Basic Precepts
approval for the following items on Federal- On any highway, pleasing appearance is an
aid routes: important consideration. Scenic values must be
(a) Route location (location approval). See considered along with safety, utility, economy,
the Project Development Procedures and all the other factors considered in planning
Manual for a discussion of procedures to and design. This is particularly true of the many
be followed to obtain route and design portions of the State Highway System situated
approvals. in areas of natural beauty. The location of the
highway, its alignment and profile, the cross
(b) The final environmental document (such section design, and other features should be in
action constitutes FWHA approval of harmony with the setting. Economy consistent
location and basic design features). with traffic needs is of paramount importance,
(c) Exceptions to design standards are re- although a reasonable additional expenditure can
quired for all design elements which do be justified to enhance the beauty of the
not meet minimum standards related to highway.
any of the FHWA's 13 controlling
criteria for projects which are considered 109.2 Design Speed
to be Interstate Completion projects or The design speed should be carefully chosen as
new or reconstruction projects on the it is the key element which establishes standards
Interstate System costing more than for the horizontal alignment and profile of the
$1,000,000 or where there is a change highway. These requirements in turn directly
in access control. See Index 82.2. influence how well the highway blends into the
(d) Changes in access control lines, changes landscape. Scenic values, particularly in areas
in locations of connection points, adding of natural scenic beauty must play a part along
connection points, or deleting connec- with the other factors set forth under Index
tion points on the Interstate System 101.1 in selecting a design speed.
(even when no Federal money is
involved). 109.3 Aesthetic Factors
(e) Addition of or changes in locked gates Throughout planning and design consider the
under certain conditions (see Index following:
701.2). (a) The location of the highway should be
Normally, major nonparticipating items are such that the new construction will pre-
identified at the time of design approval. serve the natural environment and will
Approximately twelve months prior to lead to and unfold scenic positions.
PS&E submittal, a project review should be
e arranged by the District with the Project
Development Coordinator and the FHWA
(b) The general alignment and profile of the
highway should fit the character of the
area traversed so that unsightly scars of
July 1,1995
excavation and embankment will be held features add scenic interest and relieve
to a minimum. Curvilinear horizontal the monotony of parallel roadways.
alignment should be coordinated with (h) Bridges, tunnels, and walls merit
vertical curvature to achieve a pleasing
appearance. consideration in lieu of prominent
excavation and embankment slopes
(c) Destruction of desirable vegetation (e.g., when costs of such alternates are not
trees, specimen plants, diminishing excessive.
native species of historical plantings) (i) Slopes should be flattened whenever
should be minimized. Whenever practical and vegetation provided so that
specimen or matue trees are present,
especially in forested areas, a tree survey lines of construction are softened.
should be made to provide accurate data (j) Structures should be located and de-
on the variety, condition, location, size, signed to give the most pleasing appear-
and ground elevations of trees affected. ance.
(d) Appropriate replacement planting should (k) Scars from material sites should be
be provided when specimens removed avoided. Planting compatible with the
are considered significant. When native surroundings should be undertaken to
or specimen trees are removed, revegetate such scars when they are un-
replacement planting should reflect the avoidable.
visual importance of the plantings lost. (1) Drainage appurtenances should be so lo-
Where the visual impact of tree removal
is substantial, replacement with large cated that erosion, sumps, and debris
transplants or specimen size trees may collection areas are hidden from view or
be appropriate. If not, an appropriate eliminated when site conditions permit.
quantity of smaller replacements may be (m)Interchange areas should be graded to
required to ensure eventual survival of provide graceful, natural looking
an adequate number of plants. contours. Appearance can be further
Provisions for watering and establish- enhanced by planting a vegetative cover
ment of replacement planting should also appropriate to the locality, being careful
be considered. The District Landscape to maintain driver visibility.
Architect should be consulted early in (n) In locations where graffiti has been
the planning and design process so that excessive, designs which deter graffiti
appropriate conservation and should be used.
revegetation measures are incorporated.
(e) Existing vegetation such as trees or large
brush may be selectively thinned or re-
Topic 110 Special-
Considerations
moved to open up scenic vistas or
provide a natural looking boundary
between forest and cleared areas. 110.1 Design for Overloaded Material
Vegetation removal for aesthetic Hauling Equipment
purposes should be undertaken only Sometimes bid costs can be reduced by allowing
with the concurrence of the District the hauling of overloads on a construction
Landscape Architect. contract. The savings may warrant designing
(f) Vista points should be provided when structures and structural sections of new
views and scenery of outstanding merit roadways to carry the heavier loads and also
occur and feasible sites can be found. reconstructing roadbeds used by overloaded
(See Topic 904 for site selection material hauling equipment.
criteria.) In general, hauling of overloads is restricted to
the project limits. However, overloads are
(g) Whenever feasible, wide medians and
independent roadways should be permitted on portions of existing highways
which are to be abandoned, repaired or
0
provided on multilane facilities as these
July 1, 1995
@ reconstructed with a new structural section, if separations, and stream crossings are most
the overloads do not affect the design of the likely to be in this category.
reconstructed structural section. (3) Category 3. Structures which will not be
Any overload requirements should be de- designed to carry overloads. Most over-
termined before detailed plans are prepared. crossing, ramp, and frontage road structures
The District should request from the Office of are in this category.
Structure Design the estimated additional cost of The District should consult with the DOS early
the structures to carry overloads and use this in the design phase when determining the design
information in making economic comparisons. overload category of each bridge in the project.
Factors to be considered in making the Each case where hauling of overloads is
comparisons should include the costs of permitted must be specifically described in the
strengthening structures, haul costs, amount of Special Provisions. Each structure designed
material to be hauled, repair or reconstruction of under Categories 1 and 2 must also be desig-
structural sections, construction of separate haul nated in the Special Provisions. The design
roads or structures, strengthening of the new load must not exceed the weight limitation of
structural section, sequence of construction Section 7-1.02, "Weight Limitations", of the
operations, and other pertinent factors. In some Standard Specifications. The District Director
cases, consideration should be given for or designated representative must approve the
requiring the contractor to construct a separate overload category for each structure.
haul structure over a heavily traveled surface
street when large quantities of material are 110.2 Control of Water Pollution
involved. Water pollution related to the construction of
The comparison and all factors leading to the highways and to the drainage of completed
decision should be complete, fully documented, highways should be held to the practical min-
and retained in the project files. imum. This objective should be considered
during both the route location studies and de-
The design of structures for overloads will tailed design phases of each project.
normally be governed by one of the following
categories: Proposed alterations of existing conditions in
the drainage patterns and creations of exposed
(I) Category I. Structures definitely planned to earth surfaces should be considered in relation
carry overloads. This category should be to the effect on erosion and siltation. Where
used only when the structures are to be interdisciplinary analysis (engineering, biology,
constructed under a separate contract prior to geology, chemical) indicates that harmful
a grading contract and the estimated savings physical, chemical, or biological pollution of
in grading costs exceed the extra structure streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, coastal
costs. The District must request the Office waters, or groundwater may occur, preventive
of Structure Design to design for the measures and practices will be required. These
permissible overloading. measures include temporary erosion control
(2) Category 2. Structures which are designed features during constktion, scheduling of
to allow the contractor the option of work, as well as the permanent facilities to be
strengthening to carry overloads. The con- built under the contract. The control of erosion
tract plans will include alternative details for associated with permanent drainage structures is
strengthening the structure and the covered in Chapter 800, "Drainage".
contractor can decide at the time of bidding The background and general requirements of
whether to haul around the structure, build water quality control laws are discussed in the
his own haul road structures, use "legal Environmental Handbook.
load" equipment on the unstrengthened
structure, or construct the structure in Districts must initiate contact with the
accordance with the strengthened alternative appropriate agencies responsible for water
e design. The District should notify the DOS
regarding structures to have optional
designs. Undercrossings, overheads,
quality as early as feasible in development of
transportation projects to ensure full identifica-
tion of pollution problems, and to ensure full
July 1,1995
cooperation, understanding, and agreement

between Caltrans and the other agencies. The
to discourage the development of
innovative designs or operational
a
agencies to be contacted will vary from project methods.)
to project depending on the nature of the project, Districts are not authorized to act independently
the aquatic resources present, and the uses of
the water. The agencies that may be interested on Discharge or Monitoring Requirements
in a project include but are not limited to the fol- which:
lowing: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. (a) Are deemed unreasonable, or
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Environmental (b) Are unusual and may result in establish-
Protection Agency, California Regional Water ing a precedent with statewide implica-
Quality Control Boards, California Department tions, or
of Fish and Game, Flood Control Districts, and
local water districts. The District Environmental (c) Extend beyond the scope of the
Unit can provide assistance in determining proposed project, or
which agencies should be contacted. (d) Could result in added projects or pro-
grams.
Recommendations for mitigation measures or
construction and operational controls contained Requirements in the latter categories should be
in the Project's Water Quality Study should acknowledged and forwarded to the Headquar-
receive full consideration in the development of ters Environmental Engineering Office along
the project. Caltrans is legally bound to comply with recommendations.
with the appropriate permits as outlined in the The intent of the discharge and monitoring
California Permit Handbook. Caltrans is also requirements is to maintain statewide uniformity
legally bound to comply with any water quality and control over possible new programs.
mitigation measures specified in the projects
environmental document. Plans and specifica- On sensitive projects early contact should be
tions should reflect water quality protection established between the District project @
measures in a manner that is enforceable in development personnel and biologists,
contracts. geologists, and other specialists available in the
Headquarters Environmental Program, the
Waste Discharge Requirements and NPDES Engineering Service Center (ESC) Office of
permits, whlch generally set requirements for Structural Foundations, or other Districts, to
the contractor, are issued through a formal order ensure optimum development of water quality
of the Regional Water Quality Control Board control measures.
and can be revised only through the same
process; thus once established, they are Because siltation resulting from erosion is
cumbersome to adjust. On the other hand, recognized as a major factor in water pollution,
Monitoring Programs, which normally are the continuous efforts should be made to improve
responsibility of Caltrans' personnel, are erosion control practices.
established and may be revised by ( I ) Route Location Phase. When route location
administrative action of the Boards' Executive studies are started, consideration should be
Officer. While Monitoring Programs may call given to the items in the following list:
for collection of certain data for an indeterminant
time, the anticipated requirements can be (a) Identify all waters in the vicinity of a
adjusted if experience proves they are unreason- highway project which might affect con-
able or non-productive. struction, maintenance and operational
activities.
Districts are authorized to take all necessary The environmental factors that might af-
action on Discharge or Monitoring Re- fect preconstruction activities should be
quirements which: looked into for the benefit of the resident
(a) Pertain solely to the specific proposed engineer and contractor. An example
project, and would be relocation of drilling of pile
foundations in a sensitive stream to
(b) Fall within reasonable and normally
acceptable practices. (This is not meant
prevent possible impacts. @
July 1,1995
(b) Identify for each project all waters, both Geologic Services Section before setting
fresh and saline, surface and plant establishment periods and contract
underground, where water quality may specifications.
be affected by the proposed (d) Whenever planting must be delayed,
construction. provide temporary erosion protection
(c) Determine if any watersheds, aquifers, with mulches, fiber mats, netting, dust
wells, reservoirs, lakes, or streams are palliatives, crust forming chemicals, silt
sources for domestic water supplies. fences, plastic sheets or any other
procedure that may be necessary to
(d) Determine if any sensitive fishery, prevent erosion. The ESC Office of
wildlife, recreational, agricultural, or in- Structural Foundations, Geologic
dustrial aquatic resources are located in Services Section can assist in the
the vicinity of the project. selection and design of temporary
(e) Consider possible relocation or realign- erosion control measures.
ment that could be made to avoid or min- (e) Design overside drains, surface, subsur-
imize the possibility of pollution of face, and cross drains so that they will
existing waters. discharge in locations and in such a
(f) Identify variations in the erosive charac- manner- that surface and subsurface
teristics of the soils in the area, and con- water quality will not be affected. The
sider relocation or grade changes that outlets may require aprons, bank
would minimize erosion. protection, silting basins, or energy
dissipators.
(g) Where possible, avoid unstable areas
where construction may cause future (f) Provide for adequate fish passage
landslides, if this is possible. through highway culverts or under
e
A
bridges when necessary to protect or

(h) Identify construction season preference enhance fishery resources.
of regulatroy agencies.
(g) Provide bank protection where the high-
(2) Design Phase. During the design phase, the way is adjacent to rivers, streams, lakes,
items listed above should again be consid- or other bodies of water.
ered. More specific items for consideration
are presented in the following checklist: (h) Where required, provide slope
protection or channel lining, energy
(a) Provide for the preservation of roadside dissipators, etc. for channel changes.
vegetation beyond the limits of construc-
tion by special provisions. (i) Where the State has made arrangements
for materials, borrow, or disposal sites,
(b) Design slopes as flat as is reasonable grading plans should be provided and
with slope rounding, contouring, or reseeding required. Special provisions
stepping to minimize erosion and to should be inserted requiring the
promote plant growth. contractor to furnish plans for grading
(c) Provide seeding and planting on new and reseeding of sites obtained by him.
slopes. Consider the advisability of (j) Check right of way widths for adequate
specifying completion of planting on space for rounding at tops of cuts and
exposed slopes by a certain date to bottoms of fills and for adequate slope
winterize the project, temporary planting protection ditches. Also consider right
with quick growing cover, not just tying of way or encroachment rights for
planting time to completion of the temporary work such as desilting
slopes. Native plants should be basins, stream diversion, or stream
considered for all plantings. crossing protection.
Plan permanent erosion control plantings (k) All ditches subject to erosion should be
for fall or spring; contact the ESC treated. These treatments include but are
Office of Structural Foundations, not limited to grass lining, rock lining
July 1,1995
(with or without geotextile underlay- Code require that abandoned wells be cov-
ment), or paving. The ESC Office of ered, filled, or fenced for safety reasons.
Structural Foundations, Geologic Statewide standards for construction,
Services Section can assist with the maintenance and destruction of water wells,
selection and design of ditch treatment. monitoring wells and cathodic protection
Consideration should be given to using wells have been issued by the California De-
soil cement in median ditches or other partment of Water Resources (DWR) in
wide drainage areas that cannot be Bulletin 74 - 81, "Water Well Standards:
vegetated. State of California", dated December, 1981,
and Bulletin 74 - 8 1", dated January, 1990.
(1) Temporary construction features for the Pursuant to these standards and interagency
control of erosion and water pollution agreement with DWR, the following
that can be predicted should be made a procedures are to be followed to determine
part of the plans, specifications, and requirements for abandonment and
contract pay items. Such items as extra destruction of wells within State highway
seeding of slopes, berms, dikes, rights of way.
ditches, pipes, dams, settling basins,
stream diversion channels, slope drains, (a) Before producing water wells within the
and crossings over live streams should highway right of way are abandoned, a
be considered. Since all contingencies determination should be made of the
probably cannot be foreseen, possible future uses of the wells. Such
supplemental work funds should be set future uses include landscape irrigation,
up for each project. Pay items for roadside rests, vista points, maintenance
temporary erosion control should not be facilities, truck weighing facilities, and
adjusted for increased or decreased others. Also see Index 706.4.
quantity.
(m) Special consideration should be given to
using vegetated ditches to remove
(b) The District Project Development and
Right of Way Branches determine the lo-
cation of water wells that will be affected
e
highway runoff pollutants. The ESC by highway construction on a project
Office of Structural Foundations. basis.
Geologic Services Section can provide (c) The District submits a letter to the Di-
assistance in designing and constructing rector, Department of Water Resources,
vegetated ditches. 1416 Ninth Street, Sacramento, CA.
(n) Mandatory order of work clauses some- 958 14 Attention: Water Resources
times result in increased costs or longer Evaluation Section, Division of Re-
time limits, but they must be considered sources Development, listing the wells
where their use would eliminate the ex- to be abandoned and any information
pense of temporary construction or that may be known about them. The
where they result in earlier protection of letter should include the scheduled
erodible areas, or improved handling of PS&E date and the anticipated adver-
site runoff. tising date for the project. Two copies
of a map, or maps, showing the location
(3) Abandonment and Destruction of Water of each well accurately enough so it can
Wells. The abandonment and destruction of be located in the field should be included
water wells within the highway right of way with the letter.
must be handled in accordance with require-
ments established by statute and by (d) DWR will investigate the wells and write
agreement with the Department of Water a report recommending procedures to be
Resources (DWR) to avoid pollution of un- used in destruction of the wells within
derground water and ensure public safety. the highway right of way. The
Sections 13700 to 13806 of the California interagency agreement provides for
Water Code deal, in general, with the con- reimbursement of the DWR's cost for
struction and destruction of wells. Section these investigations and reports.
24400 to 24404 of the Health and Safety
July 1, 1995
(e) DWR will forward its report to the Caltrans should work actively with all ap-
District. propriate agencies interested in water qual-
(f) Provisions for destruction of abandoned
ity. Particular attention should be paid to
wells occasioned by highway construc- agencies that have permit authority. All
tion must be included in the District aspects of water quality should be
PS&E report. The work, usually done considered in the design.
by filling and sealing, normally should Portions of Section 7 of the Standard Speci-
be included in the contract Special Provi- fications outline the contractor's respon-
sions. Steps must be taken to insure that sibilities for the work and for protection of
wells are left in a safe condition between adjoining property and waters. Section 7
the time the site is acquired by the State also requires the contractor to develop a
and the time the well is sealed. water pollution control program which must
(g) In some cases, local ordinances or be accepted by the Resident Engineer.
conditions will require the filling and Project Development personnel should en-
sealing of the well prior to the highway sure that all aspects of erosion control and
contract in order to leave the well in a other water quality control features consid-
safe condition. ered during design are fully explained to the
(h) The contractor who does the work to Resident Engineer. Such data is essential
abandon the well must file the Notice of for review of the contractor's water pollu-
Intent (Form DWR 2 125) and the Water tion control program. Designers should par-
Well Drillers Report (Form DWR 188) ticipate in that review when possible, both
required by the Department of Water from the standpoint of offering assistance
Resources. and gaining practical knowledge of contrac-
tor's methods and procedures. Judgment
e (i) Also, under California Water Code

Section 13801, after January 15, 1990,
all cities and counties are required to
must be used in differentiating between
planned temporary protection features and
work which the contractor must perform in
have adopted ordinances that require order to fulfill his responsibility to protect
prior acquisition of permits for all well the work from damage.
construction, reconstruction and Since all work performed by a contractor is
destruction and requiring possession of paid for one way or another, since it is de-
an active C-57 contractors license as the sirable to avoid contract change orders, and
minimum qualification for persons because important protection should not be
permitted to work on wells. left to the contractor's judgment, it is impor-
(4) Summary. To prevent pollution of all tant that all predictable temporary protection
waters that could be affected by a highway measures be incorporated in the plans and
construction project, it is desirable to avoid specifications and items for payment
involvement with the water or avoid the con- included in the contract items of work.
struction of erodible features. Since it is sel-
dom possible to avoid all such features, ero- In addition, the abandonment of water wells
sion should be attacked at the source with must be given special attention in accordance
the design of maximum erosion control with Section (3) above.
measures. Material resulting from erosion
should either be discharged in locations 110.3 Control of Air Pollution
where no negative environmental impacts Air pollution associated with the construction of
will occur, or be deposited in locations that highways and to completed highway facilities
are accessible to maintenance forces. The should be held to the practical minimum. The
ESC Office of Structural Foundations can designer should consider the impacts of haul
provide technical assistance in assessing the roads, disposal sites, borrow sites, and other
impacts of erosion and in designing erosion
a control features.
material sources in addition to construction
within the highway right of way.
July 1, 1995
( I ) Control of Dust. Many of the items listed roadway. Acceptable alternates based on
under Index 110.2, Control of Water economic, aesthetic, safety, and other
Pollution, are applicable to dust control. pertinent considerations should be included
Consideration should be given to these items in the contract if possible.
and additional materialVpresented in the On projects where burning will not be per-
following list: mitted and disposal of debris within the right
(a) See Index 110.2(2)(a), (c), (d), (k) and of way is not possible, optional disposal
(n). sites should be made available. Information
(b) Flat areas not susceptible to erosion by on such site arrangements should be made
water may have to be planted to prevent available in the "Materials Information" fur-
wind erosion. nished to prospective bidders. Reference is
made to the applicable portion of Index
(c) Embankments and or cut slopes can pro- 111.3 and 111.4 for handling this
vide substantial wind erosion materials, requirement. Special requirements for
when they project above the surrounding disposal of debris and final appearance of
areas. They may require planting even if the disposal site should be covered in the
water erosion is only a minor considera- Special Provisions. The intent of this in-
tion. struction is that the designer should make
(d) In areas naturally subject to dust or sand sure that prospective bidders have adequate
storms, wind breaks should be information on which to make a realistic bid
considered to control dust. on clearing and grubbing.
Because it may be beneficial in promoting
(e) Special provisions should be used growth of cover and controlling erosion,
requiring the contractor to restore limbs, branches, and brush should be
material, borrow, or disposal sites, and reduced to chips and incorporated with the
temporary haul roads to a condition such soil, spread on fill slopes, used as a cover
that their potential as sources of blowing mulch or disposed of in other ways
dust or other pollution is no greater than compatible with the location. In forest areas
in their original condition. Work for this where they will not look out of place, limbs
purpose that can be predicted should be and trunks of trees that are too large for
made a part of the PS&E, which should chipping may be limbed and cut to straight
require submission of the contractors lengths and the pieces lined up at the toes of
plan for grading, seeding, mulching or the slope. An earth cover may be necessary
other appropriate action. for aesthetic reasons. or to reduce fire
(2) Control of Burning. Health and Safety hazards. Under ce& conditions salvage
Code provisions and rules issued by Air of merchantable timber may be desirable, or
Pollution Control Boards will preclude may be required by right of way
burning on most highway projects. Off-site commitments. Whenever merchantable
disposal of debris must not create timber is to be salvaged, appropriate specifi-
contamination problems and should not be cations should be provided. Stumps and
specified simply as an expedient resolution unsightly clumps of debris should be
of the problem without imposing adequate chipped or buried in areas where they will
controls on how such disposal site is to be not create future problems. Care should be
handled. Designers should seek disposal taken not to block drainage or to interfere
site locations within the right of way where with maintenance operations.
it will be permissible to dispose of debris. Before proposing chipping as the method of
Proper procedures, including compaction disposal, the designer should investigate to
and burial, should be specified. Debris determine if plant disease or insect pests will
should not be disposed of within the normal be spread to disease-free or insect-free
roadway. Burying within the right of way areas. Procedures to decontaminate such
should be done in such a fashion that the chips before use should be included in the
layers of debris will not act as a permeable contract if necessary. Designers should
layer or otherwise be detrimental to the
July 1,1995
0 seek advice from local experts and County

Agricultural Extension Offices to determine
Surface Transportation Projects, and the August
24, 1993 Federal Wetlands Policy. Wetlands
the extent of such problems and the are covered on the State level by the Porter-
procedures and chemicals to be specified. Cologne Water Qua€ity Act and the Resources
New chip distribution techniques are Agency's Wetlands Policy. District
available from the ESC Office of Structural Environmental Unit can provide assistance in
Foundations, Geologic Services Section. identifying wetlands and recommending
mitigation measures.
The U.S. Forest Service and the State Divi-
sion of Forestry should be contacted during 110.5 Earthquake Consideration
the design stage to ascertain the
requirements that these agencies will make Earthquakes are naturally occurring events that
upon any disposal methods to be used in have a high potential to cause damage and
areas under their control. destruction. While it is not possible to
completely assure earthquake proof facilities,
It will be noted that under certain limited every attempt should be made to limit potential
conditions the prohibition against burning damage and prevent collapse.
may be eliminated from the Special Provi-
sions. There are certain measures that should be
considered when a project is to be constructed in
There will be some areas of the State where or near a known zone of active faulting.
Air Pollution Control Boards may consider
issuing a permit for open burning where the Early in the route location process, active and
effect on air quality is expected to be inactive faults should be mapped by engineering
negligible and few if any residents would be geologists. A general assessment of the seismic
affected. The individual situation should be risk of various areas within the study zone
studied and appropriate special provisions should then be prepared. The DOS and Office
prepared for each project to fully cover all of Structural Foundations are available to assist
possible methods of disposal of debris that in the assessment of seismic risk.
will be available to the contractor. Strong consideration must be given to the
The local Air Pollution Control Board location of major interchanges. They must be
should be contacted to determine the current sited outside of heavily faulted areas unless
regulations. there are exceptional circumstances that make it
impractical to do so. Where close seismic ac-
(3) Summary. Special consideration should be tivity is highly probable, consideration should
given to the direction of prevailing winds or be given to avoiding complex multilevel inter-
high-velocity winds in relation to possible changes in favor of simple designs with low
sources of dust and downwind residential, skew, short span structures close to the original
business, or recreational areas. Every ground, and maximum use of embankment.
practical means should be incorporated in Single span bridges which are designed to tol-
the design of the highway and in the erate large movements are desirable.
provisions of the contract to prevent air
pollution resulting from highway Early recognition of seismic risk may lead the
construction and operation. designer to modify alignment or grade in order
to minimize high cuts, fills, and bridge
110.4 Wetlands Protection structures in the area. Slopes should be made as
The Nation's wetlands are recognized on both flat as possible both for kmbankment stability
and to reduce slide potential in cuts. Buttress
the Federal and State level as a valuable fills can be constructed to improve cut stability.
resource. As such, there have been several The DOS and the Office of Structural
legislative and administrative actions which Foundations, should be consulted early when
provide for special consideration for the preser- considering various alternatives to obtain
vation of wetlands. These are embodied on the recommendations for mitigating earthquake
Federal level in Executive Order 11990, DUI'
@ Order 5660.1A, Section 404 of the Clean Water damage.
Act, and the NEPA 404 Integration Process for
July 1,1995
When subjected to an earthquake, fills may In addition to reducing the time the public is
crack, slump, and settle. In areas of high water exposed to construction operations, the latter
table, liquefaction may cause large settlement effort will help to hold costs down.
and shifting of the roadway. It is not economi- The traffic control plans should be consistent
cally feasible to entirely prevent this damage. with Chapter 5 of the Traffic Manual, "Manual
One possible mitigation for existing soils would of Traffrc Controls", and the philosophies and
be to have the contract Special Provisions pro- requirements contained in standard lane closure
vide for removal of loose and compressible ma- plans developed by the Headquarters Traffic
terial from fill foundation areas, particularly in Operations Program for use on State highways
canyons, sidehill fills, and ravines and for foun- and should cover, as appropriate, such items as:
dation preparation on existing hillsides at the
transition between cut and fill. Signing.
No modification is necessary in the design of Flagging.
the pavement structural sections for the purpose
of reducing damage due to future earthquakes. Geometrics of detours.
Normally it is not possible to reduce this Methods and devices for delineation and
damage, since the structural section cannot be channelization.
insulated from movements of the ground on
which it rests. In active fault areas, consid- Application and removal of pavement
eration should be given to the use of flexible markings.
pipes or pipes with flexible couplings for both
cross drains and roadway drainage. Placement and design of barriers and
barricades.
Additional expenditure for right of way and
construction to make highways and freeways Separation of opposing traffic streams
more earthquake resistant in a known active (See 23 CFR 6305).
fault area should be kept in balance with the Maximum lengths of lane closures.
amount of impact on the traveling public if the
facility may be put out of service following a Speed limits and enforcement.
disastrous earthquake. Loss of a major Use of COZEEP (Construction Zone
interchange, however, may have a tremendous Enhanced Enforcement Patrol).
influence on M i c flow and because of the
secondary life-safety and economic impacts Use of pilot cars.
some additional expenditure may be justified.
Construction scheduling.
110.6 Traffic Control Plans
Staging and sequencing.
A detailed plan for moving traffic through or
around a construction zone must be developed Length of project under construction at
and included in the PS&E for all projects to any one time.
assure that adequate consideration is given to the Methods of minimizing construction
safety and convenience of motorists, pedestri- time without compromising safety.
ans, and workers during construction. Design
plans and specifications must be carefully ana- Hours of work.
lyzed in conjunction with Traffic, Construction,
and Structure personnel (where applicable) to Storage of equipment and materials.
determine in detail the measures required to Removal of construction debris.
warn and guide motorists through the prcjject
during the various stages of work. Starting Treatment of pavement edges.
early in the design phase the project engineer Roadway lighting.
should give continuing attention to this subject,
including consideration of the availability of Movement of construction equipment.
good access to the work site, in order that
efficient rates of production can be maintained. Access for emergency vehicles.
July 1,1995
Clear roadside recovery area. (a) When construction operations are not in
progress.
Provision for disabled vehicles. (b) When lane closures longer than a speci-
Surveillance and inspection. fied length are delineated by cones or
other such nonpermanent devices,
Needed modifications of above items for whether or not construction operations
inclement weather or darkness. are in progress.
Consideration for bicycle and pedestrian (c) Under other conditions where the risk
traffic. and consequences of traffic control
Consideration of complete facility device failure are deemed sufficient.
closure during construction. Potentially hazardous working conditions must
Consideration of ingresslegress be recognized and full consideration given to the
requirements for construction vehicles. safety of workers as well as the general public
during construction. This requirement includes
Any other matters appropriate to the the provision of adequate clearance between
safety objective. public traffic and work areas, work periods, and
Normally, not all the above items will be lane closures based on careful consideration of
pertinent to any one traffic control plan. De- anticipated traffic volumes, and minimum
pending on the complexity of the project and the exposure time of workers through simplified
volume of traffic affected, the data to be in- design and methods.
cluded in the traffic control plan can vary from a If a Transportation Management Plan (TMP) is
simple graphic alignment of the various se- included in the project, the traffic control plans
quences to the inclusion of complete construc- (TCP) may need to be coordinated with the
tion details in the plans and special provisions. public information campaign and the
In any event, the plans should clearly depict the transportation demand management elements.
exact sequence of operation, the construction to Any changes in TMP or TCP must be made in
be performed, and the traveled way to be used harmony for the plans to succeed. The 'W
by ill movements of traffic during each con- Guidelines", available from HQ, Traffic
struction phase. Sufficient alignment data, Operational Systems Branch, should be
profiles, plan dimensions, and typical sections reviewed for further guidance.
should be shown to ensure that the contractor
and resident engineer will have no difficulty in Traffic control plans along with other features of
providing traffic-handling facilities. the design should be reviewed by the District
Safety Review Committee prior to PS&E as
In some cases, where the project includes discussed in Index 110.7.
permanent lighting, it may be helpful to install
the lights as an early order of work, so they can The cost of implementing trac control plans
function during construction. In other cases, must be included in the project cost estimate,
temporary installations of high-level area light- either as one or more separate pay items or as
ing may be justified. extra work to be paid by force account.
Temporary roadways with alignment and It is recognized that in many cases provisions
surfacing consistent with the standards of the for traffic control will be dependent on the way
road which has just been traveled by the mo- the contractor chooses to prosecute the project,
torist should be provided if physically and eco- and that the designer may have to make some
nomically possible. assumptions as to the staging or sequence of the
contractor's operations in order to develop
Based on assessments of safety benefits, definite temporary traffic control plans.
relative risks and cost-effectiveness, consider- However, safety of the public and the workers
ation should be given to the possibility of as well as public convenience demand that
including a bid item for continuous traffic designers give careful consideration to the plans
surveillance and control during particular for handling traffic even though a different plan
periods, such as: may be followed ultimately. It is simpler from a
July 1,1995
contract administration standpoint to change a standards and instructions on highway

plan than to add one where none existed. The safety so that they can identify items in need
special provisions should specify that the of correction.
contractor may develop alternate tr&c control The Committee should conduct at least two
plans if they are as good or better than those design safety reviews of each major project.
provided in the contract PS&E. The Design Project Engineer has the basic
See Section 2-30, Traffic, of the Construction responsibility to notify the committee
Manual for additional factors to be considered in chairperson when a review is needed. The
the preparation of traffic control plans. chairperson should schedule a review and
coordinate participation by appropriate
110.7 Safety Reviews committee members.
Formal safety reviews during planning, design Reviews should include considerations of
and construction have demonstrated that safety- such items as:
oriented critiques of project plans help to ensure
the application of safety standards. An Exposure of employees to traffic.
independent team that was not absorbed in the Traffic control plans.
design details of the project is generally able to
conduct reviews from a fresh perspective. In Transportation Management Plans.
many cases, this process leads to highly Traversability of roadsides.
cost-effective modifications that enhance safety
for motorists and highway workers without any Elimination or other appropriate treat-
material changes in the scope of the project. ment of fixed objects.
( I ) Policy. During the planning stage all Susceptibility to wrong-way moves.
projects shall be reviewed by the District
Safety Review Committee prior to approval Safety of construction and maintenance
of the appropriate project initiation document personnel.
(PSR, PSSR, NBSSR, etc.). Sight distance.
During design, each project with an Nonmotorized traffic.
estimated cost of $300,000 or more must be
reviewed by the District Safety Review Guardrail.
Committee.
Superelevation, etc.
Any project, regardless of cost, requiring a The objective is to identify all elements
Traffic Control Plan must be reviewed by where safety improvement may be practical
the District Safety Review Committee. and indicate desirable corrective measures.
During construction, the detection of the Reviews should be scheduled when the
need for safety-related changes is the report or plans are far enough along for a
responsibility of construction personnel, as review to be fruitful, but early enough to
outlined in the Construction Manual. avoid unnecessary delay in the approval of
Safety concepts that are identified during the report or the completion of PS&E.
these safety reviews which directly limit the A simple report should be prepared on the
exposure of employees to traffic shall be recommendations made by the Safety
incorporated into the project unless deletion Committee and the response by the Design
is approved by the District Director. Project Engineer. The reports should be
(2) Procedure. Each District must have a Safety included in the project files.
Review Committee, composed of at least
one engineer from the Construction, Design, 110.8 Value Analysis
Maintenance, and Traffic functions and The use of Value Analysis techniques should
should designate one of the members as begin early in the project development process
chairperson. Committee members should and be applied at various milestones throughout
familiarize themselves with current the PS&E stage to reduce lifecycle costs. See
July 1,1995
the Project Development Procedures Manual for (d) Such use is on an experimental basis,
additional information. with a clearly written plan for "follow-
up and evaluation."
110.9 Proprietary Items See Index 602.l(b) for further details.
Although the use of new materials, methods, or
products may involve specifying a patented or
brand name method, material, or product, use of
-
Topic 11I Material Sites and
such proprietary items is discouraged in the Disposal Sites
interest of promoting competitive bidding. If
three or more products or materials are called 111.1 General Policy
out for one contract item, they are not The policies and procedures concerning material
considered proprietary. sites and disposal sites are listed below.
The use of proprietary items always requires the (a) Materials investigations and environ-
approval of the Federal Highway Administration mental studies of local materials sources
(FHWA) Division Office if Federal-aid funds should be made to the extent necessary
are involved in the project. to provide a basis for study and design.
Use of proprietary materials can be approved for Location and capacity of available
Caltrans by the Chief, Division of Structures for disposal sites should be determined for
those facilities designed by the Division of all projects requiring disposal of more
Structures. Use in District designed facilities than 7500 m3of clean material. Sites for
can be approved by the District Director or the disposal of any significant amount of
District Division Chief of Design if such material in sensitive areas should be
approval authority has been specifically considered only where there is no
delegated by the District Director. Copies of all practical alternative.
correspondence documenting consideration and (b) Factual information obtained from such
approvals of the use of proprietary items must investigations should be made readily
be forwarded to OPPD to monitor conformance available to prospective bidders and con-
to this policy. tractors.
Caltrans policy and guidelines on the use of (c) The responsibility for interpreting such
proprietary items are covered in the information rests with the contractor and
Engineer's Plans, Specifications and Estimate not with the State.
(PS&E) Guide under "Trade Names." This
policy is based on Public Contract Code, (d) Generally, the designation of optional
Division 2, Chapter 3, Article 5, Paragraph material sites or disposal sites will not be
3400. It is also virtually coincident with FHWA included in the special provisions.
policy requirements. The use of proprietary Mandatory sites must be designated in
materials, methods, or products will not be the special provisions. An optional
approved unless: disposal site within the highway right of
way (not necessarily within the project
(a) There is no other known material of limits) should be provided when needed
equal or better quality that will perform as an alternative to an approved site for
the same function, or disposal of water bearing residues
(b) There are overwhelming reasons for generated by grinding or grooving
using the material or product in the operations.
public's interest, which may or may not (e) Material agreements or other arrange-
include cost savings, or ments should be made with owners of
(c) It is essential for synchronization with material sites whenever the absence of
existing highway or adjoining facilities, such arrangements would result in
e or restriction of competition in bidding, or

in other instances where it is in the
July 1,1995
State's interest that such arrangements necessary to assure that the design of each
be made. project is based on the most economical use
(f) The general policy of Caltrans is to of available materials compatible with good
avoid specifying mandatory sources environmental design practices. Where it
unless data in support of such sources can be reasonably assumed that all required
shows certain and substantial savings to materials can be most economically obtained
the State. Mandatory sources must not from commercial sources on the current
be specified on Federal-aid projects "AB 3098 List", it should be unnecessary
except under exceptional circumstances, to investigate other sites. In all other cases
and prior approval of the FHWA is material sites should be investigated.
required. Supporting data in such cases Exploration of materials sources should not
should be submitted as early as possible. be restricted to those properties where the
This policy also applies to disposal sites. owner expresses willingness to enter into
agreement with the State. Unless it is
(g) It is the policy of Caltrans to cooperate definitely known that the owner will under
with local authorities to the greatest prac- no circumstances permit removal of
ticable extent in complying with materials, the site should be considered as a
environmental requirements for all possible source of local materials.
projects. Any corrective measures (2) Geotechnical Design Report or Materials
wanted by the local authorities should be Report. The Geotechnical Design Report or
provided through the permit process. Materials Report should include complete
Any unusual requirements, conditions, information on all sites investigated and
or situations should be submitted to the should discuss the quality, cost, SMARA
Office of Project Planning and Design status, and availability of materials from
for review (see Indexes 110.2 and commercial plants on the current "AB
110.3). 3098 List". Sufficient sampling of sites
(h) The use of any materials site requires must be performed to indicate the character
compliance with environmental laws and of the material and the elevation of the
regulations, which is normally a part of ground water surface, and to determine
the project environmental documenta- changes in the character of the material, both
tion. If the need for a site occurs after laterally and vertically. Sampling must be
approval of the project environmental done in such a manner that individual sam-
document, a separate determination of ples can be taken from each horizon or
environmental requirements for the layer. Composite samples of two or more
materials site may be required. different types of material are unsatisfactory,
(i) If the materials site is outside the project as there is no assurance that the materials
limits and exceeds 0.4 ha in size, or would be so combined if the materials
extraction will exceed 765 m3, it must source were actually used. Testing of
comply with the Surface Mining and blends of two or more types of materials is
Reclamation Act of 1975 (SMARA) and permissible, provided the test report clearly
be included on the current "AB 3098 indicates the combination tested. The test
List" published by the Department of report must clearly indicate the location of
Conservation before material from that the sample and the depth represented. The
site can be used on a State project. fact that materials sites are not designated in
There are limited exceptions to this the Special Provisions does not reduce the
requirement and the District Materials importance of thorough exploration and
Engineer should be consulted. testing.
As tabulations of test data for local materials
111.2 Investigation of Local Materials will be furnished to prospective bidders, and
Sources the test reports may be examined by bidders
( I ) Extent of Explorations. Possible sources of
materials should be investigated to the extent
if they so request, it is important that only
factual data be shown on the test report and
that no conclusions, opinions, or
e
July 1, 1995
interpretation of the test data be included. sites for a project be furnished to prospec-
Under "Remarks", give only the pertinent tive bidders. To obtain uniformity in the
factual information regarding the scalping, "handouts" furnishing this information to
crushing, blending, or other laboratory prospective bidders, the District Materials
processing performed in preparing samples Unit should develop the "handout" and the
for testing, and omit any comments as to following information must be included:
suitability for any purpose. Any discussion (a) A cover page entitled, "Materials Infor-
of the quality, suitability, or quantity of mation", should show District, County,
material in local materials sites necessary for Route, kilometer post limits, and geo-
design purposes should be included in the graphical limits. There should be a note
Geotechnical Design Report or Materials stating where the records, from which
Report, and not noted on the test reports. the information was compiled, may be
For any potential materials source explored inspected. Also, an index, listing
or tested, all boring and test data must be investigated material sites, and disposal
furnished, including those tests which sites, maps, test reports, tabulation
indicate unsuitable or inferior material. sheets, SMARA status, and agreements
Materials information to be furnished bid- is to be shown on the cover page.
ders may include data on a materials source (b) A vicinity map showing the location of
previously investigated for the same project investigated materials sites and disposal
or some other project provided all of the sites in relation to the project.
following conditions are met:
(c) A map of each material site showing the
(a) There has been no change in test proce- location and identification of boring or
dures subsequent to the time the earlier test pits.
tests were made.
(d) A tabulation of the test data for each rna-
(b) The materials source has not been altered terial site, showing complete information
by stream action, weathering, or other on the location, depth, and processing of
natural processes. each sample tested, together with all test
(c) The material sampled and represented by results.
the tests has not been removed. (e) Copies of all options or agreements with
(d) There has been no change in SMARA owners of the material sites, if such ar-
status, or inclusion or exclusion on the rangements have been made.
"AB 3098 List". (f) Soil survey sheets or suitable terrain
It will be necessary for each District to maps showing borings and tests along
maintain a filing system such that all prelim- the highway alignment.
inary test reports for potential materials sites (g) A tabulation of which sites comply with
are readily accessible. This will necessitate environmental laws and regulations and
preparation of test reports covering all pre- are included on the current "AB 3098
liminary tests of materials. It will also be List".
essential to maintain some type of materials
inventory system, whereby sites in the (h) Material site grading and reclamation
vicinity of any project can be readily plan and disposal site grading plans, if
identified and the test reports can be they have been prepared.
immediately accessible. Filing only by (i) Copies of local use permits and clear-
numerical or chronological order will not be ances (when they have been obtained
permissible. by the State) such as environmental
clearances, mining permits, Forest
111.3 Materials Information Furnished Service Fire Regulations, water quality
to Prospective Bidders control clearances, etc. If documents are
( I ) Materials Information Compilation. It is the of unusual length, a statement should be
intent that all test data applicable to material included that they have been obtained
July 1,1995
and are available for inspection at the necessary by the District. The steps to be taken
District office or Sacramento Plans are listed in order as follows:
Counter. (. I ) General Procedure.
?
Maps, test reports, and other data included (a) A District report proposing and
in the "Materials Information" must be fac- establishing the necessity for purchase
tual, and should not include any comments, of the site is required. The report should
conclusions, or opinions as to the quality, contain the following information:
quantity, suitability, depth, or area of the
materials in any material site or along the The project or projects on which the
highway. site is to be used and programming
Reproducible copies of all material to be in- of proposed construction.
cluded in the "Material Information" package The location and description of the
should be submitted to the Office Engineer. property, zoning, and site restora-
The Office Engineer will reproduce the tionlreclamation proposals including
"Materials Information," and copies will be necessary vicinity and site maps.
available to prospective bidders upon The amount and quality of material
request in the same manner that plans and estimated to be available in the site
special provisions are furnished. and amount needed for the project or
projects, or amount of excess
111.4 Materials Arrangements material to be disposed of and the
Materials agreements or other arrangements capacity of the site or sites.
must be made in accordance with the policy An economic analysis using the esti-
stated under Index 111.1(e). mated purchase price and value of
The determination of when and where materials land after removal of material or de-
agreements or other arrangements are to be posit of excess material. The total
obtained is the responsibility of the District, see estimated savings over other
Section 8.25.00.00 of the Right of Way possible alternatives must be clearly
Manual. demonstrated. Alternatives must be
shown from the standpoint of what
The District should also determine the-maximum would have to be done if the site was
royalty that can be paid economically on the not purchased. Alternatives could be
basis of availability of competitive sources. changes in location or grade as well
In preparing agreements, guaranteed quantity as alternative sources of material.
provisions should not be included, as the A statement as to whether or not the
opportunity exists for possible token removal, use of the site should be mandatory,
with the result that the State would be required with a separate statement regarding
to pay for the guaranteed quantity even though the effect for each proposed project
the material would not actually be removed. for which mandatory use of the site
Also, requirements that the State perform con- is considered necessary, including
struction work on the owner's property, such as complete justification for the
fences, gates, cattle guards, roads, etc., should mandatory specification (see Index
be included only when the cost of such items 111.6). Three copies of each map or
and possible resulting benefits have been prop- other attachment, folded letter size,
erly considered in the derivation of the royalty. are required for mandatory sites on
all ~ed&al-aidprojects. '
111.5 Procedures for Acquisition of
Material Sites and Disposal Sites A statement of the type of environ-
These instructions establish procedures to be mental documentation.
followed in the purchase of material sites and Other justification.
disposal sites when such purchase is deemed
July 1,1995
e Send one copy to OPPD and one copy to

the Engineering Service Center,
of Materials Engineering and Testing
public lands are required for a material or a
disposal site, and after preliminary
negotiations at the local level with the
Services for information. Federal agency having jurisdiction, the Dis-
trict must submit a letter report to the
(b) If the project or projects are to have Fed- FHWA. This report should observe the re-
eral aid, the District will prepare a requirements of Index 111.5 of this manual
quest for FHWA approval to specify the and Section 8.18.02.03 of the Right of Way
source as mandatory. One copy of this Manual.
request should be sent to the
Engineer and one copy to OPPD. Following submittal of the proposal by the
District to the FHWA, the latter, acting on
(c) If the estimated purchase price is over behalf of the State transmits the proposal
$300,000, the District should include the with a favorable recommendation to the
item in the STIP and corresponding Federal agency having control of the site.
budget. See Section 8.18.02.03 of the Right of Way
(d) When the proposed purchase has been Manual.
approved, the Project Engineer should
notify the District Division of Right of 111.6 Mandatory Material Sites and
Wav. District Environmental Division Disposal Sites on Federal-aid Projects
and*'the District Materials Unit and The contract provisions must not specify a
request that Right of Way purchase the mandatory site for the disposal of surplus ex-
site (or obtain a Materials Agreement; the cavated materials unless a particular site is
Materials Unit should assist in the needed for environmental reasons or the site is
development of the agreement) and the found to be the most economical for one or
Environmental Division obtain environ- more Federal-aid projects. All points listed in
mental authorization to proceed.
0 (e) The District must include the cost of pur-
Index 111.5(l)(a) must be covered and one
copy of all attachments submitted. Supporting
chase in the proper fiscal year program data must be submitted to the FHWA during the
andlor budget as part of the District tar- project planning phase or early in the project
gets. design phase as almost all cases of mandatory
sites must go to the Regional office of the
(f) After budgeting, the District must submit FHWA for decision.
an expenditure authorization to cover
purchase of the site. This could be Section 635.407 of 23 CFR 635D states in part:
concurrent if the project is added to the "The designation of a mandatory material
budget during a fiscal year. The source may be permitted based on envi-
expenditure authorization request should ronmental considerations, provided the en-
be processed through the District Project vironment would be substantially enhanced
Management and Administration Units without excessive cost."
and obtain District Director approval.
(g) After issuance of an expenditure autho- "The contract provisions ... shall not
rization, the District Division of Right of specify mandatory a site for the disposal of
surplus excavated materials unless there is a
Way will complete purchase of the site. finding by the State highway agency with
(2) Material and Disposal Sites in Federal the concurrence of the FHWA Division
Lands. The applicable sections of the Administrator that such placement is the
Federal Highway Act of 1958 for procure- most economical except that the designation
ment of borrow or disposal sites, Sections of a mandatory site may be permitted based
107(d) and 317, are set forth in Section on environmental considerations, provided
8.18.02.00 of the Right of Way Manual; the environment would be substantially
Section 107(d) applies to the Interstate enhanced without excessive cost."
System while Section 317 applies to other
Federal-aid highways. Whenever Federal
July 1,1995
-
Topic 112 Contractor's Yard -
Topic 113 Geotechnical
and Plant Sites Design Report
112.1 Policy 113.1 Policy
The Project Engineer should, during the design The Project Engineer must review the project
phase of a project, consider the need and initiation document and Preliminary
availability of sites for contractors' yards and Geotechnical Design Report, if any, to ascertain
materials plants. This is particularly important the scope of geotechnical involvement for a
in areas where dust, noise, and access problems project. A Geotechnical Design Report (GDR)
could limit the contractor in obtaining sites on is to be prepared by the Roadway Geotechnical
their own in a timely manner. Asphalt concrete Engineering Branches of the Engineering
recycling projects pose special problems of Service Center (ESC) Office of Structural
material storage, access, and plant location, see Foundations (or under a consultant contract with
Index 61 1.1l(3). As a general rule, the use of technical oversight by OSF) for all projects that
all sites designated in the Special Provisions involve designs for cut slopes, embankments,
should be optional on the part of the contractor earthwork, landslide remediation, retaining
with a requirement of notice being given to the walls, groundwater studies, erosion control
Resident Engineer within a designated time features, subexcavation and any other studies
period after approval of the contract. (30 days involving geotechnical investigations and
would be a minimum, but not more than 60 engineering geology. A GDR is not required
days except in unusual situations.) All for projects that solely include those design
environmental requirements must be satisfied features described in Index 114.1.
and local permits must be obtained prior to
submittal of the PS&E. Right of Way, Permits, 113.2 Content
and Environmental units must be informed early The GDR is to conform to the "Guidelines for
in the process. The contractor will be allowed Geotechnical Reports" which is prepared by the
to use these sites only for work on the Office of Structural Foundations.
designated project(s).
112.2 Locating a Site 113.3 Submittal and Review
The Project Engineer should consult with Final copies of the GDR are to be submitted to
District Division of Right of Way concerning the Project Engineer, District Materials Unit and
appropriately sized parcels currently being held OPPD. For consultant developed reports, the
in the airspace inventory, nearby property held GDR is to be submitted to OSF for review and
by Caltrans for future construction, or as excess approval. OSF will then transmit the approved
land. If such space is available in the vicinity of GDR to the Project Engineer, District Materials
the proiect, the District Environmental Division Unit and OPPD. Also see Index 602.1.
shoild" be consulted to determine what
environmental requirements are necessary for
the use of these properties for the intended
Topic 114 - Materials Report
purpose. If sufficient space does not appear to 114.1 Policy
be available for yard or plant, the Project En-
gineer must see that the appropriate wording is A Materials Report must be prepared by the
placed in the contract Special Provisions. District Materials Branch (or under a consultant
contract with technical oversight by the District
Materials Branch) with assistance from the ESC
Office of Materials Engineering and Testing
Services for a l l projects that involve pavement
structural section recommendations or pavement
studies, culverts or other drainage materials,
corrosion studies, and materials or disposal
sites.
July 1, 1995
114.2 Content
The Materials Report is to conform to the
guidelines for pavement structural section
studies and guidelines for corrosion studies as
published by METS. Exceptions may be
approved by METS.
114.3 Submittal and Review
A copy of the Draft Materials Report is to be
submitted to METS for review and comment by
the District Materials Unit. After resolution of
the comments from METS, a final copy of the
Materials Report is to be submitted to the
District Materials Unit, the Project Engineer,
OPPD and to METS. Also see Index 602.1.
July 1, 1995
a CHAPTER 200
GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND
Chapter III of "A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets," AASHTO, 1994,
contains a thorough discussion of the derivation
STRUCTURESTANDARDS of stopping sight distance.
Topic 201 - Sight Distance 201.2 Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight
Index 201.1 - General distance required for the driver of one vehicle to
Sight distance is the continuous length of pass another vehicle safely and comfortably.
highway ahead visible to the driver. Three Passing must be accomplished without reducing
types of sight distance are considered here: the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the
passing, stopping, and decision. Stopping sight design speed should it come into view after the
distance is the minimum sight distance to be overtaking maneuver is started. The sight
provided on multilane highways and on 2-lane distance available for passing at any place is the
roads when passing sight distance is not eco- longest distance at which a driver whose eyes
nomically obtainable. Stopping sight distance are 1070 mm above the pavement surface can
also is to be provided for all elements of inter- see the top of an object 1300 mm high on the
changes and intersections at grade, including road.
private road connections (see Topic 504, Index Passing sight distance is considered only on 2-
405.1, & Figure 405.7). Decision sight dis- lane roads. At critical locations, a stretch of 3-
tance is used at major decision points (see
Indexes 201.7 and 504.2). or 4-lane passing section with stopping sight
distance is sometimes more economical than two
The following table shows the lanes with passing sight distance (see Index
standards for passing and stopping 204.4).
sight distance related to design speed,
and these shall be the minimum values Figure 201.2 and Tables 201.2A & B show the
used in design. relationship among length of vertical curve,
design speed, and algebraic difference in
grades. Any one factor can be determined when
Table 201.1 the other two are known.
Sight Distance Standards See Chapter 6 of the Traffic Manual for criteria
relating to barrier striping of no-passing zones.
Design speed(') Passing
(km/h) (m) (m) 201.3 Stopping Sight Distance
30 30 217 The minimum stopping sight distance is the
distance required by the driver of a vehicle,
40 50 285 traveling at a given speed, to bring his vehicle to
50 65 345 a stop after an object on the road becomes
60 85 407 visible. Stopping sight distance is measured
from the driver's eyes, which are assumed to be
70 105 482 1070 rnrn above the pavement surface, to an
80 130 54 1 object 150 mrn high on the road.
90 160 605 The stovving sight distances in Table 201.1
100 190 670 should be increased bv 20% on sustained
110 220 728
downgrades steeper than 3% and lower than
2 km.
120 255 792
130 290 855
(1) See Topic 101 for selection of design speed.
@ (2) Increase by 20% on sustained downgrades >3% L > 2 km.
July 1,1995
Figure 201.2
Passing Sight Distance on

Crest Vertical Curves
Height of eye - 1070 mm. .. Height of object - 1300 mm.
L = CURVE LENGTH - meters

NOTE: See Index 204.4 for
A = ALGEBRAIC GRADE DIFFERENCE - X
vertical curve formulas S = SIGHT DISTANCE - meters
V = DESIGN SPEED - km/h FOR "S'
WHEN S > L WHEN S < L
L=2S-- L = -
943
See Table 201.2A (given "A" and " S " , find "L") and Table 201.2B (given "A"
and "L", find "S") for passing sight distance on crest vertical curves.
July 1, 1995
Table 201.2A
Passing Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves
Double line represents S=L

Given9'A" and "S"; Find "L" L=Curve Length - meters
A=Algebraic grade dzrerence - %
S=Sight distance - meters
V=Design speed - km/h
S=230 m S=290 m S=350 m S=425 m S=490 m S=550m S=605 m S=665 m S=740 m S=790m S=830 m
V=30 V=40 V=50 V=60 V=70 V=80 V=90 V=lOO V=llO V=120 V=130
km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h kmfh km/h
L (m) L (m) L(m) L (m) L(m) L(m) L (m) L (m) L (m) L(m) L (m)
37 157 267 387 537 637 717
22 1 351 471 581 ( 703 87 1 993 1096
July 1, 1995
Table 201.28
Passing Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves

Given "A" and '2"; Find "S" L=Curve Length - meters
A =Algebraic grade dverence-%
L=50 m b100 m k150 m L=200 m k300 m L=400 m k500 m L=600 m L=700 m L=800 m G -90m
0
Refer to Table 201.1 to determine design speed "V", after "S" is determined.
July 1,1995
@ 201.4 Stopping Sight Distance at

Grade Crests
the design speed, the formula in Figure 201.6 or
Table 201.6A gives the clear distance (m) from
centerline of inside lane to the obstruction.
Figure 201.4 and Tables 201.4A & B show the
relationship among length of vertical curve, de- When the radius of curvature and the clear
sign speed, and algebraic difference in grades. distance to a fixed obstruction are known, the
Any one factor can be determined when the formula in Figure 201.6 and Table 201.6B
other two are known. gives the sight distance for these conditions.
See Index 101.1 for technical reductions in
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance at design speed caused by partial or momentary
Grade Sags horizontal sight distance restrictions. See Index
From the formulas in Figure 20 1.5, the min- 203.2 for adaitional comments on glare screens.
imum length of vertical curve which provides Cuts may be widened where vegetation re-
headlight sight distance in grade sags for a given stricting horizontal sight distance is expected to
design speed can be obtained. When the grow on finished slopes. Widening is an eco-
stopping sight distance and algebraic grade nomic trade-off that must be evaluated along
difference are known, Table 201.5A gives the with other options. See Index 902.2 for sight
curve length. When the curve length and distance requirements on landscape projects.
algebraic grade difference are known, Table
261.5~ the sight distance. 201.7 Decision Sight Distance
If headlight sight distance is not obtainable at At certain locations, sight distance greater than
grade sags, lighting may be considered. The stopping sight distance is desirable to allow
Project Development Coordinator and the drivers time for decisions without making last
Traffc Liaison Engineer shall be contacted to minute erratic maneuvers (see Chapter I11 of "A
review proposed grade sag lighting to determine Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
if such use is appropriate. Streets," AASHTO, 1994).
201.6 Stopping Sight Distance on On freeways and expressways the decision s i ~ h t
Horizontal Curves distance values in Table 201.7 should be used at
Where an object off the pavement such as a
&
interchanges. branch connections, roadside
bridge pier, building, cut slope, or natural rests. vista ~oints.and inspection stations.
growth restricts sight distance, the minimum
radius of curvature is determined by the stop- Decision sight distance is measured using the
ping sight distance. 1070 mrn eye height and 150 mm object height.
Stopping sight distance on horizontal curves is See Index 504.2 for sight distance at secondary
obtained from Figure 201.6 and Tables 201.6A exits on a collector-distributor road.
& B. It is assumed that the driver's eye is 1070
mm above the center of the inside lane (inside Table 201.7
with respect to curve) and the object is 150 rnrn
high. The line of sight is assumed to intercept Decision Sight Distance
the view obstruction at the midpoint of the sight
line and 600 mm above the center of the inside Design Speed Decision Sight
lane. This assumes there is little or no vertical (kmm Distance
curvature. The clear distance (m) is measured (m)
from the center of the inside lane to the obstruc- 100 & under 315
tion. (Note that the clear distance "my' is italized
to distinguish it from the "m" used for meters.)
The general problem is to determine the required
clear distance fiom centerline of inside lane to a
retaining wall, bridge pier, abutment, cut slope,
@ or other obstruction for a given design speed.
Using radius of curvature and sight distance for
1 200-6 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1,1995
Figure 201.4
Stopping Sight Distance on
Crest Vertical Curves
--
L = CURVE LENGTH - meters

A = ALGEBRAIC GRADE DIFFERENCE - X
Height of eye - 1070 mm. S
V
=
=
SIGHT DISTANCE
DESIGN SPEED -
-meters
km/h FOR "S"
Height of object - 150 mm. K = DISTANCE IN METERS REQUIRED TO
ACHIEVE A 1% CHANGE IN GRADE.
K VALUE AS SHOWN IS VALID WHEN S < L. 0
WHEN S > L WHEN S < L
L = 2s -- 405
See Table 201.4A (given "A" & "S", find "L") and Table 201.48 (given "A" & "L", find "S")
f o r stopping sight distance on crest vertical curves.
See Figure 204.4 f o r vertical curve formulas.
See Index 204.4 f o r minimum length of vertical curve.
Before using this figure f o r intersections, branch connections

and exits, see Indexes 201.7 and 405.1, and Topic 504.
July 1, 1995
Table 201.4A
Stopping Sight Distance On Crest Vertical Curves

Given "A" and "S"; Find '2" L = Curve Length -meters
A = Algebraic grade dzrerence - %
S = Sight distance - meters
V = Design speed - kmfi
K = Distance in meters rewired to achieve a
1% change in grade.
I ~ = 3 0m S=50 m S=65 m S=85 m S=105 m S=130 m S=160 m S=190 m S=220 m S=255 m S=290 m
L (m) L (m) L (m) L (m) L(m) L (m) L (m) L (m)L (m) L(m) L (m)
35 105 175
50 110 170 240 1 31 1
8 58 118 17811239 321 4 15
8 48 98 158 (1 223 299 40 1 519
35 75 125 1 190 267 359 482 623
14 54 94 1 146 221 312 418 562 7 27
29 69 109 167 253 357 478 642 83 1
10 40 80 123 188 284 401 538 723 934
Table 201.48 a
Stopping Sight Distance On Crest Vertical Curves

Given "A" and "L"; Find "S" L=Curve Length - meters
A =Algebraic grade dzference-%
K=Distance in meters required to achieve a
I % change in grade.
I Refer to Table 201.1 to determine design speed "V", after "S" is determined.
July 1,1995
Figure 201.5
Sag Vertical Curves
L=CURVE LENGTH - m e t e r s
A=ALGEBRAIC GRADE DIFFERENCE - X
intersections, branch connections S=SIGHT DISTANCE - m e t e r s
and exits, see lndex 201.7, 405.1 V=DESIGN SPEED - k m / h FOR "S"
and 504.2 K= DISTANCE IN METERS REQUIRED TO
ACHIEVE A 1% CHANGE IN GRADE.
0 For sustained downgrades, see K VALUE SHOWN IS VALID WHEN ScL.
lndex 201.3.
o See Figure 204.4 for vertical
curve formulas.
0 See lndex 204.4 for minimum
length of vertical curve.
0 See Table 201.5A (given "A" + "S",
find "L") and Table 201.58 (given
"A" + "L", find "S") for stopping sight
distance on sag vertical curves.
July 1,1995
Table 201.5A
Stopping Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves
Given "A" and "S"; Find "L" L=Curve Length - meters
A =Algebraicgrade dzjference - %
V=Designspeed - km/h
1 % change in grade.
S=50 m S=65 m S=85 m S=105 m S=130 m S=160 m S=190 m S=220 m S=255 m S=290 m
V 4 0 kmlh V=50 V=60 V=70 V=80 V=90 V=100 V=110 V=120 V=130
K= m K= m K= m K= m K= m K= m K= m K= m K= m K= m
A (%) L (m) L(m) L (m) L (m) L (m) L (m) L (m) L (m) Um) L (m)
1
Table 201.5B
Sag Vertical Curves
Given “A" and “L"; Find "S" L=Curve Length - meters
A=Algebraic grade diference - %
1 % c h m e in grade.
k50 m k100 m L=150m k200 m k300 m L=400 m L=500m L=600m k700 m I2800 m L=900 m
Refer to Table 201.1to determine design speed "V",after "S"is determined.
A(%) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m)
1.o
200-1 2 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1,1995
Figure 201.6
Horizontal Curves
Line of sight is 600 mrn above $ inside lone

a t point o f obstruction
S=SIGHT DISTANCE IN METERS.

R-RADIUS OF THEFOF THE LANE NEAREST THE OBSTRUCTION IN METERS.
m=DISTANCE FROM q OF THE LANE NEAREST THE OBSTRUCTION IN METERS.
V=DESIGN SPEED FOR "S" IN km/h.
Angle is expressed in degrees.
Formula opplies only when "S" is equol

t o or less than length of curve.
For sustained downgrades, see

index 201.3.
See Table 201.6A ( g i v e n "R" a n d "S", f i n d "m")& Table 201.8B ( g i v e n "R" and "mu,find "S")
f o r s t o p p i n g s i g h t d i s t a n c e o n h o r i z o n t a l curves.
July 1, 1995
Table 201.6A
Horizontal Curves
Lateral Clearance to Obstruction S=Sight distance - meters

Given "R" and "S"; Find " m u R=Radius of CL of lane - meters
m=Distance.fi.omCL of lane - meters
V=Design speed - k d ,for "S"
I S=30 m S=50 m S=65 m S=85 m S=105 m S=130 m S=160 m S=190 m S=220 m S=255 m S=290 m
I V=30 V540 V=50 VaO V=70 V=80 V=90 V=lW V=llO V=l20 V=l30
km/h kmh kmh kmh kmh kmh km/h kmh kmh kmh kmh
m m m m m m m m m m m
meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters
2.23 6.12 10.20 17.00 25.12 36.63 51.47 66.17 79.43 91.51 98.55
3.11 5.24 8.90 13.47 20.39 30.33 41.84 54.65 70.86 87.96
2.08 3.51 5.98 9.10 13.87 20.84 29.10 38.56 51.01 64.80
1.56 2.64 4.50 6.85 10.47 15.79 22.14 29.50 39.29 50.31
2.11 3.60 5.49 8.40 12.69 17.84 23.82 31.82 40.89
1.76 3.01 4.58 7.02 10.61 14.92 19.94 26.69 34.37
2.26 3.44 5.27 7.97 11.23 15.03 20.15 26.00
1.81 2.75 4.22 6.39 9.00 12.05 16.17 20.88
1.50 2.30 3.52 5.33 7.51 10.06 13.50 17.44
1.97 3.02 4.57 6.44 8.63 11.58 14.97
1.72 2.64 4.00 5.63 7.55 10.14 13.11
1.53 2.35 3.55 5.01 6.71 9.02 11.66
m is less than 1.5 m 2.11 3.20 4.51 6.04 8.12 10.50
1.76 2.67 3.76 5.04 6.77 8.75
1.51 2.29 3.22 4.32 5.80 7.50
2.00 2.82 3.78 5.08 6.57
1.78 2.51 3.36 4.51 5.84
1.60 2.26 3.02 4.06 5.25
1.81 2.42 3.25 4.20
1.50 2.02 2.71 3.50
July 1,1995
Table 201.6B
Horizontal Curves
Lrzteral Clearance to Obstruction S=Sight distance - meters

R=Radius o f CL lane - meters
GIVEN "R" AND "m'I; FIND "S" rn=~istancdfromCL lane - meters
V=Design speed - M,for '"S"
Refer to Section I1 of this document to determine &sign
speed "V",after "S"is determined.
m n~ m m= m= m m= m m= m=
2 meters 3 meters 4 meters 5 meters 6 meters 7 meters 8 meters 9 meters 10 meters 11 meters
R (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m)
50 28 35 40 45 49 54 57 61 64 68
100 40 49 57 64 70 75 81 85 90 95
150 49 60 69 78 85 92 98 104 110 116
200 57 69 80 90 98 106 114 120 127 133
250 63 78 90 100 110 119 127 135 142 149
300 69 85 98 110 120 130 139 147 155 163
400 80 98 113 127 139 150 160 170 179 188
500 89 110 127 142 155 168 179 190 200 210
600 98 120 139 155 170 183 196 208 219 230
700 106 130 150 167 183 198 212 225 237 249
800 113 139 160 179 196 212 226 240 253 266
900 120 147 170 190 208 225 240 255 269 282
1000 127 155 179 200 219 237 253 269 283 297
1200 139 170 196 219 240 259 277 294 3 10 325
1400 150 183 212 237 259 280 299 318 335 35 1
1600 160 196 226 253 277 299 320 340 358 375
1800 170 208 240 268 294 3 18 340 360 380 398
2000 179 219 253 283 3 10 335 358 380 400 420
2500 200 245 283 3 16 346 374 400 424 447 469
3000 219 268 3 10 346 380 410 438 465 490 5 14
July 1, 1995
0 Topic 202 - Superelevation shall be used within the given range of

curve radii. If less than standard
superelevation rates are approved (see
202.1 Basic Criteria Index 82.1), Figure 203.2 shall be used
to determine superelevation based on
According to the laws of mechanics, when a the curve radius and comfortable speed.
vehicle travels on a curve it is forced outward by
centrifugal force. Comfortable speed is determined by the formula
given on Figure 203.2. It represents the speed
On a superelevated highway, this force is on a curve where discomfort caused by
resisted by the vehicle weight component centrifugal force is evident to a driver. Side
parallel to the superelevated surface and side friction factors tabulated on Figure 203.2 are
friction between the tires and pavement. It is recommended by AASHTO for design
impractical to balance centrifugal force by su- purposes. "A Policy on Geometric Design of
perelevation alone, because for any given curve Highways and Streets," AASHTO, 1994,
radius a certain superelevation rate is exactly states, "In general, studies show that the
correct for only one driving speed. At all other maximum side friction factors developed
speeds there will be a side thrust either outward between new tires and wet concrete pavements
or inward, relative to the curve center, which range from about 0.5 at 30 kmlh to
must be offset by side friction. approximately 0.35 at 100 krn/h." The design
If the vehicle is not skidding, these forces are in side friction factors are therefore about one-third
equilibrium as represented by the following the values that occur when side skidding is
equation, which is used to design a curve for a imminent.
comfortable operation at a particular speed: To use Figure 203.2, the designer must decide
on the relative importance among three
3
Centrifugal factor = e + f = 0 . 0 0 7 9 ~= ~
a Where:
R 127R
variables. Normally, when a nonstandard su-
perelevation rate is approved, Figure 203.2 will
be entered with the rate and a desired curve ra-
dius. It must then be determined whether the
e = Superelevation slope in meters per resulting comfortable speed is adequate for the
meter conditions or whether further adjustments to
em, = Maximum superelevation rate for a radius and superelevation may be needed.
given condition Except for short radius curves, the standard
f = Side friction factor superelevation rate results in very little side
thrust at speeds less than 75 kmlh. This pro-
R = Curve radius in meters vides maximum comfort for most drivers.
V = Velocity in kilometers per hour Superelevation for horizontal curves with radii
Standard superelevation rates are designed to of 3000 m and greater may be deleted in those
hold the portion of the centrifugal force that situations where the combination of a flat grade
must be taken up by tire friction within allow- and a superelevation transition would create
able limits. Friction factors as related to speed undesirable drainage conditions on the
are shown on Figure 203.2. The factors apply pavement.
equally to portland cement concrete and bitu- Superelevated cross slopes on curves extend the
minous pavements. full width of the traveled way and shoulders,
except that the shoulder slope on the low side
202.2 Standards for Supcrelevation should be not less than the minimum shoulder
Maximum superelevation rates for various slope used on the tangents (see Index 304.3 for
highway conditions are shown on Table 202.2. cross slopes under cut widening conditions).
Based on an em,, selected by the On rural 2-lane roads. superelevation should
designer for one of the conditions, on the same plane for the full width of traveled
superelevation rates from Table 20 2.2 way and shoulders. excevt on transitions (see
Index 304.3 for cut widening conditions).
July 1,1995
Table 202.2
Standard Superelevation Rates

(Superelevation in Meters per Meter for Curve Radius in Meters)
Foremax =0.12,0.10or0.08(') Foremax =0.06(2) For emax = 0.04 (3)
Range of e Range of e Range of e

Curve Radii Rate Curve Radii Rate Curve Radii Rate
-
190 & Under 0.12 180 & Under 0.06 150 & Under 0.04
191 - 260 0.11 181 - 305 0.05 151 - 305 0.03
261 - 335 0.10 306 - 460 0.04 306 - 1525 0.02
336 - 410 0.09 461 - 610 0.03 Over 1525 (4)
41 1 - 490 0.08 611 - 2135 0.02
491 - 580 0.07 Over 2135 (4)
581 - 670 0.06
671 - 825 0.05
826 - 1065 0.04
1066 - 1370 0.03
1371 - 6000 0.02
Over 6000 (4)
(1) Ramps, Zlane conventional highways, and 2-lane frontage roads, use emax = 0.12.
For frontage roads under other jurisdictions see Index 202.7.
Freeways, expressways, and multilane conventional highways, use e = 0.10.
max
Highways, freeways, and ramps usually above 900 m elevation, where snow and ice conditions
prevail, use emax = 0.08.
(2) Urban arterials or frontage roads with design speeds of 55 to 75 kmm, use emax = 0.06.
(3) Urban arterials or frontage roads with design speeds less than 55 kmm, use emsx = 0.04.
(4) Use standard crown section. See Index 301.2.
July 1, 1995
(3) Divided Highways.

202.3 Restrictive Conditions
(a) Freeways--Where the initial median
Lower superelevation rates than those given in width is 9 m or less, the axis of rotation
either Table 202.2 or Figure 203.2 may be should be at the centerline.
necessary in areas where restricted speed zones
or ramplstreet intersections are controlling Where the initial median width is greater
factors. Other typical locations are short radius than 9 m and the ultimate median width
curves on ramps near the local road juncture, is 9 m or less, the axis of rotation should
either at an intersection or where a loop connects be at the centerline, except where the re-
with an overcrossing structure. Often, sulting initial median slope would be
established street grades, curbs, or drainage steeper than 1:10. In the latter case, the
may prove difficult to alter and/or superelevation axis of rotation should be at the ultimate
transition lengths would be undesirably short. median edges of traveled way.
Such conditions may justify a reduction in the Where the ultimate median width is
superelevation rate, different rates for each half greater than 9 m, the axis of rotation
of the roadbed, or both. In any case, the should normally be at the ultimate
superelevation rate provided should be median edges of traveled way.
appropriate for the conditions allowing for a To avoid sawtooth on bridges with
smooth transition while providing the maximum decked medians, the axis of rotation, if
level of comfort to the driver. Where standard not already on centerline, should be
superelevation rates cannot be attained, shifted to the centerline.
discussions should be held with the Geometric
Reviewer and/or the Project Development (b) Conventional Highways--The axis of
Coordinator to determine the proper solution rotation should be considered on an
and the necessity of preparing a design individual project basis and the most
exception fact sheet. In waming street or ramp appropriate case for the conditions
hsurface are e should be selected.
su~erelevationshould be avoided (see Figure Aesthetics, grade distortion, superelevation
203.2). transitions, drainage, and driver perception
should be considered when selecting the
202.4 Axis of Rotation axis of rotation (see Index 204.2).
(I) Undivided Highways. For undivided
highways the axis of rotation for supereleva- 202.5 Superelevation Transition
tion is usually the centerline of the roadbed. (I) General. The superelevation transition
However, in special cases such as desert generally consists of the crown runoff and
roads where curves are preceded by long the superelevation runoff as shown on
relatively level tangents, the plane of Figure 202.5.
superelevation may be rotated about the
inside edge of traveled way to improve A su~erelevationtransition should be de-
perception of the curve. In flat country, signed in accordance with the diamam and
drainage pockets caused by superelevation tabular data shown in Figure 202.5 to
may be avoided by changing the axis of o
sti i 2 & d x & a
rotation from the centerline to the inside . The length of
edge of traveled way. should be based
(2) Ramps and Freeway-to-freeway Con- upon the combination of superelevation rate
nections. The axis of rotation may be about and width of rotated plane in accordance
either edge of traveled way or centerline if with the tabulated superelevation runoff
multilane. Appearance and drainage consid- lengths on the bottom of Figure 202.5.
Transition design may be done either
erations should always be taken into account manually or by the recommended IGrds pro-
e in selection of the axis of rotation. gram in the Caltrans CADD (Computer
Aided Drafting and Design) system.
200- 18 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1,1995
Figure 202.5
Superelevation Transition
Formulas Explanation of Terms
2 Lane Roads
Multilane Roads & Branch Connections
L=750e
L = 150 De
a= Length of superelevation runoff - m
@ = Superelevation rate - rntm.
Ramps
Multilane L = 750 e if possible 0 = Distance from axis of rotation
1 Single Lane L = 600 e
1 - to outside edge of lanes - m
I
I
I MINIMUM L = 45 m I MAXIMUM L = 153 m

Adjust computed length to nearest meter length divisible by 3
Crown 1 1-
t Runoff
I
L
Superelevation Runoff (
(45 m mn im urn)
r n ~
lJ
I
I
I
I
S I e
1 Axis of 1
Rotation
t
I
I
Shoulder
q Superelevation Transition
I
Superelevation Runoff Lengths

Length, L (meters)
2-Lane Multilane Highways and Branch Connections
Superelevation Highways & Single with Various "DMWidths
Rate "e" Multilane Lane
rnlm Ramps Ramps 7.2 m 10.8 m 14.4 m 15.3 m 18 m 18.9 m 22.5 m
0.02 45 45 45 45 45 45 54 57 69
0.03 45 45 45 51 66 69 81 84 102
0.04 45 45 45 66 87 93 108 114 135
0.05 45 45 54 81 108 114 135 141 153
0.06 45 45 66 96 132 138 153 153
0.07 54 45 78 114 153 153
0.08 60 48 87 132
0.09 69 54 99 147
0.10 75 60 108 153
0.11 84 66 120
0.12 90 72 129
For widths of "DMnot included i n table, use formula above.
July 1.1995
Whichever design method is used, edge of 202.7 Superelevation on City Streets

traveled way and shoulder profiles should and County Roads
be plotted and irregularities resulting from Superelevation rates of local streets and
interactions between the superelevation roads which are within the State right
transition and vertical alignment of the of way (with or without connection to
roadway should be eliminated by State facilities) shall conform to
introducing smooth curves. Edge of AASHTO standards, for the functional
traveled way and shoulder profiles also will classification of the facility in question.
reveal flat areas which are undesirable from If the local agencv having jurisdiction over the
a drainage standpoint and should be local facility in question maintains standards that
avoided. exceed AASI-lTO standards. then the local
( 2 ) Runofl. Two-thirds of the superelevation agencv standards should prevail,
runoff should be on the tangent and one- See Index 202.2 and Table 202.2 for Frontage
third within the curve. This results in two- Roads within the State right of way. Frontage
thirds of the full superelevation rate at the roads that will be relinquished after construction
beginning or ending of a curve. This may should follow MSHTO or local standards as
be altered as required to adjust for flat spots stated above.
or unsightly sags and humps, or when
conforming to existing roadway.
(3) Restrictive Situations. In restrictive sit-
-
Topic 203 Horizontal
uations, such as on two lane highways in Alignment
mountainous terrain, interchange ramps,
collector roads, frontage roads, etc., where 203.1 General Controls
curve radius and kngth and tangents Horizontal alignment should provide for safe
between curves are short, standard and continuous operation at a uniform design
superelevation rates andlor transitions may speed for substantial lengths of highway. The
not be attainable. In such situations the standards which follow apply to curvature on
highest possible superelevation rate(s) and both 2-lane and multilane highways except
transition l e n d should be used. but the rate when otherwise noted. These standards also
gf chan_peof cross slope should not exceed apply to portions of local streets and roads
4% per 20 m. within the State right of way which connect
(4) Superelevation Transitions on Bridges. dinxtly to a freeway or expressway, or are
Superelevation transitions on bridges should expected to do so in the foreseeable future. For
be avoided whenever possible (See Index local facilities which are within the
203.9). State right of way and where there is no
(5) Shoulder Transitions. The shoulder plane connectron or the connection is to a
rotates about the adjacent edge of traveled non-controlled access facility (conven-
way as well as the rotational axis of the tional highway), AASHTO standards
traveled way. Shoulder superelevation shall prevail. If the local w n c y having
transitions should be smooth and compatible jurisdiction over the local facility in question
with the transition of the adjacent s s t a n u s that exceed AASHTO
pavements. ~tandards. then the local agencv standards
202.6 Superelevation of Compound The major considerations in horizontal

Curves alignment design are safety, profile, type of fa-
Superelevation of compound curves should cility, design speed, geotechnical features, to-
follow the procedure as shown in Firmre 202.6. pography, right of way cost and construction
Where feasible. the criteria in Index 202.5 cost. In design, safety is always considered,
either directly or indirectly. On freeways in
metropolitan areas, alternative studies often
indicak that right of way considerations
influence alignment more than any other
July 1,1995
Figure 202.6
-
Superelevation of Compound
Curves
L= Length of superelevation runoff - m
e r = Superelevation rote for smaller radius curve - m/m or percent
eL= Superelevation rate for larger radius curve - m/m or percent
r Superelevation Transition-
{Traveled Way
Axis of Rotation
8 CASE' 1
w 0 5 rn OR LESS+ - Traveled Way
- Runoff
Crown ( 3 0213
rn rnin.) 113; - "or..-+ rn 4..
I
Traveled
WOY
Crown
Axis l a f Rotatio
r l ,
t
h CASE 2 -
GREATER THAN 105 rn Traveled Way
-1 Superelevation Transition
I
July 1,1995
single factor. Topography controls both curve Every effort should be made to exceed minimum
radius and design speed to a large extent. The values, and such minimum radii should be used
design speed, in turn, controls sight distance, only when the cost or other adverse effects of
but sight distance must be considered realizing a higher standard are inconsistent with
concurrently with topography because it often the benefits. As an aid to designers, Figure
demands a larger radius than the design speed. 203.2 displays the comfortable speed for
All these factors must be balanced to produce an various curve radii and superelevation rates.
alignment which optimizes the achievement of The recommended minimum radii for freeways
various objectives such as safety, cost, harmony are 1500 m in rural areas and 900 m in urban
with the natural contour of the land, and at the areas.
same time adequate for the design classification
of the highway. If a glare screen or a median barrier is con-
Horizontal alignment shall provide at templated, either initially or ultimately, ad-
justments may be necessary to maintain the
least the minimum stopping sight required sight distance on curves on divided
distance for the chosen design speed at highways. In such cases, a larger curve radius
all points on the highway, as given in or a wider median may be required throughout
Table 201.1 and explained in Index the length of the curve. For design purposes, a
2 0 1.3. See Index 101.1 for technical reduc- planting screen is presumed to be 2.4 m wide.
tions in design speed. See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for glare
203.2 Standards for Curvature screen criteria.
Following is a table which gives the minimum 203.3 Alignment Consistency
radius of curve for specific design speeds. This Sudden reductions in alignment standards
table is based upon speed alone; it ignores the should be avoided. Where physical restrictions
sight distance factor. If the minimum radius on curve radius cannot be overcome and it be-
indicated in Table 203.2 does not provide the comes necessary to introduce curvature of lower
desired lateral clearance to an obstruction, standard than the design speed for the pro!ect,
Figure 201.6 should govern. the design speed between successive curves
should change not more than 15 krn/h.
Table 203.2 Introduction of curves with lower design speeds
should be avoided at the end of long tanEents,
Standards for Curve Radius fi
high approach speeds may be anticipated.
Design Speed Minimum Radius 203.4 Curve Length and Central Angle
kmlh of Curve (m) The minimum curve length for central angles
less than 10 degrees should be 240 m to avoid
the appearance of a kink. For central angles
smaller than 30 minutes, no curve is required.
Above a 6000 m radius, a parabolic curve may
be used. In no event should sight distance or
other safety considerations be sacrificed to meet
the above requirements.
On 2-lane roads a curve should not exceed a
length of 800 m and should be no shorter than
150 m.
203.5 Compound Curves
Compound curves should be avoided, except in
mountainous terrain or other situations where
Figure 203.2
Comfortable Speed on
Horizontal Curves
Speed Side Friction NOTES:

(kmlh) Factor "f" This figure is not intended to represent standard
superelevation rates or curve radius. The
standards are contained in Tables 202.2 and
203.2. This figure should be used as an aid to
designers to determine comfortable speeds. Use
of this figure in lieu of the standards must be
documented as discussed in Index 82.2.
e - Superelevation
f - Side Friction Factor e+f = 00.0079v2
v - speed t k d ) R
R - Radius (meters)
July 1, 1995
use of a simple curve would result in excessive distance, construction costs, cultural develop-
cost. Where compound curve is necessary, ment, drainage, and pleasing appearance.
shorter radius should be at least two-thirds the All portions of the grade line must meet sight
distance requirements for the design speed
or less. classification of the road.
The total arc length of a compound curve should In flat terrain, the elevation of the grade line is
be not less than 150 m. often controlled by drainage considerations. In
rolling terrain, some undulation in the grade line
203.6 Reversing Curves is often advantageous for construction
When horizontal curves reverse direction the economy. But this should be done with
connecting tangents should be long enouph to appearance in mind; for example, a grade line on
accommodate the standard superelevation run- tangent alignment exhibiting a series of humps
visible for some distance ahead should be
possible. the 4% Der 20 m rate of change should avoided whenever possible. In rough country,
see When feasible, a however, the grade line usually is closely de-
minimum of 120 m of tangent should be pendent upon physical controls.
considered. In considering alternative profiles, economic
203.7 Broken Back Curves comparisons should be made.
A broken back curve consists of two curves in The standards in Topic 204 also apply to
portions of local streets and roads within the
the same direction joined by a short tangent. State right of way which connect directly to a
Broken back curves are unsightly and undesir- freeway or expressway, or are expected to do so
able.
0 203.8 Spiral Transition
in the foreseeable future. For local facilities
which are within the State right of way
and where there is no connection or the
Spiral transition curves are not standard connection is to a non-controlled access
practice. facility (conventional highway),
AASHTO standards shall prevail. If the
203.9 Alignment at Bridges local agency havin~jurisdiction over the local
Superelevation transitions on bridges almost facility in question maintains standards that
always result in an unsightly appearance of exceed AASHTO standards. then the local
aPencv standards should prevail.
the bridge and the bridge railing. Therefore, if
possible, horizontal curves should begin and 204.2 Position With Respect to Cross
end a sufficient distance from the bridge so that Section
no part of the superelevation transition extends
onto the bridge. Alignment and safety The grade line should generally coincide with
considerations, however, are paramount and the axis of rotation for superelevation (see
must not be sacrificed to meet the above criteria. Index 202.4). Its relation to the cross section
should be as follows:
Topic 204 - Grade ( 1 ) Undivided Highways. The grade line
should coincide with the highway centerline.
204.1 General Controls (2) Ramps and Freeway-to-freeway Connec-
The grade line is a reference line by which the tions. The grade line may be positioned at
elevation of the pavement and other features of either edge of traveled way or centerline if
the highway are established. It is controlled multilane.
mainly by topography, type of highway, (3) Divided Highways. The grade line may be
horizontal alignment, performance of heavy positioned at either the centerline of the me-
vehicles, right of way costs, safety, sight dian or at the ultimate median edge of
traveled way. The former case is
July 1,1995
appropriate for paved medians 9 m wide or A parabolic vertical curve is used. Figure 204.4
less. The latter case is appropriate when: gives all necessary mathematical relations for
(a) The median edges of traveled way of the computing a vertical curve, either at crests or
two roadways are at equal elevation. sags. For algebraic grade differences of 2% and
greater. and design speeds equal to or meater
(b) The two roadways are at different eleva- than 60 kmlh. the minimum length of vertical
tions (see Index 204.8). curve in meters should be eaual to 2V. where V
(c) The width of median is nonuniform (see = desifn speed. As an example, a 100 km/h
Index 305.6). design speed would require a 200 m minimum
vertical curve length. For algebraic made
204.3 Standards for Grade differences of less than 2%. or design speeds
less than 60 km/h. the vertical curve len-gth
Table 204.3 shows the maximum grades should be a minimum of 60 m. Vertical curves
which shall not be exceeded for the are not required where the algebraic difference
condition indicated. in grades is 0.5% or less. Grade breaks should
Steep grades affect truck speeds and overall not be closer together than 15 m and a total of all
capacity. They also cause operational problems grade breaks within 60 m should not exceed
at intersections. For these reasons it is desirable 0.5%.
to provide the flattest grades practicable (see Since flat vertical curves may develop poor
Index 204.5). drainage at the level section, adjusting the gutter
Minimum grades should be 0.5% in snow grade or shortening the vertical curve may
county and 0.3% at other locations. Except for overcome any drainage problems.
conventional highways in urban or suburban On 2-lane roads, extremely long crest vertical
areas, a level grade line is permissible in level curves, over 1 km, should be avoided, since
terrain where side fill slopes are 1:4 or flatter many drivers refuse to pass on such curves
and dikes are not needed. despite adequate sight distance. It is sometimes
more economical to construct passing lanes than
Table 204.3 to obtain passing sight distance by the use of a
long vertical curve.
Maximum Grades for Type of Broken-back vertical curves consist of two ver-
Highway and Terrain Conditions tical curves in the same direction separated by a
short grade tangent. A profile with such cur-
Type of Freeways and Rural Urban vature normally should be avoided, particularly
in sags where the view of both curves is not
Terrain Expressways Highways Highways pleasing.
Level 3% 4% 6%
204.5 Sustained Grades
Rolling 4% 5% 7%
Mountainous 6% 7% 9% (I) General. Maximum grade is not a complete
design control. The length of an uphill
grade is important as well, because it affects
Ramp grades should not exceed 8%. On capacity, level of service, and delay when
descending on-ramps and ascending off-ramps, slow moving trucks, buses, and recreational
1% steeper is allowed (see Index 504.2(5)). vehicles are present.
A common criterion for all types of high-
204.4 Vertical Curves ways is to consider the addition of a
Properly designed vertical curves should climbing lane where the running speed of
provide adequate sight distance, safety, com- trucks falls 15 km/h or more below the
fortable driving, good drainage, and pleasing running speed of remaining traffic. Figure
appearance. 204.5 shows the speed reduction curves for
a 180 kg/kW truck, which is representative
July 1,1995
Figure 204.4
Vertical Curves
B.V. C. E.V. C.
Sta. 10
IN ANY VERTICAL CURVE: WHERE:
Length of curve - measured horizontally -

L =
meters.
G and G' = Grade rates - percent.
EI. B. V. C. +EL E.V. C, v) m = Middle ordinate - meters.

2
d = Correction from grade line to curve - meters.
D = Distance from B.V.C. or E.V.C. to any point

on curve - meters.
S = Slope of the tangent to the curve a t any
point - percent.
X = Distance, from P' to V - meters.

H = Elevation of grade G projected to station
of P'
P and P' = Elevation on respective grades.
b = Distance to low or high
- point from extremity
-
of curve - meters.
K = Distance in meters required to achieve a
1% change in grade.
NOTES:
A rising grade carries a plus sign, while a falling grade
carries a minus sign.
Thus, in a crest vertical curve a s above, G carries a plus
sign and G' carries a minus sign when progressing in the
direction of the stationing. When progessinq in the opposite
direction, G becomes a minus grade and G a plus grade.
A G-G'
Iuly 1,1995
Figure 204.5
Critical Lengths of Grade

for Design
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Length of Grade, (meters)
I ASSUMED TYPICAL HEAVY TRUCK I

July 1,1995
of large trucks operating near maximum turnouts may be constructed in hilly or

eross -weight. ' h e 1 5 kmlh reduction mountainous terrain or on winding
&terion Gybe used as one method of roads in other areas
determining need, however the 1994 (b) Length. Designated turnouts should be
Highway Capacity Manual should be from 60 to 150 m long including a short
consulted for detailed analysis. taper (usually 15 m) at each end.
(2) Freeway Climbing Lanes. If design year Approach speeds, grades, traffic
trafEc volumes are expected to be near volumes, and available space are some
capacity, right of way acquisition and factors to be considered in determining
grading for a future lane should be the length. The Headquarters Traffic
considered at locations where the upgrade Reviewer should be consulted if longer
exceeds 2% and the total rise exceeds 15 m. turnouts are desired.
Regardless of traffic volumes, the need for a (c) Width. Paved widths of at least 4.5 m
climbing lane should be investigated on sus- in fill sections and 3.6 m in cut sections
tained upgrades greater than 2% if the total are recommended. Width is measured
rise is greater than 75 m. Refer to Chapter 3 from the edge of traveled way. On the
of the 1994 Highway Capacity Manual for outside of curves along steep fill slopes
passenger car equivalent factors and sample or dropoffs, greater width or the installa-
calculations. tion of guardrail should be considered.
Decision sight distance (Table 201.7) should (d) Location. Turnouts should be located
be ~rovided at climbinp lane drops on where there is stopping sight distance
freewavs. for approaching drivers to see vehicles
leaving and re-entering the through
a (3) Two-lane Road Climbing and Passing
Lanes. Climbing and passing lanes are most
effective on uphill grades and curving align-
lanes.
ment where the speed differential among ve-

204.6 Grade Line of Structures
hicles is significant. Climbing and passing ( I ) Structure Depth. The depth to span ratio for
lanes should normally not be constructed on each structure is dependent on many factors.
tangent sections where the length of tangent Some of these are: span, type of con-
equals or exceeds the passing sight distance, struction, aesthetics, cost, falsework limita-
because passing will occur at such locations tions, and vertical clearance limitations. For
without a passing lane and the double barrier purposes of preliminary planning and
stripe increases delay for opposing traffic. design, the depth to span ratios listed below
Where the ADT exceeds 5000, 4-lane may be used in setting grade lines at grade
passing sections may be considered. separations.
The Headquarters Traffic Operations (a) Railroad Underpass Structures.
Program should be consulted regarding the
length of climbing and passing lanes, which Single track, through girder type
will vary with the design speed of the structures:use 1.5 m depth from top
highway, the trafic volume, and other of rail to structure soffit (bottom of
factors. girder).
(4) Turnouts Deck-type structures: for simple
(a) General. On a two-lane highway where spans use d/s (depth to span ratio)=
passing is limited, Section 21656 of the 0.08; for continuous multiple span
California Vehicle Code requires slow- structures use d/s= 0.07. These
moving vehicles followed by five or ratios do not include the additional
two feet required above the deck for
a more vehicles to turn off at designated
turnouts or wherever sufficient area for
a safe turnout exists. Designated
ballast and rail height).
July 1, 1995
(b) Highway Structures. 30 m. The flattest allowable tangent grade

Structures with single spans of 30 m should be 0.3%.
or less, use d/s= 0.06. (5) Falsework. In many cases, it is eco-
nomically justified to have falsework over
Structures with single spans between traffic during construction in order to have a
30 m and 55 m use d/s= 0.045. support-free open area beneath the
Continuous structures with multiple permanent structure. The elimination of
spans of 30 m or less, use d/s= permanent obstructions usually outweighs
0.055. objections to the temporary inconvenience of
falsework during construction.
Continuous structures with multiple Because the width of traffic openings
spans of more than 30 m, use d/s= through falsework can, and oftentimes does,
0.04. significantly affect costs, special care should
Geometric plans should be submitted to the be given to determining opening widths.
DOS prior to preparation of the Project The following should be considered:
Report so that preliminary studies can be staging and traffic handling requirements,
prepared. Preliminary bridge type selection the width of approach roadbed that will exist
should be a joint effort between the DOS at the time the bridge is constructed, traffic
and the District. volumes, desires of the local agencies,
controls in the form of existing facilities,
(2) Steel or Precast Concrete Structures. Steel and the practical problems of falsework
and precast concrete girders in lieu of cast- construction.
in-place concrete eliminate falsework, and
may permit lower grade lines and reduced The normal minimum width of traffic open-
approach fill heights. Potential cost savings i n ~ sand reauired falsework spans for
from elimination of falsework, lowered various lane and shoulder combinations
grade lines, and the ability to accomodate should be as shown in Table 204.6.
settlement beneath the abutments should be When temporary K-rail is used to protect the
considered in structure type selection along falsework, space must be provided for its
with unit price, aesthetics, uniformity, and deflection. The normal spans shown in
any other relevant factors. Note that grade Table 204.6 provide 0.6 m for this
lines at grade separations frequently need to deflection.
be adjusted after final structure depths are
determined (see Index 309.2(3)). Details of In special cases, where existing constraints
traffic handling and stage construction make it impractical to comply with the mini-
should be provided when the bridge site mum widths of traffic openings set forth in
plan is submitted to the DOS if the design or Table 204.6, a lesser width may be
construction of the structure is affected (see approved by the District Director with
Drafting and Plans Manual, Section 3-3.2). concurrence from the Headquarters Project
Development Coordinator.
(3) Depressed Grade Line Under Structures.
Bridge and drainage design will frequently The minimum vertical falsework
be simplified if the low point in the grade clearance over freeways and
line is set a sufficient distance from the nonfreeways shall be 4.6 m. The
intersection of the centerlines of the structure following items should be considered:
and the highway so that drainage structures Mix, volume, and speed of traffic.
clear the structure footings.
(4) Grade Line on Bridge Decks. Vertical Effect of increased vertical clearance
curves on bridge decks should provide a on the grade of adjacent sections.
minimum fall of 10 mm per 20 m. This fall
should not extend over a length greater than Closing local streets to all traffic or
trucks only during construction.
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL - 200-29
July 1, 1995
Detours. ensure that existing facilities (drainage, other

bridges, or roadways) will not conflict with
Carrying local traffic through con- the falsework.
struction on subgrade. The placement and removal of falsework re-
Temporary or permanent lowering of quires special consideration. During these
operations, traffic should either be stopped
the existing facility. for short intervals or diverted away from the
Cost of higher clearance versus cost span where the placement or removal opera-
of traffic control. tions are being performed. The method of
traffic handling during these operations is to
Desires of local agency. be included in the Special Provisions.
Worker safety should be considered when 204.7 Coordination of Horizontal and
determining vertical falsework clearance. Vertical Alignment
Requests for approval of temporary vertical
clearances less than 4.6 m should discuss A proper balance between curvature and grades
the impact on worker safety. should be sought. When possible, vertical
curves should be superimposed on horizontal
Temporary horizontal clearances less than curves. This reduces the number of sight
shown in Table 204.6 or temporary vertical restrictions on the project, makes changes in
clearances less than 4.6 m should be noted profile less apparent, particularly in rolling
in the PS&E Transmittal Report. country, and results in a pleasing appearance.
To establish the grade of a structure to be Where the change in horizontal alignment at a
constructed with a falsework opening, al- grade summit is moderate, a pleasing appear-
lowance must be made for the depth of the ance may be attained by making the vertical
falsework. The minimum depths required curve overlap the horizontal curve.
for various widths of traffic opening are When horizontal and vertical curves are su-
shown in Table 204.6. perimposed, the combination of superelevation
Where vertical clearances, either temporary and profile grades may cause distortion in the
or permanent are critical, the District and the outer pavement edges which could confuse
DOS should work in close conjunction drivers at night. In such situations edge of
during the early design stage when the pavement profiles should be plotted and smooth
preliminary grades, structure depths, and curves introduced to eliminate any irregularities
falsework depths can be adjusted without in- or distortion.
curring major design changes.
Where the vertical falsework clearance is where horizontal and vertical curves are
less than 4.6 m, advance warning devices
are to be specified or shown on the plans. sign swed of the horizontal curve should be at
Such devices may consist of flashing lights, l k
overhead signs, over-height detectors, or a more than 15 km/h less than the measured or
combination of these or other devices. estimated running (85th ~ercentile)speed of
vehicles on the approach roadwav.
Warning signs on the cross road or in ad-
vance of the previous off-ramp may be re- On long, open curves a uniform grade line
quired for overheight pennit loads. Check should be used because a rolling profile makes
with the Regional Permit Manager. for a poor appearance.
After establishing the opening requirements, Horizontal and vertical curvature at intersections
a field review of the bridge site should be should be as flat as physical conditions permit.
made by the District designer to
Table 204.6
Falsework Span and Depth Requirements
1 Lane+2.4m& 1.5m 10 m 570 mm 635 mm 635 mm 825 mm

Shoulders
11.1 m 2Lanes+2.4m& 1.5m 13.6m 840mm 900mm 915mm 990mm
Shoulders
14.7 m 3 Lanes + 2.4 m & 1.5 m 17.2 m 990 mm 1005 mm 1005 mm 990 mm
Shoulders
9.6 m 2 Lanes + 2-1.2 m Shoulders 12.1 m 610 mm 825 mm 840 mm 915 mm

12 m 2 Lanes + 2-2.4 m Shoulders 14.5 m 915 mm 915 mm 980 mm 990 mm
15.6 m 3 Lanes + 2-2.4 m Shoulders 18.1 m 990 mm 1005 mm 1005 mrn 1015 mm
(3) No temporary K-rail provided.

July 1, 1995
204.8 Separate Grade Lines the Project Development Procedures

Manual).
Separate or independent grade lines are
appropriate in some cases for freeways and (3) Recessed Openings. Recessed openings, as
expressways. shown on Figure 205.1, are desirable at all
points where private access is permitted and
They are not normally considered appropriate should be provided whenever they can be
where medians are less than 18 m wide (see obtained without requiring alterations to
Index 305.6). Exceptions to this may be minor existing adjacent improvements. When
differences between opposing grade lines in recessed openings are required, the opening
special situations. should be located a minimum distance of
In addition, for either interim or ultimate 25 m from the nearest edge of the traveled
expressways, any appreciable grade differential way.
between roadbeds should be avoided in the (4) Joint Openings. A joint access opening
vicinity of at-grade intersections. For traffic serving two or more parcels of land is
entering from the crossroad, confusion and desirable whenever feasible. If the property
wrong-way movements could result if the pave- line is not normal to the right of way line,
ment of the far roadway is obscured because of care should be taken in designing the joint
excessive differential. opening so that both owners are adequately
served.
-
Topic 205 Road Connections (5) Surfacing. All points of private access
and Driveways should be surfaced with adequate width and
depth of pavement to serve the anticipated
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways traffic. The surfacing should extend from
the edge of the traveled way to the right of
@ Access openings are used only on expressways.
The term access opening applies to openings
way line.
through the right of way line which serve
abutting land ownerships whose remaining Figure 205.1
access rights have been acquired by the State.
Access Openings on
( 1 ) Criteriafor Location. To discourage wrong- Expressways
wav movements. access openings should be
located directlv opposite or at least 100 m
from a median openine. The access opening
should not be svaced closer than 1 km to an
adjacent vublic road intersection or to
mother -Drivate access opening that is wider
than 10 m.
Sight distance equivalent to that re-
quired for public road intersections
shall be provided (see Index 405.1).
(2) Width. The normal access opening width
should be 10 m. A greater width may result
in large savings in right of way costs in
some instances, but should be considered RECESSED OPENING
with caution because of the possibility that
public use might develop. Conversion of a NOTES:
private opening into a public road By widening the expressway shoulder, de-
connection requires the consent of the CTC, celeration lanes may be provided where
which cannot be committed in advance (see justified.
This detail, without the recess, may be
used on conventional highways.
200-32 HIGHWAY DESIGN. MANUAL
July 1,1995
205.2 Private Road Connections

parcel, where large volumes of vehicles
The minimum private road connection design is or large vehicles are expected, then the
shown on Figure 205.1. Sight distance maximum width should be 15 m.
requirements for the minimum private road
connection are shown on Figure 405.7 (see In- (c) When only one driveway serves a given
dex 405.1). property, in no case should the width of
the driveway including the side slope
205.3 Urban Driveways distances exceed the property frontage.
These instructions apply to the design of (d) When more than one driveway is to
driveways to serve property abutting on State serve a given property, the total width of
highways in cities or where urban type devel- all driveways should not exceed 70
opment is encountered. percent of the frontage where such a
frontage is 30 m or less. Where the
For driveways on frontage roads and in rural frontage is more than 30 m, the total
areas see Index 205.4. Details for driveway driveway width should not exceed 60
construction are shown on the Standard Plans. percent of the frontage. In either case,
For corner sight distance, see Index the width of the individual driveway
405.1(2)(c). should not exceed those given in the
(1) Correlation with Local Standards. Where preceding paragraphs. Where more than
there is a local requirement regulating one driveway is necessary to serve any
driveway construction, the higher standard one property, not less than 6 m of full
will normally govern. height curb should be provided between
driveways. This distance between
(2) Driveway Width. The width of driveways driveways also applies to projects where
for both residential and commercial usage is curbs and gutters are not to be placed.
measured along the gutter line between the
toe of the side slopes. (e) Certain urban commercial driveways
may need to accommodate the maximum
(3) Residential Driveways. The width of single legal vehicle. The width will be
residential driveways should be 3.6 m determined by the use of truck turn
minimum and 6 m maximum. The width of templates.
a double residential driveway such as used
for multiple dwellings should be 6 m (5) Sur$acing. Where curbs, gutters, and side-
minimum and 10 m maximum. The width walks are to be placed, driveways should be
selected should be based on an analysis of constructed of portland cement concrete.
the anticipated volume, type and speed of Where only curbs and gutters are to be
traffic, location of buildings and garages, placed and pedestrian traffic or adjacent
width of street, etc. improvements do not warrant concrete
driveway construction, the driveway may be
(4) Commercial Driveways. Commercial paved with the same materials used for ex-
driveways should be limited to the following isting surfacing on the property to be
maximum widths: served.
(a) When the driveway is used for one-way (6) Pedestrian and Disabled Persons Access.
traffic, the maximum width should be Where sidewalks traverse driveways,
8 m. If the driveway serves a large par- accessibility regulations require that a
cel, where large volumes of vehicles or relatively level (2% max. cross fall) path,
large vehicles are expected, the entrance at least 1.22 m wide, is provided. Provision
maximum width should be 12 m and the of this feature, as indicated in the Standard
exit maximum width should be 10 m. Plans, may require the acquisition of a
(b) When the driveway is used for two-way construction easement or additional right of
traffic, the maximum width should be way. Assessment of these needs must be
10 m. If the driveway serves a large
July 1,1995
a performed early enough in the design to 205.5 Financial Responsibility

allow time for acquiring any necessary Reconstructing or relocating any access
permits or right of way. Additionally, openings, private road connections, or drive-
designers should consider the following: ways required by revisions to the State highway
Where restricted parking zones have facility should be done at State expense by the
been established (either blue or white State or its agents. Reconstruction or relocation
painted zones) adjacent to driveways, requested by others should be paid for by the
but no reasonably close ramp access to requesting party.
the sidewalk kxists, consideration
should be given to reducing the
maximum slope of the driveway from
-
Topic 206 Pavement
Transitions
10% to 8.33% to provide sidewalk
access to the disabled.
206.1 General Transition Standards
In many cases providing the pathway Pavement transition and detour standards should
along the back of the driveway will be consistent with the section having the highest
lower the elevation at the back of the design standards. The transition should be
sidewalk. Depending on grades made on a tangent section whenever possible
behind the sidewalk the potential may and should avoid locations with horizontal and
exist for roadway generated runoff to vertical sight distance restrictions. Whenever
enter private property. The need for feasible, the entire transition should be visible to
features such as low berms within the the driver of a vehicle approaching the narrower
construction easement, or installation section. The design should be such that
of catch basins upstream of the intersections at grade within the transition area
driveway should be determined. are avoided. For decision sight distance at lane
When pedestrian activity is neither present, drops, see Index 201.7.
nor expected to be present within the
reasonable future, the designer may develop 206.2 Pavement Widenings
driveway details that eliminate the flatter ( I ) Through Lane Additions. Where through
portion along the back edge in lieu of using lanes, climbing lanes, or passing lanes are
the Standard Plans for driveways. Refer to added, the minimum recommended distance
Topic 105 for additional information related over which to transition traffic onto the
to pedestrian facilities. additional width is 75 m per lane. Figure
206.2 shows several examples of
205.4 Driveways on Frontage Roads acceptable methods for adding a lane in
and in Rural Areas each direction to a two-lane highway.
On frontage roads and in rural areas where the (2) Turning, Ramp, and Speed Change Lanes.
maximum legal vehicle must be accommodated, Transitions for lane additions, either for left
standard truck-turn templates should be used to or right turns or to add a lane to a ramp,
determine driveway widths where the curb or should typically occur over a length of
edge of traveled way is so close to the right of 35 m. Lengths shorter than 35 m are
way line that a usable connection cannot be acceptable where design speeds are below
provided within the standard limits. 75 krnlh or for conditions as stated in Index
Where county or city regulations differ from the 405.2(2)(c).
State's, it may be desirable to follow their Where insufficient median width is available
regulations, particularly where jurisdiction of to provide for left turn lanes, through traffic
the frontage road will ultimately be in their will have to be shifted to the outside. See
hands.
a Figures 405.2A, B and C for acceptable
methods of widening pavement to provide
for median turn lanes.
July 1,1995
(3) Lane Widening. An increase in lane width Figures 405.2A, B and C show the
can occur at short radius curves which are recommended methods of transitioning
widened for truck off-tracking, at ramp pavement back into the median area on
terminals with large truck turning volumes, conventional highways after the elimination
or when new construction matches existing of left turn lanes.
roadways with narrow lane widths. (3) Lane Reductions. At any location where
Extensive transition lengths are not neces- lane widths are being reduced. the minimum
sary as the widening does not restrict the l e n d over which to accomplish the
drivers expectations. Transition tapers for transition should be equal to 2l3WV. See
these types of situations should be at 10:1. Index 504.6 for mainline lane reductions at
(4) Shoulder Widening. Shoulder widening interchanges.
should normally be accomplished in a (4) Shoulder Reduction. Shoulder reductions
manner that provides a smooth transition, should typically occur over a length equal to
but can be accomplished without a taper if WVl2. However, when shoulder widths are
necessary. being reduced in conjunction with a lane
addition or widening ( as in Alt. A of Figure
206.3 Pavement Reductions 504.3B), the shoulder reduction should be
(I) Through Lane Drops. When a lane is to be accomplished over the same distance as the
dro~md.
-- it should be done by ta-pering over addition or widening.
a distance eaual to 213WV. where W =
Width of lane to be dropped and V = Design 206.4 Temporary Freeway Transitions
Speed. In general, the transition should be It is highly desirable that the design standards
on the right so that traffic merges to the left. for a temporary transition between the end of a
Figure 206.2 provides several examples of freeway construction unit and an existing
acceptable lane drops at 4-lane to 2-lane highway should not change abruptly from the
transitions. The exception to using the freeway standards. Temporary freeway
U3WV criteria is for the lane droplfreeway transitions must be reviewed by the Project De-
merge movement on a branch connection velopment Coordinator.
which is accomplished using a 50: 1 taper.
(2) Ramp and Speed Change Lanes. As shown
in Figures 504.2A and 504.3C, the standard -
Topic 207 Airway-Highway
taper for a ramp merge into a through traffic Clearances
lane is 50: 1. Where ramp lanes are dropped
prior to the merge with the through facility, 207.1 Introduction
the recommended taper is 50:l for design (I) Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace. An
speeds over 75 km/h, and the taper distance object is considered an obstruction to air
should be equal to W V for speeds navigation if any portion of that object is of
below 75 km/h. a height greater than the approach and trans-
The "Ramp Meter Design Guidelines" also verse surfaces extending outward and
provide information on recommended and upward from the airport runway. These
minimum tapers for ramp lane merges. objects include overhead signs, light
These guideline values are typically used in standards, moving vehicles on the
retrofit or restricted right-of-way situations, highway and overcrossing structures, and
and are acceptable for the specific conditions equipment used during construction.
stated in the guidelines. (2) Reference. The FAA has published reg-
Figure 405.9 shows the standard taper to be ulations relative to clearance entitled, "Part
used for dropping an acceleration lane at a 77, Federal Aviation Regulations" dated
signalized intersection. This taper can also January, 1975. This is an approved
be used when transitioning median reference to be used in conjunction with this
acceleration lanes. manual.
July 1,1995
July 1,1995
207.2 Clearances One copy of form FAA-7460-1 should be

forwarded to the Office of Project Planning and
e
(a) Civil Airports--See Figure 207.2A. Design and one copy to the Division of
Aeronautics for information.
(b) Heliports--See Figure 207.2B.
(c) Military Airports--See Figure 207.2C. -
Topic 208 Bridges and Grade
(d) Navy Carrier Landing Practice Fields-- Separation Structures
See Figure 207.21).
208.1 Bridge Width
207.3 Submittal of Airway-Highway ( I ) State Highways. The clear width of all
Clearance Data bridges, including grade separation
The following procedure must be observed in structures, shall equal the full width
connection with airway-highway clearances in of the traveled way and paved
the vicinity of airports and heliports. shoulders on the approaches with the
following exceptions:
Notice to the FAA is required when highway
construction is planned near an airport (civil or (a)Bridges to be constructed as
military) or a heliport. A "Notice of Proposed replacements on existing 2-lane,
Construction or Alteration" should be submitted 2-way roads shall not have less
to the FAA Administrator when required under than a 9.6 m wide roadbed. (see
criteria listed in Paragraph 77.13 of the latest Index 307.2).
Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 77. Such (b) When the approach shoulder
notice should be given as soon as highway width is less than 1.2 m, the
alignment and grade are firmly established. It minimum offset on each side
should be noted that these requirements apply to shall be 1.2 m.
both permanent objects and construction
equipment. When required, four copies of the The width should be measured normal to the
Notice, Form FAA-7460- 1 and accompanying center line between faces of curb or railing
maps must be sent to the Chief, Air Traffic measured at the gutter line. For offsets to
Branch, Federal Aviation Administration, safety shape barriers see Figure 208.1.
Western Regional Office, P.O. Box 92007, For horizontal and vertical clearances, see
Worldway Postal Center, Los Angeles, CA. Topic 309.
90009. Copies of Form FAA-7460-1 may be
obtained from the Western Regional Office. ( 2 ) Roads Under Other Jurisdictions.
The maps accompanying these notices should (a) OvercrossingWidths--(See Index 308.1.)
contain the following minimum information. (b) Undercrossing Span Lengths--Initial
Distance from project to runway. construction should provide for the
ultimate requirements. In areas where
Elevation of runway. the local jurisdiction has a definite plan
of development, the ultimate right of
Relationship between airport runway way width or at least that portion needed
and highway elevations, including for the roadbed and sidewalks should be
elevations of objects, such as, overhead spanned.
lights and signs. If the undercrossing street or road has
The international language for flight is English no median, one should be provided
units. Therefore, all communication with the where necessary to accommodate left-
FAA, including all mapping, must be in English turn lanes or the center piers of the
units, not metric. undercrossing structure.
July 1, 1995
Figure 207.2A
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements
(Civil Airports)
RUNWAY
July 1,1995
Figure 207.2B
Airway-Highway Clearance
Requirements (Heliport)
NOTES:
1. ALL DIMENSIONS I N METERS.
2. DIMENSIONS "a" AND "b" ARE THE SAME AND ARE EQUAL TO ONE AND
ONE-HALF TIMES THE OVERALL HELICOPTER LENGTH.
3. MINIMUM VERTICAL CLEARANCE IS 5.1 m FOR INTERSTATE HIGHWAYS. 4.6 m FOR
PUBLIC ROADS. AND 3.0 m FOR PRIVATE ROADS.
HIGHWAY CLEARANCE: PROFILE A T PAVEMENT EDGE NEAR AIRFIELD.
153 m
a t helicopter enroute
altitude
k'
1: 10 f o r M i l i t a r y H e l i p o r t s
July 1, 1995
Figure 207.2C
Airway-Highway Clearance
Requirements (Military Airports)
LEGEND
A- PRIMARY SURFACE
--
B- CLEAR ZONE SURFACE
C- APPROACH - DEPARTURE CLEARANCE SURFACE GLIDE ANGLE) - 1: 50
D- APPROACH - DEPARTURE CLEARANCE SURFACE
E- INNER HORIZONTAL SURFACE
F- CONICAL SURFACE - 1: 20
G-OUTER HORIZONTAL SURFACE
H-TRANSITIONAL SURFACE - 1: 7
_-----
July 1,1995
Figure 207.2D
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements
(Navy Carrier Landing Practice Field)
Arc of 3429 rn Arc of 3429 rn
radius from point @ rodius from point @
End Zone
305 rn
4 2439 rn
(1220 rn Min.)
4 End Zone
305 m
PLAN
2667 m
0
SECTION X
7
NOTE
Elevation datum for 011 obstruction
clearance zones is the elevation
of the runway.
Vertical Plane
LEGEND
v.1 1: 7 Slope
1: 50 Slope
Ezzd
-
-
1: 120 Slope
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
1:130 Slope
July 1,1995
Where it appears that a 2-lane road will 8.33% with a maximum rise of 760 mm
be adequate for the foreseeable future, between landin~s. The landing should be a
but no right of way width has been minimum of 1525 mm in len-h.
established, a minimum span length See Topic 309 for vertical clearances.
sufficient for a 12.0 m roadbed should
be provided. Additional span length 208.7 Equestrian Undercrossings
should be provided to permit future
sidewalks where there is a foreseeable Such structures should normally provide a clear
need. If it is reasonably foreseeable that opening 3 m hlgh and 3 m wide in cross
more than two lanes will be required section. Skewed crossings should be avoided.
ultimately, a greater width should be The structure should be straight so the entire
spanned. length can be seen from each end.
(c) For horizontal and vertical clearances, see 208.8 Cattle Passes, Equipment, and
Topic 309. Deer Crossings
208.2 Cross Slope Private cattle passes and equipment crossings
may be constructed when economically justified
The crown is normally centered on the bridge by a right of way appraisal, as outlined in
except for one-way bridges where a straight Section 7.09.09.00 of the Right of Way
cross slope in one direction should be used. Manual.
The cross slope should be the same as for the
approach pavement (see Index 301.2). The standard cattle pass should consist of either
a standard box culvert with an opening 2.4 m
208.3 Median wide and 2.4 m high or a metal pipe 3000 mm
in diameter. The invert of metal pipe should be
On multilane divided highways a bridge median paved with concrete or bituminous paving
that is 10.8 m wide or less should be decked. material.
Exceptions require individual analysis. See
Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for median If equestrian traffic is expected to use the culvert
barrier warrants. a minimum 3 m wide by 3 m high structure may
be provided. However, the user of the facility
208.4 Bridge Sidewalks should be contacted to determine the specific
Bridge sidewalks should be provided where requirements.
justified by pedestrian traffic (see Figure If conditions indicate a reasonable need for a
208.10B). larger than standard cattle pass, it may be pro-
vided if economically justified by the right of
208.5 Open End Structures way appraisal.
Embankment end slopes at open end structures In some cases the installation of equipment or
should be no steeper than 1:1.5 for all deer crossings is justified on the basis of public
highways. interest or need rather than economics.
Examples are:
208.6 Pedestrian Overcrossings and
Undercrossings (a) A deer crossing or other structure for en-
The minimum width of walkway for pedestrian vironmental protection purposes.
overcrossings should be 2.4 m. (b) Equipment crossings for the Forest Ser-
Determination of the width and height of vice or other governmental agencies or
pedestrian undercrossings requires individual as a right of way obligation.
analysis to insure adequate visibility through the These facilities should be installed where
structure and approaches (see Index 105.2). necessary as determined by consultation with
Pedestrian ramps should be provided on all the appropriate affected entities.
pedestrian separation structures. The ramu A clear line of sight should be provided through
should have a maximum longitudinal slope of the structure.
July 1,1995
Figure 208.1
Offsets to
Safety-shape Barriers
Edge of Troveled Woy

OFFSET
*. -
LEFT RIGHT
(Inside or Medion) (Outside)
SHOULDER SHOULDER
Approach Left Right

Shoulder Width Shoulder Shoulder
*
0.6 rn & 1.2 m (Ramps) 1.2 m
1.5 rn
2.4 m
3.0 rn
\r [I-
9 . - OFFSET
LEFT
Edge of Traveled Way
Rl GH T
- . P
SHOULDER SHOULDER
Approach Left Right

Shoulder Width Shoulder Shoulder
*
0.6 rn & 1.2 rn 1.2 rn
* See Index 208.1(l)(b)

July 1, 1995
(a) Vehicular Barrier Railings--The primary

208.9 Railroad Underpasses and function of these railings is to retain and
Overheads redirect errant vehicles.
Generally, it is desirable to construct overheads (b) Combination Vehicular and Pedestrian
rather than underpasses whenever it is necessary Railings--These railings perform the
for a highway and railroad to cross. Railroads dual function of retaining both vehicles
should be carried over highways only when and pedestrians on the bridge. They
there is no other reasonable alternative. consist of two parts--A concrete barrier
Some undesirable features of underpasses are: railing with a sidewalk and metal
handrailing or fence-type railing.
(a) They create bottlenecks for railroad
operations. (c) Pedestrian Railings--These railings pre-
vent pedestrians from accidentally falling
(b) It is difficult to widen the highway. from the structure and, in the case of
(c) Pumping plants are often required to fence-type railing, reduce the risk of
drain the highway. objects being dropped on the roadway
below. Where the facility is accessible
(d) They are likely to lead to cost participa- to disabled persons and the profile grade
tion controversies for initial and future exceeds 5%, a handrail for use by the
construction. disabled meeting both the State and
(e) Shooflies (temporary tracks) are Federal regulations must be provided.
generally required during construction. (d) Bicycle Railings--These railings retain
(f) Railroads are concerned about the struc- bicycles and riders on the structure.
ture maintenance and liability costs they They may be specifically designed for
incur. bicycles, or may be a combination type
consisting of a vehicular barrier
Advantages of overheads are: surmounted by a fence or metal handrail.
(a) Railroads can use most of their right of (2) Policies. To reduce the risk of objects being
way for maintenance.
(b) Overheads can be widened at a relatively screening in the form of fence-type railings
low cost and with little difficulty. should be installed a l o n ~new overcrossing
(c) Less damage may be incurred in the
g
California Streets and Highways Code).
event of a derailment. Screening should be considered for the
(d) Agreements for design and maintenance opposite side of structures having one
can be reached more easily with sidewalk. Screening should be installed at
railroads. such other locations determined to be
appropriate.
(e) Initial costs are generally lower.
The approved types of railings for use on
The State, the railroads, and the public in bridge structures are listed below and illus-
general can usually benefit from the construction trated in Figures 208.10A, B, and C.
of an overhead structure rather than an Railing types not listed are no longer in
underpass. general use; however, they may be specified
See Topic 309 for vertical clearances. in those cases where it is desirable to match
an existing condition.
208.10 Bridge Railings The District should specify in the bridge site
( I ) General. There are four classes of railings, data submittal the rail type to be used after
each intended to perform a different consideration has been given to the rec-
a function. ommendations of the local agency (where
applicable) and the DOS.
July 1, 1995
Figure 208.1 0A
Vehicular Railings for
/ / EDGE OF /
NuqiQ Q Q
1.2 m MIN.
METAL TUBE RAILING TYPE 18
1.2 m MIN.
Ic
SEE FIG. 208.1
CONCRETE BARRIER TYPE 25

July 1,1995
Figure 208.1 0B
Combination Railings for
Bridge Structures
CONCRETE BARRIER
- - I
1.5 rn C
Standard
TYPE 25 WITH TYPE 7 TYPE 26 WlTH TYPE 6
T
,UBULAR HAND RAILING
TYPE 26 WlTH TYPE 7 TYPE 26 WlTH TUBULAR HAND RAILING

July 1,1995
Figure 208.1 0C
Pedestrian Railings for

Bridge Structures
CHAIN LINK RAILING TYPE 3 CHAIN LINK RAILING TYPE 7 (MODIFIED)
CHAIN LINK RAILING (1.8 m)

July 1, 1995
(3)Vehicular Railings. See Figure 208.10A. (d) Tubular Handrailing--This railing is

used with Type 26 to increase the
(a) Concrete Barrier Type 25--This is the combined rail height for the safety of
vehicular barrier for general use adjacent pedestrians. It should be used in lieu of
to traffic. Figure 208.1 illustrates the Type 7 where object dropping will not
position of the barrier relative to the edge be a problem or at the ends of bridges to
of traveled way. increase sight distance if fence-type --
(b) Metal Tube Railing Type 18--This railing wouid restrict sight distance.
railing may be used in those situations (5) Pedestrian Railings. See Figure 208.10C
where a self cleaning deck is preferred,
or where more see-through area is (a) Chain Link Railing Type 3--This railing
desired than is provided by a solid is used on pedestrian structures to
concrete parapet. In general, it should reduce the risk of objects being dropped
not be used on bridges which cross a on the roadway below.
lower roadway because of the problem (b) Chain Link Railing Type 7 (Modified)--
of drainage and debris falling off the This railing is similar to Type 7 except
side of the bridges. Its use should be that it is mounted on the structure at the
limited because of its cost and appear- sidewalk level.
ance.
(c) Chain Link Railing (Six-foot)--This rail-
(4) Combination Railings. See Figure ing is not as high as Types 3 or 7 and
208.10B. therefore, its use is restricted to those
(a) Barrier Railing Type 26--This is the bar- locations where object dropping or
rier railing for general use when throwing will not be a problem.
sidewalks are provided on a bridge. It (d) Chain Link Railing (Modification)--
must be accompanied with a tubular Existing railing may be modified for
handrailing or a fence-type railing. The screening under the protective screening
minimum sidewalk width is 1.5 m, policy. The DOS should be contacted
however, this width may be varied as for details.
circumstances require.
(6) Bicycle Railing. The minimum height of
(b) Chain Link Railing Type 7--This is the bicycle rail is 1.4 m above the deck surface.
fence-type railing for general use with Pedestrian railings and combination railings
Type 26 barrier railing with sidewalk to consisting of a concrete barrier surmounted
reduce the risk of objects being dropped by a fence or tubular railing are satisfactory
on the roadway below. When a for bicycles, if at least 1.4 m high. Bicycles
sidewalk (Type 26 railing) is provided are not considered to operate on a sidewalk,
on one side of a bridge and Type 25 except in special cases where signs specifi-
barrier railing on the other side, Type 7 cally direct cyclists to use the sidewalk.
railing may be placed on top of the Type
25 as additional protection from dropped As a general ~olicv.bicycle railings should
objects. Consideration should be given be installed at the following locations:
to the effect of the Type 7 railing on (a) On a Class I bikewav. exceDt that a
sight distance at the bridge ends and lower rail may be used if a curbed
view over the side of the bridge. sidewalk. not signed for bicycle use,
Lighting fixtures may be provided with se~aratesthe bikeway from the rail or a
Type 7 railings. shoulder at least 2.4 m wide exists on
(c) Chain Link Railing Type 6--This railing the other side of the rail,
may be used in lieu of Type 7 when spe- (b) On the outside of a Class I1 or 111 bike-
cial architectural treatment is required. It wav. unless a curbed sidewalk. not
should not be used on curved alignment signed for bicycle use. separates the
because of fabrication difficulties. bikeway from the rail,
July 1, 1995
(c) In other locations where the designer eled way not intended for vehicular travel, to
e
deems it reasonable and appropriate. control drainage, and to control parking of
(7) Bridge Approach Railings. Approach vehicles.
railings shall be installed at the ends Types A1-150 and A2-150 are 150 mm
of bridge railings exposed to high. Typical uses are adjacent to sidewalks
approach traffic. and parking lanes.
Refer to Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for Types A1-200 and A2-200 are 200 mm
placement and design criteria of guardrail. high. They may be used in lieu of 150 mm
curbs when requested by local authorities if
Topic 209 - Curbs and Gutters the curb criteria stated under Index 209.1 are
satisfied. Typical uses of these curbs are at
the edge of frontage roads adjacent to the
209.1 General Policy freeway.
As a general policy, construction of curbs and (2) Type B Curbs. Type B curbs are called
gutters should be limited to those cases where "deterring curbs". Since all have a 1.5:1
curbs are justified by sound engineering slope on the face, they are mounted more
reasons. Reasons for constructing curbs and easily than Type A curbs.
gutters on State highways include the following:
Types Bl, B2, and B3 are 150 m m high.
(a) Where required for proper drainage. Typical uses of these curbs are for drainage
(b) Where needed for channelization, delin- control and channelization.
eation, control of access, or other means Type B4 is 80 mm high and is typically used
of improving traffic flow and safety. for: median openings (see Index 209.3),
(c) At ramp connections with local streets channelization, and special uses described
for the protection of pedestrians and under Index 504.8(7). This curb is not
continuity of construction at a local considered adequate for drainage control.
facility. (3) Type E Curb. This essentially is a rolled
(d) As a replacement of existing curbs and gutter used only in special drainage
gutters. situations, for example: where drainage par-
allels and flows against the face of a retain-
(e) On frontage roads on the side adjacent to ing wall.
the freeway where required for the pro-
tection of the freeway fence. (4) Type H Curb. This type may be used on
bridges where it is desired to match the ap-
(f) When necessary to conform to local proach roadway curb.
arterial street standards in urban areas.
The use of curbs should be avoided on freeways 209.3 Position of Curbs
or other highways with design speeds of 75 The general policy for positioning curbs is to
km/h and over. provide the same unobstructed roadbed width at
intersections and median openings as is
209.2 Types and Uses normally provided between such points. All di-
The curb sections illustrated on the Standard mensions (offsets) to curbs are from the near
Plans are approved types to be used as stated edge of traveled way to the inside face of curb at
below. gutter grade.
(I) Type A Curbs. These are commonly called (1) Through Lanes. Minimum curb offsets,
"barrier curbs", but they do not constitute a right and left, should be the normal width of
positive barrier as they are easily mounted thi outside (right) and inside (median)
. w r
shoulder, respectively, as set forth in able

except at low speeds and flat angles of
approach. Their main functions are to deter
vehicles from using areas outside the trav-
302.1. 8
(2) Channelization. Island curbs used to

channelize intersection traffc movements
Topic 210 - Earth Retaining
should be positioned as described in Index Systems
405.4.
210.1 Types and Uses
(3) Separate Turning Lanes. Curb offsets to the
right of right turn lanes in urban areas may Earth retaining systems can be divided into five
be reduced to 0.6 m if bicycle traffic is not a categories:
consideration and design exception approval
has been obtained in accordance with Index State designed systems which involve a
82.2. No curb offset is required to the left Standard Plan,
of left turn lanes in urban areas. State designed systems which require a
( 4 ) Median Openings. Median openings special design,
(Figure 405.5) should not be curbed unless
necessary to delineate areas occupied by Proprietary systems which have been
traffic signal posts. Mountable B4 curbs pre-approved by DOS for listing in
should be used in these special cases. Special Provisions for specific projects.
(5) Urban Arterial Highways. Continuous Proprietary systems which are awaiting
median curb offsets may be reduced to DOS approval.
0.6 m when necessary to match local agency
standards on conventional divided highways Experimental systems.
in urban areas when design speed is equal to ( I ) State Designed Earth Retaining Systems
or less than 75 km/h. With Standard Plans. Standard Plans are
available for a variety of earth retaining sys-
209.4 Curbs on Frontage Roads and tems (retaining walls). Loading conditions
Streets and foundation requirements are outlined in
Continuous curbs are not necessarily required the Standard Plans. For sites with require-
on all frontage roads. Where curbs are ments that are not covered by the Standard
necessary for drainage control or other reasons, Plans, a special design earth retaining
they should be Type A and placed as shown on system is required. To assure conformance
Figure 307.4. Consideration may be given to with the Standard Plan requirements and,
the use of local curb standards where such therefore, completion of the PS&E in a
request is made by local authorities. Type B timely fashion, design engineers should
curbs are not considered suitable side curbs for request a foundation investigation for all
frontage roads or city streets (see Index 209.1). locations at which a retaining wall is being
considered. Retaining walls which have
209.5 Curbs for Bridges and Grade Standard Plans are as follows:
Separation Structures (a) Retaining Wall Types 1 and 2 (Concrete
When both roadbeds of a curbed divided Cantilever). These walls have standard
highway are carried across a single structure, design heights up to 10 900 mm, but are
the median curbs should be in the same location most economical below 6000 mm.
as on the adjacent roadways. Concrete cantilever walls accommodate
traffic barriers, sound walls, and
209.6 Gutter Cross Slopes drainage facilities efficiently.
When the pavement drains toward the curb, the (b) Retaining Wall Type 3 and 4 (Concrete
cross slope of gutters normally should be 8% Counterfort). These walls may be used
toward the curb. Pavement slopes on where minimum wall deflection is
superelevated roadways extend the full width of desired. When used in conjunction with
the gutter, except that gutter slopes on the low concrete cantilever walls, there should
side should not be less than 8% (see Index be an offset in the plane of the wall faces
836.2 for principles of gutter design). to mask the difference in deflection
July 1,1995
between the two wall types. The cost of Timber and concrete crib walls con-
these walls is generally more than for structed on horizontal alignments
concrete cantilever walls of similar with curves or angle points require
height. special details, particularly when the
(c) Retaining Wall Type 5 (Concrete L-Type wall face is battered. Because crib
wall faces can be climbed, they are
Cantilever). Although more costly than not recommended for urban sites
cantilever walls, these walls may be re- where they will be accessible to the
quired where site restrictions do not public. The economical height for
allow for a footing projection beyond the all crib walls is generally less than
face of the wall stem. 9000 mm.
(d) Retaining Wall Type 6 (Concrete (2) State Designed Earth Retaining Systems
Masonry Walls). These walls may be Which Require Special Designs. Some sites
used where the design height of the wall require a special design earth retaining
does not exceed 1800 mm. These walls system to accommodate existing and future
are generally less costly than all other ground contours, traffic, utilities or other
standard design walls or gravity walls. constructed features, site geology,
Where traffic is adjacent to the top of the economy, or aesthetics.
wall, guardrail should be set back as
noted in the Standard Plans. Some special design earth retaining systems
are as follows:
(e) Crib Walls. The following types are
available: (a) Standard Plan Walls. The design
loadings, heights, and types of walls in
Concrete Crib Wall - This type of the Standard Plans cover frequent
crib wall may be used for design applications for earth retaining systems.
heights up to 16 000 mm. Concrete However, special designs are necessary
crib walls are suited to coastal areas if the imposed loading exceeds that in
and higher elevations where salt air the Standard Plans. Railroad live load,
and deicing salts may limit the building surcharge; loads imposed by
service life of other types of crib sign structures, electroliers, or sound
walls. Concrete crib walls may be walls are examples. Foundation
closed face and, therefore, useful conditions that require pile support for
where impinging flow is a problem. the wall necessitates a special design.
Design is by the DOS.
Steel Crib Wall - This type of crib
wall may be used for design (b) Bulkheads. These systems are also re-
heights up to 10 900 mm. Steel crib ferred to as cantilevered pile, sheet pile,
walls are light in weight; easily tied-back, anchored pile, or soldier pile
transported and installed; and, walls. These walls are most practical in
therefore, suited for relatively cut sections and are best suited for situa-
inaccessible installations and for tions where excavation for a retaining
emergency repairs. wall with a footing is impractical
because of traffic, utilities, existing
Timber Crib Wall - This type of crib buildings, or right of way restrictions.
wall may be used for design heights In embankment sections, a bulkhead
up to 6600 mm. Timber crib walls wall is a practical solution for a roadway
have a rustic appearance which widening where design heights are less
makes them suited to a rural that 1800 mm. They are also practical
environment. When all of the wood for slip-out corrections. Bulkheads can
members are pressure preservative consist of either concrete, steel, or
treated, the service life of timber crib timber sheet piles, or concrete, steel or
walls is comparable to that of timber soldier piles either driven or
concrete or steel crib walls. placed in drilled holes and bacMilled,
July 1, 1995
with either concrete facing or lagging or Wall heights of soil reinforcement sys-
timber lagging. Bulkhead walls can be tems are controlled mainly by bearing
either cantilevered or anchored with tie capacity of the foundation material and
rod and deadman anchors, ground global stability of the site. Wall heights
anchors, or rock anchors. The method in excess of 18 000 mm are feasible
of support and anchorage depends on where conditions permit. Foundation
site conditions, design height, and investigations for soil reinforcement
loading imposed. The cost of these systems are similar to investigations for
walls is variable depending on earth conventional retaining walls.
retaining requirements, site geology, Special details are required when a soil
aesthetic consideration, and site re- reinforcement system must accommo-
straints. Design is by DOS. date drainage structures, overhead sign
(c) Concrete or Rock Gravity Walls. These supports or sound walls on piles within
walls are most economical at design the reinforced soil mass. Concrete
heights below 1200 mm. They are con- traffic barriers require a special design
structed at heights between 1200 mm support slab when used at the top of the
and 1800 rnm only for short lengths, facing of these systems. These systems
and then only if considerable length of can not be used where site restrictions
the shorter height is involved. These do not allow necessary excavation or
walls can be used in connection with a placement of the soil reinforcing
cantilever wall if long lengths of wall elements.
with design heights of less than Soil reinforcement systems can be clas-
1200 mm are required. A Type 50C sified within two categories typified by
concrete barrier, which can be found in the method of construction:
the Standard Plans, can serve as a
gravity retaining wall in locations where "Bottom Up Methods" - These soil
a differential in height of up to 900 mm reinforcement systems involve the
exists between adjoining roadway placement of reinforcement during
grades. Design is by DOS. construction of an embankment.
(d) Soil Reinforcement Systems. Soil rein- When conditions permit their use,
forcement systems consist of facing ele- these systems are generally the most
ments and soil reinforcing elements economical choice for wall heights
incorporated into a compacted or in situ greater than 6000 rnm. They may
soil mass. The reinforced soil mass also be the most economical system
functions similar to a gravity wall. for wall heights in the 3000 rnm to
6000 mm range, depending on
Soil reinforcing elements can be any specific project requirements.
material that provides tensile strength
and pullout resistance, and possesses Because of the articulated nature of
satisfactory creep characteristics and the facing elements these systems
service life. Generally, reinforcing use, they can tolerate greater
elements are steel, but polymeric and differential settlement than can
fiberglass systems may be used. conventional concrete retaining
walls.
Facing elements for most systems are
either reinforced concrete, light guage Steel elements used in this method
steel, or treated wood. Polymeric walls are sized to provide sacrificial steel
may be faced with masonry-like to offset corrosion; and, addition-
elements or even planted with local ally, are galvanized for permanent
grasses. Selection of facing type is installations.
governed by aesthetics and service life.
July 1, 1995
"Top Down Methods" - At the time sections as soil reinforcement.

of this revision, soil nailing is the Galvanized metal beamguard rail,
only method of reinforcing timber posts or concrete panels are
undisturbed earth during excavation used as facing elements. Often the
of a cut slope practiced by Caltrans. materials involved can be salvaged
This system involves insertion of from state rehabilitation projects.
reinforcement "soil nails" at an angle The District Recycle Coordinator
into undisturbed in situ material should be consulted as to availability
during excavation. When site of salvaged materials. Design by the
conditions permit its use, soil nailing Roadway Geotechnical Engineering
will generally be the most economic Branch of the Office of Structural
system for all heights. Foundations.
Because soil nailing is accomplished Soil Nail Wall - This system
concurrent with excavation, and thus reinforces either original ground or
results in an unloading of the an existing embankment during the
foundation, there is generally no excavation process. Soil nailing is
significant differential movement. always accomplished from the top
Steel "soil nails" used in this method down in stages that are typically
1200 mm to 1800 mm in height.
are protected against corrosion either After each stage of excavation,
by being epoxy coated or encap- corrosion protected soil reinforcing
sulated within a grout filled elements, "soil nails", are placed and
corrugated plastic sheath, and grouted into holes which have been
surrounded by portland cement grout drilled at angles into the in situ
placed during construction.
Soil reinforcement systems are
designed by both the state and
material. The face of each stage of
excavation is protected by a layer of
reinforced shotcrete. After the full
a
private firms. Vendor systems are height of wall has been excavated
termed "proprietary" and are listed in and reinforced, a finish layer of
paragraphs (3) and (4) of this concrete facing is placed either by
section. Some state designed soil the shotcreting method or by casting
reinforcement systems that require within a face form. Design by DOS.
special design are as follows:
Tire Anchor Timber (TAT) Wall -
Mechanically Stabilized Embank- This system was developed by the
ment (MSE) - This system was Roadway Geotechnical Engineering
developed by the Roadway Branch of the Office of Structural
Geotechnical Engineering Branch of Foundations and utilizes steel bars
the Office of Structural Foundations with used tire side walls attached by
and uses galvanized welded wire cross bars as soil reinforcing
mats as soil reinforcing elements. elements. The facing elements are
The facing elements are precast treated timber. TAT walls have a
concrete. In many cases, this rustic appearance which makes them
system can be constructed using on- suited to a rural environment.
site backfill materials. Design by Design by the Roadway Geotechni-
DOS. cal Engineering Branch of the Office
of Structural Foundations.
Salvaged Material Retaining Wall -
This system was developed by the (3) Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems (Pre-
Roadway Geotechnical Engineering Approved). These conventional retaining
Branch of the Office of Structural walls, cribwalls, and soil reinforcement
Foundations and utilizes C-channel systems are designed, manufactured, and
marketed by a vendor. These systems are
termed proprietary because most of these the list as they are submitted, evaluated,
systems are patented. Pre-approval status and approved.
means that these systems may be listed in (4) Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems
the Special Provisions of the project as an (Pending). The systems in this category
Alternative Earth Retaining System (AERS) have been submitted by a vendor to the DOS
when considered appropriate for a particular for evaluation. They will undergo thorough
location. For a proprietary system to be review and any necessary testing and with
given pre-approval status, the vendor must the approval of DOS, they will be added to
submit standard plans and design the list of pre-approved proprietary earth
calculations to DOS for their review and retaining systems and can be listed in the
approval. Preapproved proprietary earth Special Provisions under Alternative Earth
retaining systems are as follows: Retaining Systems.
(a) Reinforced Earth (RE). This French, In most cases, proprietary systems will be
patented soil reinforcement system is listed in the Special Provisions for a project
marketed by the Reinforced Earth under Alternative Earth Retaining Systems.
Company. Reinforced Earth utilizes However, if a proprietary system is the only
steel strips as soil reinforcing elements retaining system deemed appropriate for a
and precast concrete face panels. project and, therefore, the only system con-
(b) Reinforced Soil Embankment (RSE). tained in the project documents, the
This patented soil reinforcement system construction of that system must be
is marketed by The Hilfiker Company. designated experimental construction in
RSE walls utilize welded wire mat soil accordance with existing contract
reinforcement and precast concrete face agreements concerning sole source
a (c)
panels.
. . Welded Wire Walls. This vatented soil
reinforcement system is k k e t e d by
purchases.
(5) Experimental State Designed Earth Retaining
Systems. Every earth retaining system must
The Hilfiker Company. Welded Wire undergo a thorough evaluation before
Walls are constructed using welded wire becoming accepted for routine use. Newly
mat units which are both the soil introduced designs or untried combinations
reinforcement and the facing element. of proprietary and non-proprietary designs
(d) Retained Earth (VSL) Walls. This or products are, therefore, considered
patented soil reinforcement system is experimental. Evaluation of the system m y
marketed by the VSL Corporation. Like take the form of either a Category 1 or a
MSE walls, retained earth walls use Category 2 Experimental Construction
welded wire mat soil reinforcement and Project. Category 1 projects are
precast concrete face panels. administered by either the Office of
Structural Foundations or DOS. Category 2
(e) Criblock Walls. This patented concrete projects are administered through the-ofiice
cribwall system is marketed by of Engineering Services, Value Analysis and
Retaining Walls Company. Resource Conservation Branch, and require
(f) Port-0-Wall. This system is marketed a minimum of paperwork. The evaluation
by Port-0-Wall Enterprises. This process in both cases is federally funded.
system consists of cantilevered precast Once a system has been evaluated the
concrete stem panels supported by a experimental status will be changed.
cast-in-place concrete footing. Some earth retaining systems which are
It should be noted that this list includes considered experimental are as follows:
only those systems which were pre- (a) Fabric or Plastic Reinforced Walls.
approved by DOS at the time of this
e revision. New systems will be added to
These systems utilize geotextiles or
plastics as the soil reinforcing elements.
The face of these walls can be left
July 1,1995
exposed if the fabric has been treated to prietary systems, an experimental system, or
prevent decay from ultra-violet rays. any combination thereof. The State designed
Concrete panels, mortarless masonry, alternative systems, both Standard Plan walls
tar emulsion, or air blown mortar may and special design systems, will be fully de-
be used as facing materials or the face tailed on the plans. The alternative systems
may be seeded if a more aesthetic treat- which are pre-approved proprietary systems will
ment is preferred. Design is by the be listed in the Special Provisions as Alternative
Office of Structural Foundations. Earth Retaining Systems.
(b) Mortarless Masonry Gravity Walls. Implementation of the AERS process requires
Each of these systems utilizes the the involvement of the District Design
friction and shear developed between Engineer, DOS, and the Office of Structural
facing units and the combined weight of Foundations. The District Design Engineer
the units to retain the backfill. Some of should submit pertinent site information (site
these systems have been used as erosion plans, typical sections, etc.) to both the Office
protection at abutments and on of Structural Foundations and DOS for feasi-
embankments. They can be used as an bility studies as early as possible in the project
aesthetic treatment for facing fabric and design stage.
plastic soil reinforced walls. All of these Under the AERS procedure, parts of the PS&E
systems require a batter. Design is by package which pertain to the earth retaining
the Office of Structural Foundations. systems will be prepared as follows:
It should be noted that this list includes only
those systems which are being evaluated by Project plans for the State designed sys-
the Oflice iof Structural Foundations at the tems can be prepared by the District
time of this revision. New systems will be Design Engineer (Standard Plan
added to the list as they are considered. systems), the Office of Structural
Foundations (special design soil
210.2 Alternative Earth Retaining reinforcement systems and experimental
Systems (AERS) systems), or DOS (Standard Plan
systems and special design systems).
The Alternative Earth Retaining Systems
procedure encourages competitive bidding and Pre-approved proprietary systems will
potentially results in cost savings. Therefore, be listed in the Special Provisions.
AERS should be considered in preparing all
project documents involving earth retaining Specifications and Estimates for the fully
systems. detailed State designed system, which
DOS initiated the AERS procedure in 1982. will be used as the basis for payment,
Implementation of the procedure means that will be prepared by DOS.
various earth retaining systems are presented in The earth retaining systems under this procedure
the contract bid package and are, therefore, able will be measured and paid for by the square
to be considered for use by a contractor. Under meter area of the face of the earth retaining
this procedure, a fully detailed State designed system which has been indicated to be the basis
earth retaining system will be provided for each of payment. Should an Alternative Earth
location, and will be used as the basis for Retaining System be constructed, payment will
payment. Additional systems may be presented be made based on the measurements of the State
in the contract documents as alternatives to the designed system which was designated as basis
fully detailed State design and can be considered of payment. The contract price paid per square
for use at specified locations. The fully detailed meter is for all items of work involved and
State designed earth retaining system which is includes excavation, backfill, drainage system,
used as the basis for payment may be either a reinforcing steel, concrete, soil reinforcement,
Standard Plan system or a special design sys- and facing. Any barrier, fence, or railing in-
tem. Additional (or alternative) systems may be volved is measured and paid for as separate
State designed systems, pre-approved pro- items.
July 1,1995
a 210.3 Cost Reduction Incentive If cable railing is required on a wall which is

Proposals (CRIP) less than 1370 mrn tall and that wall is located
within the clear recovery zone, then the cable
The contractor may submit a proposal for an railing should be placed behind the wall. See
earth retaining system under Section 5-1.14 of Standard Plans for details of cable railing.
the Standard Specifications, Cost Reduction
Incentive. The proposed system may modify or Special designs for safety railing may be
replace the earth retaining system permitted by considered where aesthetic values of the area
the contract. This gives vendors of proprietary warrant special treatment.
earth retaining systems a method for having Concrete barriers may be mounted on top of
their system used prior to having pre-approval retaining walls. Details for concrete barriers
of a standard plan submittal for that system. mounted on top of retaining walls Type 1
CRIP submittals are administered by the through 5 are shown in the Standard Plans. A
Resident Engineer. Contract Change Orders are special design traffic slab is required if a con-
not to be processed until the CRIP is approved crete barrier is to be used at the top of crib walls
by Headquarters Construction with review and most special design earth retaining systems.
assistance provided by other functional units. DOS should be contacted for preparation of the
plans involved in the special design.
210.4 Aesthetic Consideration
Retaining walls joining right of way fences
The profile of the top of wall should be de- should be a minimum of 1800 mm clear height.
signed to be as pleasing as the site conditions
permit. All changes in the slope at the top of 210.6 Design Responsibility
cast-in-place concrete walls should be rounded
with vertical curves at least 6000 mm long. DOS has primary responsibility for the
Small dips in the top of the wall should be structural design and preparation of the contract
eliminated. Sharp dips should be improved by documents (PS&E) for earth retaining systems
using vertical curves, slopes, steps, or com- in the Standard Plans and for the special designs
binations thereof. Side slopes may be flattened involving bulkheads, concrete and rock gravity
or other adjustments made to provide a pleasing walls, pile support systems, Mechanically
profile. Stabilized Embankment, and soil nail walls.
The Roadway Geotechnical Engineering Branch
Where walls are highly visible, special surface of the Office of Structural Foundations has
treatment or provisions for landscaping should primary responsibility for the geotechnical
be considered. Aesthetic treatment of walls design of soil nail walls. DOS prepares the
should be referred to DOS for study by the Specifications and Engineer's Estimate for
Transportation Architecture Branch. contracts where the Alternative Earth Retaining
Walls should not have indentations or pro- Systems (AERS) procedure is used. DOS
trusions less than 1800 mm above grade large reviews and approves standard plan submittals
enough to snag errant vehicles. for proprietary earth retaining systems submitted
When alternative wall types are provided on by vendors. DOS and the Roadway
projects with more than one wall site, any re- Geotechnical Engineering Branch of the Office
striction as to the combination of wall types of Structural Foundations assist Headquarters
should be specified in the Special Provisions. Construction in evaluating the Cost Reduction
Incentive Proposals (CRIP) submitted by
contractors.
210.5 Safety Railing, Fences, and
Concrete Barriers Districts may prepare contract plans, speci-
Cable rail in^ should be installed for employee fications, and engineer's estimate for Standard
pr ' in Plan retaining walls provided the foundation
adiacent to and above vertical faces of retaining conditions and site requirements pennit their
use. A foundation investigation is required for
walls. winywall . utments. etc. where the all earth retaining structures. Project plans,
vertical fall is 75; 2 0 r more. specifications, and estimates for Tire Anchored
July 1,1995
Timber walls, Salvaged Material walls, and ex- The following guidelines should be used to
perimental walls will be prepared by the Dis- prepare the contract plans for earth retaining
tricts with the assistance of the Roadway systems which are found in the Standard
Geotechnical Engineering Branch of the Office Plans:
of Structural Foundations. Earth retaining
systems can be included in the PS&E as either (a) Loads. All wall types selected must be
Highway or Structure items. capable of supporting the field surcharge
conditions. The design surcharges can
Requests for the special design of a retaining be found in the Standard Plans.
system should be submitted at least 6 months Deviance from these loadings will
before the PS&E is due. At least 2 months is require a special design.
required to conduct a foundation investigation
for a retaining structure. A site plan, index (b) Footing Steps. For economy and ease
map, cross sections, vertical and horizontal of construction of wall Types 1 through
alignment, and utility and drainage requirements 6, the following criteria should be used
should be sent along with the request. for layout of footing steps.
The ESC Office of Structural Foundations has Distance between steps should be in
responsibility for making foundation recom- multiples of 2400 mm.
mendations for all earth retaining systems.
They assist the District Design Engineer with A minimum number of steps should
preparation of contract documents for special be used even if a slightly higher wall
designs of Tire Anchor Timber walls, Salvage is necessary. Small steps, less than
Material walls, and experimental earth retaining 300 mm in height, should be
systems. avoided unless the distance between
steps is 29 200 mrn or more. The
Both the Office of Structural Foundations and maximum height of steps should be
the DOS have responsibility for making held to 1200 mm. If the footing
feasibility studies for Alternative Earth Retaining thickness changes between steps, the
Systems. The District should submit project site bottom of footing elevation should
information (site plans, typical sections, etc.) to be adjusted so that the top of footing
both of them as early in the planning stages as remains at the same elevation.
possible so that determination of the most
appropriate earth retaining systems to use can be (c) Sloping Footings. The following
made. criteria should be used for layout of
sloping footings.
210.7 Guidelines for Plan Preparation
The maximum permissible slope for
( I ) Type Selection. Wall type selection should reinforced concrete retaining walls is
be based on considerations set forth in Index 3%. Maximum footing slope for
210.1. Both State designed earth retaining masonry walls is 2%.
systems and proprietary earth retaining
systems may meet the requirements for a When sloping footings are used,
project. Therefore, to promote competitive form and joint lines are permitted to
bidding which can result in cost savings, all be perpendicular and parallel to the
appropriate earth retaining systems should footing for ease of construction.
be included in the contract documents.
In cases where vertical electroliers or
(2) Foundation Investigations. A foundation fence posts are required on top of a
investigation should be requested from the wall, the form and joint lines must
ESC Office of Structural Foundations for all also be vertical. A sloping footing
sites involving an earth retaining system. should not be used in this situation
AU log of test boring sheets accompanying since efficiency of construction
the foundation reports must be included with would be lost.
the contract plans.
July 1,1995
0 Sloping footing grades should be surface water anticipated. Where

constant for the entire length of the ground water is likely to occur in any
wall. Breaks in footing grade will quantity, special provisions must be
complicate forming and result in loss made to intercept the flow to prevent
of economy. If breaks in footing inundation of the backfill and unsightly
grade are necessary, a level stepped continuous flow through weep holes.
footing should be used for the entire (f) Quantities. When the AERS procedure
wall. is not implemented, wall quantities for
each item of work are usually set up for
When the top of wall profile of crib payment. The quantities for concrete
walls is constant for the entire and reinforcing steel shown on the
length, the bottom of wall profile Standard Plan sheets do not include any
may be sloped to avoid steps in the portion of the wall stem above the gutter
top of wall. In this case, all steps to elevation or toe of slope intersection.
compensate for changes of wall Quantities for expansion joint waterstop,
height and original ground profile structure excavation, structure backfill,
would be made in the bottom of pervious backfill material, concrete
wall. The maximum permissible barrier or railing, and gutter concrete
slope is 6%. If vertical electroliers must be tabulated also. Quantities
or fence posts are required on top of should be tabulated on the plans for each
the wall, the crib wall should not be wall.
sloped. Sloping crib walls are
permissible with guard railing with The following guidelines should be used to
vertical posts. prepare the contract plans for soil reinforce-
a (d) Wall Joints. General details for required

wall joints on wall Types 1, 1A, 2, and
ment systems:
(a) Leveling Slabs. Most soil reinforcement
systems do not require extensive
5 are shown on Standard Plan BO-3.
Expansion joints, Bridge Detail 3-3, foundation preparation. It may be
should be shown at maximum intervals necessary, however, to design a
of 29 200 mm. Shorter spaces should concrete leveling slab on which to
be in multiples of 2400 rnm. Expansion construct the face elements. A
joints should not be placed near an angle reinforced concrete slab will be required
point in the wall alignment. When in areas prone to consolidation or frost
concrete barriers are used on top of disturbance.
retaining walls, the waterstop in the
expansion joint must be extended Steps in the leveling slab should be
150 mrn into the barrier. This detail the same height as the height of the
should be shown or noted on the wall facing elements or thickness of the
plans. Weakened plane joints, Bridge soil layer between the soil
Detail 3-2, should be shown at nearly reinforcement.
equal spaces between joints. Distance between steps in the
(e) Drainage. Gutters should be used leveling slabs should be in
behind walls in areas where it is increments equivalent to the length
necessary to carry off surface water or to of individual facing elements.
prevent scour. Low points in wall
vertical alignment or areas between A minimum number of steps should
return walls must be drained by be used even if a slightly higher wall
downspouts passing through the walls. is necessary.
Standard Plan B3-9 shows typical (b) Drainage. Gutters should be used
@ drainage details. Special design of
surface water drainage facilities may be
behind walls in areas where it is
necessary to carry off surface water or to
necessary depending on the amount of
prevent scour. Low points in wall (c) Fence and Railing Post Pockets. Post
vertical alignment or areas between pocket details shown for cable railing in
return walls must be drained by the Standard Plans may also be used for
downspouts passing through the walls. mounting chain link fence on top of re-
Special design of surface water drainage taining walls. Special details may be
facilities will be necessary and should be necessary to accommodate the
prepared by DOS. Where ground water reinforcement in soil reinforcement
is likely to occur in any quantity, special systems.
provisions must be made to intercept the
flow to prevent inundation of the (d) Return Walls. Return walls should be
backfill. considered for use on the ends of the
walls to provide a finished appearance.
(c) Quantities. When the AERS procedure Return walls are necessary when wall
is not implemented, quantities for each offsets are used or when the top of wall
item of work are usually set up for is stepped. Return walls for soil
. payment. Bid items must include, but reinforcement systems will require
not be limited to: excavation and backfill special designs to accommodate the
for the embedment depth, soil overlapping of reinforcing elements.
reinforcement, facing elements, and All special wall details such as sign
concrete for slab construction. bases, utility openings, drainage
Additional bid items for inclusion are features, fences, and concrete barriers
any drainage system, pervious backfill, should be shown on the plan sheet of the
concrete barrier, railings, and concrete wall concerned or included on a separate
gutters. Quantities should be tabulated sheet with the wall plan sheets. As a
on the plans for each wall. minimum, these &tails should be cross
The following miscellaneous details are ap- referenced on the wall sheets to the
plicable to all earth retaining systems: sheets on which they are shown.
(a) Utilities. Provisions must be made to
relocate or otherwise accommodate
utilities conflicting with the retaining
wall. A utility opening for a Type 1 wall
is shown in the Standard Plans. Any
other utility openings will require special
design details and should be reviewed
by DOS.
(b) Electroliers and Signs. Details for
mounting electroliers and signs on earth
retaining systems are designed by DOS.
Requests for preparation of details
should be made at least 3 months in
advance of PS&E. To accommodate the
base plates for overhead signs, a local
enlargement may affect the horizontal
clearance to both the edge of pavement
and the right of way line. The
enlargement should be considered at the
time of establishing the wall layout. For
mounting details, furnish DOS a
complete cross section of the roadway at
the sign and the layout and profile of the
earth retaining system.
July 1, 1995
a CHAPTER 300
On divided highway roadbeds, the high point of
crown may be centered at, or left of, the center
of the traveled way, and preferably over a lane
GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION line (tent sections). This strategy may be
employed when adding lanes on the inside of
-
Topic 301 Traveled Way
diddgd highways, or when widening an
existing "crowned" Zlane highway to a 4-lane
Standards divided highway by utilizing the existing 2-lane
-pavement as one of the divided highway
roadbeds.
Index 301.1 - Traveled Way Width The maximum algebraic
- difference in cross
slow between same direction traffic lanes of di-
The traveled way width is determined by the vided hiehwav roadbeds should be 4%.
number of lanes demanded by the design hourly
volume. The basic lane width for new The maximum difference in cross slope between
construction on two lane and multilane the traveled wav and the shoulder should not
highways, ramps, collector roads and exceed 8%. This applies to new construction as
other appurtenant roadways shall be well as pavement overlay projects.
3.6 m. For roads under other jurisdictions, see
Topic 308.
Topic 302 - Shoulder Standards
301.2 Cross Slopes
302.1 Width
(a) The standard cross slope to be
used for new construction on the The shoulder widths given in Table
0 traveled way for all types of
surfaces shall be 2%.
302.1 shall be the minimum continuous
usable width of paved shoulder. For
(b) For resurfacing or widening new construction, and major reconstruction
when necessary to match existing projects on conventional highways, adequate
cross slopes, the minimum shall width should be provided to permit shared use
be 1.5% and the maximum shall by motorists and bicyclists.
be 3 percent. However, the cross See Index 308.1 for shoulder width
slope on 2-lane and multilane AC requirements on city streets or county roads.
highways should be increased to 2% if See shoulder definition, Index 62.1(7).
the cost is reasonable.
(c) On unpaved roadway surfaces, 302.2 Cross Slopes
including gravel and penetration
treated earth, the cross slope In a normal tangent section, shoulders
shall be 2.5% to 5.0%. to the right of traffic shall slope on a
On undivided highways with two or more lanes 5% grade away from the traveled way.
in a normal tangent section, the high point of the For divided cross sections, the
crown should be centered on the pavement and shoulders to the left of traffic shall
the pavement sloped toward the edges on a slope as follows:
uniform grade. ( I ) Paved Median. In the plane of the
For rehabilitation and widening projects. the traveled way.
maximum algebraic difference in cross slope ( 2 ) Depressed Median and Separate Roadways.
between adjacent lanes of op~osingtraffic for Two percent away from traveled
either 2-lane or undivided multilane hinhwavs way.
should be 6%. For new construction, the
@ maximum shall be 4%.
July 1,1995
Table 302.1
Standards for Paved

Shoulder Width
Paved Shoulder Width (m)

Left Right
Freeways & Expressways
2 lanes (1)
4 lanes (1)
6 or more lanes (1)
Auxiliary lanes
Freeway-to-freeway connections
Single and two-lane connections
Three-lane connections
Single-lane ramps
Multilane ramps
Multilane undivided
Collector-Distributor
Conventional Highways
Multilane divided
4-lanes 1.5
6-lanes or more 2.4
Urban areas with speeds less than 75 km/h and
curbed medians 0.6 (5)
Multilane undivided --
2-lane
RRR See Table 307.3
New construction See Table 307.2
Slow-moving vehicle lane --
Local Facilities
Frontage roads See Index 3 10.1
Local facilities crossing State facilities See Index 308.1
N r n
(1) Total number of lanes in both directions including separate roadways (see Index 305.6). If a lane is added to one side of a 4-
lane facility (such as a truck climbing lane) then that side shall have 3.0 m left and right shoulders. See Index 62.1.
(2) May be reduced to 1.5 m for a single lane freeway-to-freeway connector widened to 2-lanes to provide passing opportunities.
(3) May be reduced to 0.6 m. 1.2 m preferred in urban areas andlor when ramp is metered. See "Ramp Meter Design Guidelines".
(4) In restrictive situations, may be reduced to 0.6 m or 1.2 m (preferred in urban areas) in the 2-lane section of a non-metered
ramp which transitions from a single lane. May be reduced to 0.6 m in ramp sections having 3 or more lanes. See Index
504.3 and the "Ramp Meter Design Guidelines".
(5) See Index 209.3
(6) On right side of climbing or passing lane section only. See Index 1003.2 if bike lanes are present.
(7) 3.0 m shoulders preferred.
July 1, 1995
(3)Future Widening. If there are plans for Slopes flatter than the steepest allowable should
future use of the shoulder as a be used, if economically feasible. In general,
traffic lane and the shoulder is built flatter slopes are safer, more resistant to
to traveled way standards, the erosion, and more pleasing to the eye. Slopes
shoulder slope shall match the 1:3 or flatter generally eliminate the need for
traveled way. Special consideration must guardrail. In some cases, the cost of stabilizing,
be given to drainage when the shoulder planting, and maintaining steep slopes may ex-
cross slope is flatter than 5%. ceed the cost of additional grading and right of
way to provide a flatter slope.
Shoulder slopes for super elevated curves are
discussed under Index 202.2. In light grading where normal slopes catch in a
distance less than 5.5 m from the edge of the
See Index 307.2 for shoulder slopes on 2-lane shoulder. a uniform catch point. at least 5.5 m
roads with 0.6 m and 1.2 m shoulders. from the edge of the shoulder. should be used.
-
Topic 303 Dike and Side Transition slopes should be provided between
adjoining cuts and fills. Such slopes should
Gutters intersect the ground at the uniform catch point
line.
303.1 Asphalt Concrete Dikes In areas where heavy snowfall can be expected,
See Index 835.3 for a discussion on the use of consideration should be given to snow removal
asphalt concrete dikes. problems and snow storage in slope design. It
is considered advisable to use flatter slopes in
303.2 Side Gutters cuts on the southerly side of the roadway where
this will provide additional exposure of the
For information on locations where side gutters pavement to the sun.
are used, see Index 834.3.
304.2 Clearance From Slope to Right
Topic 304 - Side Slopes of Way Line
The minimum clearance from the right of way
304.1 Side Slope Standards line to catch point of a cut or fill slope should be
In the design of side slopes, consideration 3 m for all types of cross sections. When
should be given to the specific recommendations feasible, at least 5 m should be provided.
of the Project Materials Report (See Topic 113), Following are minimum clearances recom-
functional effectiveness, ease and cost of long- mended for cuts higher than 10 m:
term maintenance, pleasing appearance, traffic
safety, economics of eliminating curbs, dikes, (a) 6 m for cuts from 10 m to 15 m high.
guardrail, and drainage collection systems, and (b) 7.5 m for cuts from 15 m to 25 m high.
overall economy. Cut and fill slopes should
normally be no steeper than 1:2 for freeways (c) One-third the cut height for cuts above
and expressways and 1:1.5 for other highways 25 m, but not to exceed a width of 15 m.
except as follows: The foregoing clearance standards should apply
(a) On freeways with separate roadways, to all types of cross sections.
1:1.5 cut slopes between roadways are
permissible. 304.3 Slope Benches and Cut
Widening
(b) Steeper cut or fill slopes should be dis-
cussed in the Project Materials Report The necessity for benches, their width, and
and recommendation given as to the vertical spacing should be established only after
stability of the material and the monetary an adequate materials investigation. Since
savings or environmental benefits that greater traffic benefits are realized from widen-
0 will result. ing a cut than from benching the slope, benches
above grade should be used sparingly. Benches
above grade should be used only where there is
July 1,1995
a purpose such as installation of horizontal Stepped slopes are a series of small benches
drains, control of surface erosion, or 0.3 m to 0.6 m wide. Generally, stepped slopes
intercepting falling rocks. Design of the bench can be used in rippable material on slopes 1:2 or
should be compatible with the geotechnical steeper. Steps may be specified for slopes as
features of the site. flat as 1:3. Steps are provided to capture loose
Benches should be at least 6 m wide and sloped material, seed, and moisture.
to form a valley at least 0.3 m deep with the low For appearance, steps on small cuts viewed
point a minimum of 1.5 m from the toe of the from the roadway should be cut parallel to the
upper slope. Access for maintenance equipment road grade. Runoff is minimized on steps cut
should be provided to the lowest bench, and if parallel to roads with grades up to lo%, as long
feasible to all higher benches. as the natural ravel from construction is left on
In cuts over 45 m in height, with slopes steeper the steps. Steps less than one-half full should
than 1:1.5, a bench above grade may be not be cleaned.
&sirable to intercept rolling rocks. The Office High cuts viewed from surrounding areas
of Structural Foundations should be consulted should be analyzed before a decision is made to
for assistance in recommending special designs form steps parallel to the roadway or horizontal.
to contain falling and/or rolling rocks. In some cases, horizontal steps may be more
Cut widening may be necessary: desirable. Special study is also necessary when
a sag occurs in the vertical alignment within the
(a) To provide for drainage along the toe of cut. In all cases at the ends of cuts, the steps
the slope. should wrap around the rounded transition.
(b) To intercept and store loose material re- The &tail or contract special provisions should
sulting
- from slides, rock fall, and allow about a 20% variation, expressed in terms
erosion. of millimeters. Some irregul&ty will improve
(c) For snow storage in special cases. the appearance of the slope by making it appear
more natural.
Where the widened area is greater than that In designing step width, the material's
required for the normal gutter or ditch, it should
be flush with the edge of the shoulder and weathering characteristics should be considered.
sloped upward or downward on a gentle slope, Widths over approximately 0.6 m should be
preferably 1:20 in areas of no snow; and avoided because of prominence and excessive
downward on a 1:10 slope in snow areas. time to achieve a weathered and natural
appearance. Contact the Office of Structural
304.4 Contour Grading and Slope Gndations if questions arise about the width
Rounding of steps.
Pleasing aesthetic roadside effects can be
developed with easy flowing contours. Contour
Topic 305 - Median Standards
grading is an important factor in roadside 305.1 Width
preparation, erosion control, and maintenance of
planting. Contour grading plans should be Median width is the distance between inside
prepared to facilitate anticipated roadside edges of traveled way. This width is dependent
treatment. These plans should show flattening upon the type of facility, costs, topography, and
of slopes where right of way permits. right of way. Consideration may be given to the
possible need to construct a wider median than
The tops and ends of all cut slopes should be prescribed in Cases (I), (2), and (3), below, in
rounded where the material is other than solid order to provide for future expansion to
rock. A layer of earth overlying a rock cut also accommodate:
should be rounded.
(a) Other modes of transportation.
304.5 Stepped Slopes
Stepped cut slopes should be used to encourage
material revegetation from the adjacent plants.
(b) Traffic needs more than 20 years after
completion of construction. e
July 1, 1995
h
Any recommendation to provide additional (2) Conventional Highways. Appropriate

median width should be identified and median widths for non-controlled access
documented as early as possible and must be highways vary widely with the type of
justified in a Project Study Report and/or Project facility being designed. In city street
Report. Attention should be given to such items conditions the minimum median width for
as initial costs, future costs for outside widen- multilane conventional highways should be
ing, the likelihood of future needs for added 3.6 m. This median width will provide
mixed flow or High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) room for left turn pockets at intersections,
lanes, traffic interruption, future mass transit and/or the ultimate construction of two way
needs and right of way considerations. (For left turn lanes. Where two way left turn
instance, increasing median width may add little lanes are proposed, median widths in
to the cost of a project where an entire city block excess of 3.6 m are occasionally provided to
must be acquired in any event.) conform with local agency standards (see
Index 405.2); however, the median width
If additional width is justified, the minimum should not exceed 4.2 m. In rural areas
median widths provided below should be the minimum median width for
increased accordingly. multilane conventional highways
Minimum median widths for the design year (as shall be 3.6 m. This provides the
described below) should be used in order to minimum space necessary to accommodate a
accommodate the ultimate highway facility (type median barrier and 1.5 m shoulders.
and number of lanes): Whenever possible, and where it is
appropriate, this minimum width should be
( I ) Freeways and Expressways. increased to 9.0 m or greater.
(a) Urban Areas. Where HOV lanes or (3) Facilities under Restrictive Conditions.
transit facilities are planned, the
,--. minimum median width should be Where certain restrictive conditions,
including steep mountainous terrain,
(I
, 18.6 m. Where there is little or no extreme right of way costs, and/or
likelihood of HOV lanes or transit significant environmental factors are
facilities planned for the future, the encountered, the basic median widths
minimum median width should 13.8 m. described above may not be attainable.
However, where physical and economic Where such conditions exist, a narrower
limitations are such that a 13.8 m median median, down to the limits given below,
cannot be provided at reasonable cost, may be allowed with adequate justification.
the minimum median width for freeways (See Index 307.5.)
and expressways in urban areas should
be 10.8 m. (a) Freeways and Expressways. In areas
where restrictive conditions
(b) Suburban Areas. The minimum median prevail the minimum median
width for freewavs and expressways in width shall be 6.6 m.
suburban areas should be 18.6 m.
Suburban areas can be described as (b) Conventional Highways. Median
those where there is a strong possibility widths should be consistent with
that the surrounding properties will be requirements for two way left turn lanes
converted into urban type development or the need to construct median barriers
during or beyond the design year. The (as discussed in Index 305.1(2)), but
additional median width will provide for may be reduced or eliminated entirely in
construction of mixed flow lanes, HOV extreme situations.
lanes, or transit facilities. The above stated minimum median widths
(c) Rural Areas. The minimum median should be increased at spot locations to
width for freewavs and expresswavs in accommodate the construction of bridge piers or
A
rural areas should be 18.6 m. other planned highway features while
maintaining standard cross section elements
such as inside shoulder width and horizontal
clearance. If a bridge pier is to be located in a
-
July 1,1995
Shoulder widths of 1.2 m or less should be

306.2 Right of Way Through the constructed in accordance with the "AllPaved
Public Domain Cross Section" of Figure 307.2 in order to
Right of way widths to be obtained or reserved provide essentially the same structural section
for highway purposes through lands of the throughout the full roadbed width.
United States Government or the State of Minimum width of 2-lane State highways
California are determined by laws and regula- functionally classified as collectors may be as
tions of the agencies concerned. given in Table V1-4 of "A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets", AASHTO,
-
Topic 307 Cross Sections for 1994. Up-to-date information on the functional
classification of State highways may be obtained
State Highways
from Headquarters Office of Highway System
Engineering.
307.1 Warrants
The selection of a cross section is based upon Table 307.2
traffic, terrain, safety, and other considerations.
For 2-lane roads the roadbed width is influenced
by the factors discussed under Index 307.2. Shoulder Widths for Two-lane
The roadbed width for multilane facilities should Roadbed New Construction
be adequate to provide capacity for the design Projects
hourly volume based upon capacity
considerations discussed under Index 102.1.
Two-way ADT Shoulder Width(')
(Design Year) (m)
307.2 Two-lane Cross Sections for
New Construction 0,
Less than 400 0.6 or 1.2'~) u
These standards are to be used for highways on
new alignment as well as on existing highways Over 400 2.4
where the width, alignment, grade, or other
geometric features are being upgraded. (1) See Index 1003.2 for shoulder requirements when bike
lanes are present.
A 2-lane, 2-way roadbed consists of a 7.2 m (2) Bridge width is to be 9.6 m minimum (see Index 208.1).
wide traveled way plus paved shoulders. In
order to provide structural support, the
minimum paved width of each shoulder
shall be 0.6 m. Development and 307.3 Two-lane Cross Sections for
maintenance of 1.2 m paved shoulders should RRR Projects
be considered when bicyclists are present. See
Topic 1003 for information on bicycle design ( I ) General. These standards have been
criteria and Figure 307.2 for typical 2-lane cross excerpted from Design Information Bulletin
sections. Number 75 (DIB No. 75), "Geometric
Design Criteria for Resurfacing,
Shoulder widths based on design year Restoration, and Rehabilitation (RRR)
traffic volumes shall conform to the Projects", dated April 15, 1991, and the
standards given in Table 307.2. June 26, 1991 memorandum providing
On 2-lane roads with 1.2 m shoulders, the clarification of DIB No. 75.
shoulder slope may be increased to 7% for The above referenced documents also con-
additional drainage capacity where a dike is tain additional geometric design criteria and
used. With 0.6 m shoulders the shoulder slope policies pertinent to the development of
should be 2% without a dike, but may be in- RRR projects.
creased to a maximum of 9% for additional
drainage capacity with a dike. See Index 1002.1 for more information. dB
u
July 1,1995
Figure 307.2
Geometric Cross Sections for
Two-lane Highways
(New Construction)
>1.2 m 7.2 m Traveled Way >1.2 m 1m

4 D4
F
D
-
\ -
soh #
- -2%
G
2%
5%
-
Z2C
SUPERELEVATION IN CUT
l m >1.2m 3.6 m 3.6 m
m4
Min.
STANDARD CROSS SECTION
(Shoulder >l.2 m)
0
Roadbed
@
Shoulder
Shoulder
Slope S
Width-rn Width-m percent
1m
Min
- W.6m
)1
I
8.4 0.6
1.2
2-9
I 9.6 5-7
SUPERELEVATION IN CUT
ALL PAVED CROSS SECTION
(Shoulder 5 1.2 m)
NOTES
SIDE SLOPES See Index 304.1
DIKES See Index 835.3
RIGHT OF WAY See Index 306.1
SIDE GUTTERS See Index 834.3(3)
July 1,1995
(2) Geometric Design Criteria.

(a) Roadbed Width -- The "Roadbed
Table 307.3
Minimum" column from Table
307.3 shall be the RRR standard RRR width'') Standards for
applied to roadbeds. Roadbed i s Bridges
defined as traveled way plus
paved shoulders. Roadbeds less and Roadbeds
than the "Roadbed Minimum"
shall be widened to the "Roadbed Current Bridge In-Place ~ ~ ~ d b ~ d ( 2 )
Desirable Minimum". Roadbeds ADT Widened Bridge Min. & ~ i (m) ~ .
at or above "Minimum" may be (m) Roadbed
rehabilitated at their existing Desirable Min.
widths (including minor widening (m)
for lateral support or uniformity
of pavement width) unless the
safety analysis indicates a
deficiency that requires widen-
ing, in which case the roadbed
shall be widened to the
"Desirable Minimum".
(b) Bridge Width--The "In-Place Bridge Over 6000 12.0 12.0
Minimum" from Table 307.3 shall
be the standard width for bridges
to remain in place with the (1) Bridge width is defined as the clear width between curbs or
condition that the clear width rails, whichever is lesser. Roadbed is defined as the trav-
shall equal or exceed the eled way plus paved shoulders. Width criteria for new and
approach roadbed width. Bridge reconstructed bridges are given under Index 208.1.
width is defined as the clear width (2) The truck usage on the highway should be considered when
between curbs or rails, whichever is determining roadbed widths.
less. Bridges which are at or exceed the (3) The "In-Place Bridge Min." is 10.8 m, and the "Roadbed
"In-Place Bridge Minimum" may be left Desirable Min." is 12.0 m. Design exception approval is
in place and rehabilitated as appropriate required whenever the approach roadbed width is greater
regarding joint reconstruction, deck than the bridge width.
seals. etc. Bridges that are within
the limits of a n RRR project and
are less than the "In-Place Bridge significant delay to the completion of the
Minimum" shall be widened RRR project. This deferral does not
according to the "Bridge preclude the requirement for
Widened" column of Table 307.3. documentation as discussed in Index
The upgrading of existing bridge 82.2.
rail, approach guardrail, and (c) Exceptions--Unless there are extreme
guardrail connections shall be conditions or issues such as high costs,
included in the RRR project, environmental impacts, andlor non-
regardless of the widening compatibility with adjacent segments of
requirements discussed above. roadway that are less than the "Desirable
The deferral of bridge widening or rail Minimum", exceptions to the above de-
upgrading work may be considered sign criteria should not be requested.
when the completion of the Structure The need to acquire right of way is not
PS&E for such work will result in a in itself a reason for exception.
July 1,1995
0 Exceptions to these RRR design criteria

must be formally approved in
excavation quantities or other factors generate
unreasonable costs, 1.2 m shoulders may be
accordance with the requirements of considered. However, a design exception is
Index 82.2, "Approvals for Nonstan- required except where 4-lane passing sections
dard Design." Formal design exception are constructed on 2-lane highways. Where the
approval is also required to allow roadbed width does not contain 2.4 m
existing nonstandard project features shoulders, emergency parking areas clear of the
(i.e. widths and rails) to remain until the traveled way should be provided by using
coinpletion of deferred work. daylighted cuts and other widened areas which
develop during construction.
307.4 Multilane Divided Cross
Sections 307.6 Multilane Cross Sections for
RRR Projects
The general geometric features of multilane
divided cross sections are shown in Figure RRR projects on freeways, expressways, and
307.4. multilane conventional highways are generally
required to meet new construction standards.
Divided highways may be designed as two
separate one-way roads where appropriate to fit For additional information, see Design
the terrain. Economy, pleasing appearance, and Information Bulletin Number 75, "Geometric
safety are factors to be considered in this Design Criteria for Resurfacing, Restoration,
determination. The alignment of each roadway and Rehabilitation (RRR)Projects.
may be independent of the other (see Indexes
204.8 and 305.6). Optional median designs
may be as shown on Figure 305.6.
-
Topic 308 Cross Sections for
Roads Under Other
307.5 Multilane All Paved Cross Jurisdictions
Sections with Special Median Widths
A multilane cross section with a narrow median 308.1 City Streets and County Roads
is illustrated in Figure 307.5. This section is The width of local roads and streets that are to
appropriate in special circumstances where a be reconstructed as part of a freeway project
wider median would not be justified. It should should conform to AASHTO standards if the
not be considered as an alternative to sections local road or street is a Federal-aid route. Other-
with the median widths set forth under Index wise the cross section should match the width of
305.1. It may be used under the following the city street or county road adjoining the
conditions: reconstructed portion, or the cross section
(a) Widening of existing facilities. should satisfyethe local agency's minimum
standard for new construction.
(b) Locations where large excavation
quantities would result if a multilane Where a local facility within the State
roadway cross section with a basic right of way crosses over or under a
median width were used. Examples are freeway or expressway but has no
steep mountainous terrain and unstable connection to the State facility, the
mountainous areas. minimum design standards for the cross
(c) As an alternate cross section on 2-lane section of the local facility within the
roads having frequent sight distance State's right of way shall be those
restrictions. found in AASHTO. If the local agencv has
g
The median width should be selected in g
accordance with the criteria set forth in Index
305.1(3). AASHTO standards for local roads and streets
are given in "A Policy on Geometric Design of
In general, the outside shoulder should be 2.4 m Highways and Streets", AASHTO, 1994.
wide (3.0 m on freeways and expressways) as
mandated in Table 302.1. Where large
July 1,1995
Figure 307.4
Freeways and Expressways
I
HALF SECTION ?' HALF SECTION I
I
I 2%
I Median
PAVED MEDIAN
Dike * * See lndex 302.2
f Medin ($00 now)
I
DEPRESSED MEDIAN
a
CURBS See Index 504.3 (10)
SHOULDERS See lndex 504.3
NOTE:
i 3 . 6 m,7.2 rn & Var.

RAMPS
Freeway RW
I
NOTES
I
@ SIDE SLOPES Sa lndex 304.1

and lndex 304.2
OUar Separation
*
@ SHOULDERS 4 ,eM,( b 7.2 rn Min.4-
WIDTH See Index 302.1
RURAL AREAS
PAVING See Index 608.6
FRONTAGE ROADS
@ DIKES See Index 835.3 Freeway R
W
i, 15 rn Min.
@ MEDIANS
SLOPES Depressed Median
10:lor flatter
20:l referred
See /&ex 305.2
PAVING See Index 305.5
SEPARATE
ROADWAYS See Index 305.6
@ OUTER SEPARATION
* See Index 310.1 I
WIDTH s e e index 310.2 URBAN AREAS
@ RIGHT OF WAY
FRONTAGE ROADS
July 1,1995
Figure 307.5

All Paved Multilane Highways
Shklr. 1.2 m, 2.4 m

or 3.0 m
1 rn
TANGENT SECTION
Shklr. 1.2 m, 2.4 rn

or 3.0 m
Traveled Way Traveled Way Shldr.

4 we-4
1 rn 1
Mln.
."'
Median
(see notes)
flatter
Undercut
and refill
SUPERELEVATION SECTION
NOTES
SIDE SLOPES See Index 304.1
SHOULDERS See Index 307.5
MEDIANS See Index 305.1 (3)
DIKES See Index 835.3
RIGHT OF WAY See Index 306.1
SIDE GUTTERS See Index 834.3 (3)
July 1,1995
It is important to note that "A Policy on outside shoulder width shall match the
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets", approach roadway, but not less than
AASHTO, 1994, standards are based on 1.2 m [shoulder width should not be less than
functional classification and not on a Federal-aid 1.5 m where curbs with 600 mm gutter pans are
System. proposed and bicycle use is expected). The
Chapters V, VI and VII of the "A Policy on minimum width for two-lane
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets", overcrossings at interchanges shall be
AASHTO, 1994, list standards for the 12.0 m curb-to-curb.
following six functional classes:
Local rural roads
Topic 309 - Clearances
Local urban streets 309.1 Horizontal Clearances
Rural collectors (1) General. The horizontal clearance to all
fixed roadside objects including bridge
Urban collectors piers, abutments, retaining walls, and noise
Rural arterials barriers should be based on engineering
judgment with the objective of maximizing
Urban arterials the distance between fixed objects and the
"A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways edge of traveled way. Engineering
and Streets", AASHTO, 1994, gives minimum judgment should be exercised in order to
lane and shoulder widths. When selecting a balance the achievement of horizontal clear-
cross section, the effects on capacity of ance objectives with the prudent expenditure
commercial vehicles and grades should be of available funds.
considered as discussed under Topic 102 and in Certain yielding objects, such as sand filled
the "Highway Capacity Manual", 1994. barrels, metal beam guard rail, breakaway
The minimum width of 2-lane wood posts, etc. may encroach within the
overcrossing structures shall not be clear recovery zone (see Index 309.1(2)).
less than 8.4 m curb to curb. Also see While these objects are designed to reduce
Index 208.1(2) and Index 307.3. the severity of accidents, efforts should be
made to maximize the distance between any
If the local agency has definite plans to widen object and the edge of traveled way.
the local street either concurrently or within 5
years following freeway construction, the Clearances are measured from the edge of
reconstruction to be accomplished by the State the traveled way to the nearest point on the
should generally conform to the widening obstruction (usually the bottom).
planned by the local agency. Stage construction Horizontal clearances greater than
should be considered where the planned those cited below under subsection
widening will occur beyond the 5-year period (3) - "Minimum Clearances" shall
following freeway construction or where the lo- be provided where necessary to meet
cal agency has a master plan indicating an ul- horizontal stopping sight distance
timate width greater than the existing facility. requirements to median barriers,
Where an undercrossing is involved, the initial bridge rails, bridge columns,
structure construction should provide for ulti- retaining walls, cut slopes, and
mate requirements. noise barriers. See discussion on " ..
technical reductions in design speed .."
Where a local facility crosses over or under Topic 101.
under a freeway or expressway and
connects to the State facility (such as (2) Clear Recovery Zone. A clear recovery
ramp terminal intersections), the zone is an unobstructed, relatively flat or
minimum design standards for the cross gently sloping area beyond the edge of the
section of the local facility shall be at traveled way which affords the drivers of
least equal to those for a conventional errant vehicles the opportunity to regain
highway with the exception that the control.
July 1, 1995
e The following clear recovery zone widths

are the minimum desirable for the type of
on all freeway and expressway
facilities, including auxiliary
facility indicated. Consideration should be lanes, ramps, and collector roads
given to increasing these widths based on shall be equal to the standard
traffic volumes, operating speeds, terrain, shoulder width of the highway
and costs associated with a particular facility as stated in Table 302.1.
highway facility: A minimum clearance of 1.2 m
shall be provided where the
Freeways and Expressways - 9 m standard shoulder width is less
Conventional Highways (no curbs) - 6 m than 1.2 m. Approach rail connec-
Conventional Highways (with curbs)* - tions to bridge rail may require special
0.5 m treatment to maintain the standard
shoulder width.
* This clear zone is measured from the
face of curb to the obstruction. (b) On two-lane highways, frontage
Fixed obiects which are closer to the e d ~ eof roads, city streets and county
traveled wav than the distances listed above roads (all without curbs), the
should be eliminated. moved. redesigned to be minimum horizontal clearance
made vielding. or shielded in accordance with shall be the standard shoulder
the following guidelines: width as listed in Tables 302.1
and 307.2, except that a minimum
(a) Fixed objects should be eliminated or clearance of -1.2 m shall be
moved outside the clear recovery zone to provided where the standard
a location where they are unlikely to be shoulder width is less than
hit. 1.2 m. For RRR projects widths are
shown in Table 307.3.
e (b) If sign posts 150 mm or more in any di-
mension or light standards cannot be
eliminated or moved outside the clear re-
On curbed highway sections, a minimum
clearance of 1 m should be provided along
covery zone, they should be made the curb returns of intersections and near the
yielding with a breakaway feature. edges of driveways to allow for design
(c) If a fixed object cannot be eliminated, vehicle off tracking (see Topic 404). Where
moved outside the clear recovery zone, sidewalks are located immediately adjacent
or modified to be made yielding, it to curbs, fixed objects should be located
should be shielded by guardrail or a beyond the back of sidewalk to provide an
crash cushion. unobstructed area for pedestrians.
Where compliance with the above In areas without curbs. safety shaped barrier
stated clear recovery zone guidelines face should be constructed integrally at the
is impractical, the minimum base of anv retaining. ~ i e ror
. abutment wall
horizontal clearance cited below which faces traffic and is less than 4.6 m
shall apply to the unshielded fixed from the edge of traveled wav (right or left
object. of traffic and measured from the face of
wall). See Index 1102.2 for the treatment of
(3) Minimum Clearances. The f 011ow in g noise barriers.
minimum horizontal clearances shall The minimum width of roadway openings
apply to fixed objects that are closer
to the edge of traveled way than the between temporary K-rail on bridge deck
clear recovery zone distances listed widening projects should be obtained from
above: the District Permit Engineer. The Regional
Permit Manager should be consulted on the
(a) The minimum horizontal clear- use of the route by overwidth loads.
ance to fixed objects such a s
bridge rails, safety-shaped See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for
concrete barriers, abutments, other requirements pertaining to clear
retaining walls or noise barriers
July 1,1995
recovery zone, guardrail at fixed objects and FHWA to obtain approval for less than @
embankments, and crash cushions. 4.9 m of vertical clearance. See W. P.
Smith's memo dated August 20, 1993 to
309.2 Vertical Clearances District Directors for more information on
( I ) Major Structures. the Priority Network.
(a) Freeways and Expressways, New (4) General Znfomuztion. The standards listed
Construction -- 5.1 m shall be the above are the minimum allowable on the
State Highway system for the facility and
minimum over all portions of the project type listed. For the purposes of
State facility (e.g., main lanes, these vertical clearance standards, all
shoulders, ramps, collector- projects on the freeway and expressway
distributor roads, speed change system other than overlay projects shall be
lanes, etc.). considered to be covered by the "new
(b) Freeways and Expressways, Overlay construction" standard.
Projects -- 4.9 m shall be the mini- When approved by a design exception (see
mum over all portions of the HDM Index 82.2) clearances less than the
State facility. values given above may be allowed on a
(c) Conventional Highways and Local case by case basis given adequate
Facilities, All Projects -- 4.6 m shall justification based upon engineering
be the minimum over the traveled judgment, economic, environmental or right
way and 4.5 m shall be the of way considerations. Typical instances
minimum over the shoulders of where lesser values may be approved are
all portions of the facility. where the structure is protected by existing
(2) Minor Structures. Pedestrian over - lower structures on either side or where a
project includes an existing structure that
crossings shall have a minimum would not be feasible to modify to the
vertical clearance 0.5 m greater than current standard. In no case should vertical
the standard for major structures for clearance be reduced below 4.6 m over the
the State facility in question. traveled way or 4.5 m over the shoulders
Sign structures shall have a vertical over any portion of a State highway facility.
clearance of 5.5 m. Efforts should be made to avoid decreasing
(3) 42 000 km Priority Network. This subset the existing vertical clearance whenever
of the Interstate System is similar to what possible and consideration should be given
has previously been referred to as the to the feasibility of increasing vertical
National System of Interstate and Defense clearance on projects involving structural
Highways. Those routes described in Table section removal and replacement. Any
309.2 and Figure 309.2 are given special project that would reduce vertical clearances
attention in regards to minimum vertical below 5.1 m or lead to an increase in the
clearance as a result of agreements between vertical clearance should be brought to the
the FHWA and the Department of Defense. attention of the Project Development
Vertical clearance for structures on Coordinator, the District Permit Engineer
this system shall meet the standards and the Regional Permit Manager at the
listed above for freeways and earliest possible date.
expressways. In addition to the The Regional Permit Manager should be
standards listed above , vertical clearances informed of any changes (temporary or
of less than 4.9 m over any portion of this
system will be subjected to extensive review permanent) in vertical clearance.
by FHWA and must be approved by the (5) Federal Aid Participation. Federal-aid
Military Traffic Management Command in participation is normally limited to the
Washington D. C. Documentation similar following maximum vertical clearances
to, but less extensive than a Design
Exception Fact Sheet must be submitted to
unless there are external controls such as the
need to provide for falsework clearance or
@
July 1,1995
Figure 309.2
42 000 km DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE
PRIORITY NETWORK
8AN FRANCISC
SAN FRANCISCO
AND
\ VINCINITY
\
LOS ANGELES
AND SAN DlEGO
WNClNITY AND
VINCINITY
July 1,1995
Table 309.2 #
CALIFORNIA ROUTES
ON THE 42 000 km
PRIORITY NETWORK
-
ROUTE FROM TO
1-5 U. S. Border 1-805just N. of U. S. Border
1-5 1-805 N. of San Diego 1-405 near El Toro
1-5 1-210 N. of Los Angeles Redding
1-8 Junction at 1-5 near San Diego Arizona
1-10 Junction at 1-5 near Los Angeles Arizona

Junction at I- 10 near San
1-15 Bernardino Nevada
1-40 Junction at 1-15 near Barstow Arizona
1-80 Junction at 1-5 in Sacramento Nevada
1-210 1-5 N. of Los Angeles 1-605

At or near south city limits of San Francisco to
1-280 Junction at in Jose provide access to Hunterts Point
Palo Verde Avenue just N. of
1-405 1-5 near El Toro 1-605
1-580 Junction at 1-680 Junction at 1-5
1-605 1-405 near Seal Beach 1-210
1-680 Junction at 1-280 in San Jose Junction at 1-780 near Benicia
1-780 Junction at 1-680 near Benicia Junction at 1-80 in Vallejo
1-805 1-5just N. of U. S. Border 1-5 N. of San Diego

July 1,1995
@ the vertical clearance is controlled by an

adjacent structure in a multi-structure
The minimum width of freeway tunnels
should equal the full width of traveled way
interchange: and ~ a v e d shoulders on the roadway
a~~roaches as set forth in Index 208.1,
a) Highway Facilities. Brid~eWidth.
5.3 m over freeways and Normally, the minimum horizontal clearance
expressways. on freeways should include the full roadbed
width of the approaches.
4.8 m over other highways (4.7 m
over shoulders). In one-way tunnels on conventional
highways the minimum side clear-
For pedestrian structures, 0.7 m ance from the edge of the traveled
greater than the above values. way shall be 1.5 m on the left and
2.0 m on the right. For two-way
(b) Railroad Facilities. tunnels, this clearance shall be
7.1 m over the top of rails for non- 2.0 m on each side.
electrified rail systems. (2) Vertical Clearances. The minimum ver-
tical clearance shall be 4.6 m
7.4 m over the top of rails for measured at any point over the
existing or proposed 25 kv traveled way and 4.5 m above the
electrification. gutter at the curb line. On freeways
8.0 m over the top of rails for and expressways, the vertical clear-
ance listed in Index 309.2(1)(a)
existing or proposed 50 kv shall be used. Cost weighed against the
electrification. probability of over-height vehicles will be
a These clearances include an allowance
for future ballasting of the rail facility.
the determining factors.
The cost of reconstructing or modifying 309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated
any existing railroad-highway grade Structures
separation structure solely to The minimum horizontal clearance be-
accommodate electrification will not be tween elevated highway structures,
eligible for Federal-aid highway fund such as freeway viaducts and ramps,
participation. Where a rail system is not and adjoining buildings or other
currently electrified, the railroad must structures, shall be 4.6 m for single-
have a plan adopted which specifies the deck structures and 6.1 m for double-
intent to electrify the subject rail segment deck structures. Spot encroachments
within a reasonable time frame in order on this clearance shall be approved in
to provide clearances in excess of 7.1 m. accordance with Index 82.2.
Any exceptions to the clearances listed
above should be reviewed with the FHWA 309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to
early in the design phase to ensure that they Railroads
will participate in the structure costs. All Regulations governing clearances on railroads
excess clearances should be documented in and street railroads with reference to side and
the project files as to reasons and appropri- overhead structures, parallel tracks, crossings of
ate concurrences. public roads, highways, and streets are
established by the PUC.
309.3 Tunnel Clearances
( I ) Nomull Horizontal and Vertical Clearances.
( I ) Horizontal Clearances. Tunnel construction Although General Order No. 26-D suecifies
I is so infrequent and costly that the width a minimum vertical clearance of 6.86 m
should be considered on an-individualbasis.
July 1.1995
above tracks on which freight cars not ex- (2) OjJ-track Mainterne Clearance. The
g a height of 4.72 m are transmrted. a 5.49 m horizontal clearance is intended for
of 7.01 m should be used in sections of railroad where the railroad com-
desi~nto allow for reballastin9 and normal pany is using or definitely plans to use off-
maintenance of track. Railroads on which track maintenance equipment. This
freight cars are not operated. should have a clearance is provided on one side of the
phimum vertical clearance of 5.79 m. In railroad right of way.
establishing the grade line, the District On Federal-aid projects, where site condi-
should consult the DOS to obtain the depth tions are such that off-track maintenance
of structures and false work requirements, if
any (see Index 204.6(4)). clearance at an overpass is obtained at addi-
tional cost, Federal-aid funds may
At underpasses, General Order No. 26-D participate in the costs of such overhead
establishes a minimum vertical clearance of designs that provide up to 5.49 m horizontal
4.27 m above any public road, highway or clearance on one side of the track. In such
street. However, the greater cases, the railroad is required to present a
clearances specified under Index statement that off-track maintenance
309.2 shall be used. equipment is being used, or is defmitely
All curbs, including median curbs, should planned to be used, along that section of the
be designed with 3.05 m of clearance from railroad right of way crossed by the over-
the track centerline measured normal thereto. head structure.
The principal clearances which affect the (3) Walkway Clearances Adjacent to Railroads.
design of highway structures and curbs are All plans involving construction adjacent to
summarized in Tables 309.514 and B. It railroads should be such that there is no en-
should be noted that collision walls may be croachment on the walkway adjoining the
required for the clearances given in Columns track. Walkway requirements are set forth
(3) and (4) of Table 309.5B. Usually, no in General Order No. 118 of the PUC.
collision walls are required if the clearance Where excavations encroach into walkway
3.05 m or more on tangent track and 3.35 m areas, the contractor is required to construct
or more on curved track. a temporary walkway with handrail as set
forth in the contract special provisions.
Table 309.5A (4) Approval. All plans involving clearances
from a railroad track must be submitted to
the railroad for approval as to railroad in-
Minimum Vertical Clearances terests. Such clearances are also subject to
Above Highest Rail approval by the PUC.
To avoid delays, early consideration must be
Type of Operation given to railroad problems when design is
started on a project.
Type of Normal No Freight
Structure Freight Cars
Operated
Topic 310 - Frontage Roads
- -
-
310.1 Cross Section

Highway 7.01 m 5.79 m
overhead and Frontage roads are normally relinquished to
other structures local agencies. Index 308.1 gives width criteria
including for city streets and county roads. These widths
through railroad are also applicable to frontage roads.
bridges.
July 1,1995
Table 309.5B
Minimum Horizontal Clearances to

Centerline of Nearest Track
Curved Track Clearances

When Space is ~imited'l)
Type of Off-track Tangent Track Normal Curved Curves of 0' Curves of 12' or
Structure Maintenance Clearance rack") to 12O more
Clearance Clearance
Through rail- None 2.44 m(2)(4) 2 74 m(2)(4)
road bridge
Highway 5.49 m clear 2.59 m 2.59 m + 0.013 m'3'
overhead to face of pier per degree of curve.
and other or abutment
structures on side
railroad
requires for
equipment
road.
Curbs 3.05 m
(1) The minimum, in general, is 0.30 m greater than for tangent track.
(2) With approval of P.U.C.
(3) Greater clearance necessary if walkway is required.
(4) Collision walls may be required. See Index 309.5(1).
July 1,1995
However, the minimum paved cross

section for urban frontage roads shall
be two 3.6 m lanes with 1.2 m outside
shoulders. (See Chapter 1000 for shoulder
requirements when bicycles are present.) The
minimum paved cross section for rural
frontage roads shall be 7.2 m.
310.2 Outer Separation
In urban areas and in mountainous terrain. the
width of the outer se~arationshould be a
minimum of 8 m from edge of traveled way to
edge of traveled wav. A greater width may be
used where it is obtainable at reasonable
additional cost, for example, on an urban
highway centered on a city block and paralleling
the street grid.
In rural areas. other than mountainous terrain,
the outer separation should be a minimum of 12
m wide from e d ~ eof traveled wav to edge of
traveled wav .
See Figure 307.4 for cross sections of outer
separation and frontage road.
310.3 Headlight Glare
Care should be taken in design of new frontage
roads to avoid the potential for headlight glare
interfering with the vision of motorists traveling
in opposite directions on the frontage roads and
in the outer freeway lanes. The preferred
measures to prevent headlight glare interference
on new construction are wider outer
separations, revised alignment and raised or
lowered profiles.
July 1. 1995
0 CHAPTER 400 Table 401.3

INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE
Vehicle Characteristics Intersection Design
Element ~ f f e c t d
Topic 401 - Factors Affecting Length of storage lane
Design Length
Width Lane width
-
Index 401.1 General Height Clearance to overhead
At-grade intersections must handle a variety of signs and signals
conflicts among vehicles, pedestrians, and bi- Wheel base Corner radius and
cycles. These recurring conflicts, a unique width of turning lanes
characteristic of intersections, play a major role
in the preparation of design standards and Acceleration Tapers and length of
guidelines. Arriving, departing, merging, turn- acceleration lane
ing, and crossing paths of moving traffic have Deceleration Tapers and length of
to be accommodated within a relatively small deceleration lane
area.
401.2 The Driver
Rural intersections in farm areas with low traffic
The assumption of certain driver skills is a volumes may have special visibility problems or
factor in design. A driver's perception and require shadowing of left-turn vehicles from
reaction time set the standards for sight distance high speed approach traffic.
and length of transitions. Gap acceptance is a
perception skill for drivers turning or crossing at 401.5 The Pedestrian
an intersection. Drivers expect, and to a degree
anticipate, geometric and operational conditions Pedestrian considerations are an integral part of
at intersections. intersection design because of their potential
conflict with motor vehicles. Such factors
401.3 The Vehicle include pedestrian volumes, their age and
physical abilities, etc. Geometric features which
Size and maneuverability of vehicles are factors may affect the pedestrian should be taken into
that influence the design of an intersection. account. See Chapters 6 and 10 of the Traffic
Table 401.3 compares vehicle characteristics to Manual.
intersection design elements.
401.6 The Bicyclist
A design vehicle is a convenient means of
representing a particular segment of the vehicle The presence of bicyclists on State routes
population. See Topic 404 for a further discus- should be considered early in design. Chapter
sion of the uses of design vehicles. 1000 gives information on bikeway planning
and design criteria.
401.4 The Environment
In highly developed urban areas, street parking, -
Topic 402 Operational
pedestrians, and transit buses add to the Features Affecting Design
complexity of a busy intersection.
Industrial development may require special 402.1 Capacity
attention to the movement of large trucks. Adequate capacity to handle peak period traffic
Residential areas mav have school children and demands is a basic goal of intersection design.
bicycles to accomm'odate (see Indexes 105.1
and 1003.2).
July 1, 1995
(I) Unsignalized Intersections. Chapter 10 of This may require some degree of control of the
the "Highway Capacity Manual", 1994, minor movements such as stopping, funneling,
gives methodology for capacity analysis of or even eliminating them. These controlling
unsignalized intersections controlled by stop measures should conform to natural paths of
or yield signs. The assumption is made that movement and should be introduced gradually
major street traffic is not affected by the mi- to promote smooth and efficient operation.
nor street movement. Unsignalized intersec-
tions generally become candidates for 403.2 Areas of Conflict
signalization when Wit backups begin to Large multilane undivided intersectional areas
develop on the cross street. are usually undesirable. The hazards of
(2) Signalized Intersections. See Topic 406 for conflicting movements are magnified when
analysis of simple signalized intersections, drivers are unable to anticipate movements of
including ramps. The analysis of complex other vehicles within these areas. Channeliza-
signalized intersections should be referred to tion reduces areas of conflict by separating or
the District Traffic Branch. regulating traffic movements into definite paths
of travel by the use of pavement markings or
402.2 Accidents traffic islands.
(I) General. Intersections have a higher Large areas of intersectional conflicts are
potential for conflicts compared to other sec- characteristic of skewed intersection angles.
tions of the highway. At an intersection Therefore, angles of intersection approaching
continuity of travel is interrupted, traffic 90" will aid in reducing conflict areas.
streams cross, and many types of turning
movements occur. 403.3 Angle of Intersection
The type of traffic control affects the type of A right-angle (90 degree) intersection provides
accidents. Signalized intersections tend to the shortest crossing for intersecting tdlic
have more rear enders and same-direction streams. It also provides the most favorable
sideswipes than stop-controlled intersec- condition for drivers to judge the relative
tions. The latter tend to have more angle or position and speed of approaching vehicles. It
crossing accidents due to a lack of positive is desirable to provide angles greater than 75
control. degrees. However. intersection angles should
be greater than 60 degrees. (See Figure 403.3 .)
(2) Undesirable Geometric Features. A 60 degree angle does not unreasonably
Inadequate approach sight distance. increase the crossing distance or generally
decrease visibility. When existing intersection
Inadequate corner sight distance. angles are less than 60 degrees, realignment of
the subordinate leg of the intersection should be
Steep grades. considered.
Inappropriate traffic control. Particular attention should be given to skewed
Five or more approaches. angles on curved alignment with regards to sight
distance and visibility. Crossroads skewed to
Presence of curves within the left have more restricted visibility for drivers
intersections. of vans and trucks than crossroads skewed to
the right. In addition, severely skewed
-
Topic 403 Principles of intersection angles, coupled with steep
downgrades (generally over 4%) can increase
Channelization the potential for high centered vehicles to
overturn where the vehicle is on a downgrade
403.1 Preference to Major Movements and must make a turn greater than 90 degrees
The provision of direct free-flowing high- onto a crossroad. These factors should be
standard alignment to give preference to major considered in the design of skewed
movements is good channelization practice. intersections.
July 1,1995
enter an uncontrolled traffic stream. Similarly,

Figure 403.3 channelization also may provide a safer crossing
of two or more traffic streams by permitting
drivers to select a time gap in one traffic stream
Angle of Intersection at a time.
(Minor Leg Skewed to the Right)
Traffic
-- - islands also mav serve the same
purposes for pedestrians aid disabled persons.
7fi00r greater 403.8 Prohibited Turns
preferred
Traffic islands may be used to divert traffic
streams in desired directions and prevent spe-
Major cific undesirable movements.
Leg
7/ 403.9 Effective Signal Control
At intersections with complex turning
movements, channelization is required for ef-
fective signal control. Channelization permits
the sorting of approaching traffic which may
403.4 Points of Conflict move through the intersection during separate
signal phases. This requirement is of particular
Channelization separates and clearly defines importance when traffic-actuated signal controls
points of conflict within the intersection. are employed.
Drivers should be exposed to only one conflict
or confronted with one decision at-atime.
@ 403.5 Speed-change Areas 403.10 Installation of Traffic Control
Devices
Speed-change areas for vehicles entering or Channelization may provide locations for the
leaving main streams of traffic are beneficial to
the safety and efficiency of an intersection. installation of essential traffic control devices,
Entering traffic merges most efficiently with such as stop and directional signs. See Index
through traffic when the merging angle is less 405.4 for information about the design of traffic
than 15 degrees and when speed differentials are islands.
at a minimum.
403.11 Summary
Speed-change areas for diverging traffic should
provide adequate length clear of the through Give preference to the major move(s).
lanes to permit vehicles to decelerate after
leaving the through lanes. Reduce areas of conflict.
403.6 Turning Traffic Cross traffic at right angles or skew no more

than 60 degrees.
- (75-90 degrees preferred.)
A separate turning lane removes turning
movements from the intersection area. Abrupt Separate points of conflict.
changes in alignment or sight distance should be
avoided, particularly where traffic turns into a Provide speed-change areas and separate
separate turning lane from a high-standard turning lanes where appropriate.
thiough facility.- Provide adequate width to shadow turning
403.7 Refuge Areas traffic.
The shadowing effect of traffic islands may be Restrict undesirable moves with traffic
used to provide refuge areas for turning and islands.
crossing vehicles. Adequate shadowing pro-
vides refuge for a vehicle waiting to cross or
July 1,1995
Coordinate channelization with effective 404.2 Design Vehicles

signal control. ( I ) STAA. The Surface Transportation As-
sistance Act of 1982 (STAA), allows large
Install signs in traffic islands when neces- trucks to operate on the Interstate and
sary, but avoid built-in hazards. certain primary routes called collectively the
National Network. The only dimensions
403.12 Precautions spelled out in the law are the maximum
Striping is usually preferable to curbed is- length of the semi-trailer (14.63 m) and the
lands, especially adjacent to high-speed maximum width (2.6 m). The truck shown
traffic where curbing can be an obstruction in Figure 404.2 is representative of the large
to out-of-control vehicles. tractor semi-trailer combinations allowed on
the National Network.
Where curbing must be used, first consid- Because it has severe offtracking charac-
eration should be given to mountable curbs. teristics, this STAA Design Vehicle is the
Barrier curbs are usually justified only model for truck-turn templates to be used
where protection of pedestrians is a primary on the National Network.
consideration.
A map titled "Truck Networks on Califomia
Avoid complex intersections that present State Highways" is available through the
multiple choices of movement to the driver. Truck Size Branch of the Traffic Operations
Program in Headquarters, or through the
Traffic safety should be considered. Ac- District Traffic Engineer in each District.
cident records provide a valuable guide to This map identifies the State highway routes
the type of channelization needed. on which defined trucks (STAA or
California) can operate.
Topic 404 - Design Vehicles (2) California. Califomia statutes limit the
overall length of a tractor semi-trailer
404.1 Offtracking combination to 19.81 m for trucks operating
on all highways in California unless
Any vehicle whether car, bus, truck, or National Network provisions apply. The
combination tractor semi-trailer traveling around law also limits the kingpin to rearmost axle
a circular curve will sweep a wider path than the dimension to 12.19 m for semi-trailers with
width of the vehicle. The steering axle, two or more axles (11.58 m for single axle)
controlled by the driver, can generally follow a and the width to 2.6 m.
circular curve, but the following axles (or trail-
ers) will swing inward toward the center of the The California Design Vehicle which is the
curve sweeping a wide path defined by the model for truck-turn templates to be used on
wheel tracks of the outside front wheel and the all routes off the National Network is shown
inside rear wheel. The difference between the in Figure 404.2.
swept width and the vehicle width is referred to (3) Bus. The Bus Design Vehicle shown in
as offtracking. Figure 404.2 is an AASHTO standard. Its
At any point around a circular curve, offtracking 7.6 m wheel base and 12.2 m overall length
can be determined by means of a computer are typical of transit and intercity buses. It
program. An automated plotter can draw is the model for the bus-turn template to be
vehicle wheel paths for the preparation of truck- used under special circumstances.
turn templates.
404.3 Turning Templates
Computer aided designs for truck turns plotted
directly on geometric drawings must utilize ( 1 ) General. The truck-turn template is a design
curves with the same radii used to develop the aid for locating the wheel paths of large
truck turn templates included in Topic 407. vehicles as they turn through at-grade
Compound curves or multiple curves with intersections. The template is useful for
intervening tangents should not be used. determining corner radii, for positioning
July 1, 1995
Figure 404.2
Design Vehicles
6-1 m 12.8 m
I
21 m I
1 - S T A A Design Vehicle
12,19 m t w o o r more axles

m 11S8 m one axle
2 - California Design Vehicle
7.6 m
4
I
12,2 m 9
3 - Bus Design Vehicle

July 1,1995
island noses, and for establishing clearance ( 2 ) Comer Sight Distance.

to bridge piers, signal poles, and other (a) General--At unsignalized intersections a
hardware at intersections. The template can substantially clear line of sight should be
also be used for determining the width of a maintained between the driver of a ve-
channeled separate turning lane. Turning hicle waiting at the crossroad and the
templates for the various design vehicles at driver of an approaching vehicle.
various scales and turning radii are included Adequate time must be provided for the
in Topic 407. waiting vehicle to either cross all lanes
STAA Truck. The STAA truck-turn tem- of through traffic, cross the near lanes
plates should be used in the design of all and turn left, or turn right, without
new interchanges on the National Network requiring through traffic to radically alter
and on routes leading from the National Net- their speed.
work to designated service and terminal The values given in Table 405.1A
points. On rehabilitation projects thev provide 7- 112 seconds for the driver on
should be used at interchanges proposed as the crossroad to complete the necessary
service or terminal access points. In some maneuver while the approaching vehicle
cases, factors such as cost, right of way, travels at the assumed design speed of
environmental issues, local agency desires, the main highway. The 7-112 second
and the type of community being served criterion is normally applied to all lanes
may limit the use of the STAA templates. In of through traffic in order to cover all
those cases, other appropriate templates possible maneuvers by the vehicle at the
should be used. crossroad. However, by providing the
The minimum practical turning radius is standard corner sight distance to the lane
15 m. However, the 18 m radius develops nearest to and farthest from the waiting
less swept width and may have an vehicle, adequate time should be
advantage. Both the 15 m radius and 18 m obtained to make the necessary
radius should be tested. movement. On multilane highways a
(3) California Truck. The California truck-turn 7- 112 second criterion foFthe dutside
template should be used in the design of lane, in both directions of travel,
highways not on the National Network. normally will provide increased sight
The minimum practical turning radius is distance to the inside lanes.
15 m. Consideration should be given to
increasing these values on downgrades
(4) Bus. At intersections where truck volumes steeper than 3% and longer than 2 km
are light or where the predominate truck (see Index 201.3), where there are high
traffic consists of mostly 3-axle and 4-axle truck volumes on the crossroad, or
units, the bus turning template may be used. where the skew of the intersection
Its wheel paths sweep a greater width than substantially increases the distance
3-axle delivery trucks and the smaller buses traveled by the crossing vehicle.
such as school buses, but a slightly lesser
width than a 4-axle truck. In determining corner sight distance, a
set back distance for the vehicle waiting
at the crossroad must be assumed. Set
Topic 405 - Intersection Design back for the driver on the
crossroad shall be a minimum of
Standards
3 m plus the shoulder width of
405.1 Sight Distance the major road but not less than
4 m. Corner sight distance is to be
( I ) Stopping Sight Distance. See Index 20 1.1 measured from a 1070 mm height at the
for minimum stopping sight distance relocation of the driver on the minor road
quirements. to a 1300 mm object height in the center
of the approaching lane of the major
road.
July 1,1995
In some cases the cost to obtain 7-112 Table 405.1 A

seconds of comer sight distances may be Corner Sight Distance
excessive. High costs may be (7-112 Second Criteria)
attributable to right of way acquisition,
building removal, extensive excavation, Design Speed Comer Sight
or unmitigable environmental impacts. (kd) Distance (m)
In such cases a lesser value of comer
sight distance, as described under the
following headings, may be used.
(b) Public Road Intersections-- At unsienal-
public road intersections (see Index
405.7) comer sigSt distance values
given in Table 405.1A should be
orovided.
At signalized intersections the values for
corn& sight distances given in Table Table 405.1 B
405.1A should also be applied whenever Decision Sight Distance
possible. Even though traff~cflows are
designed to move at separate times,
unanticipated vehicle conflicts can occur Design Speed Decision Sight
due to violation of signal, right turns on (kd) Distance (m)
red, malfunction of the signal, or use of
flashing redlyellow mode.
Where restrictive conditions
exist, similar to those listed in
Index 405.1(2)(a), the minimum
value for corner sight distance at
both signalized and unsignalized
intersections shall be equal to the
stopping sight distance as given Table 405.1C
in Table 201.1, measured as Application of Sight Distance
previously described. Requirements
(c) Private Road Intersections--The
minimum corner sight distance Intersection Sight Distance
shall be equal to the stopping
sight distance as given in Table Types Stopping Corner Decision
201.1, measured as previously Private Roads X XU)
described. Public Streets and X X
(d) Urban Driveways--Comer sight distance Roads
requirements as described above are not Signalized X (2)
applied
- - to urban driveways. Intersections
(3) Decision Sight Distance. At intersections State Route Inter- X X X
sections & Route
where the State route turns or crosses Direction Changes,
mother State route. the decision s i ~ h t with or without
&stance values given in Table 405.1B Signals
should be used. In computin? and (1) Using stopping sight distance between an eye height of 1070 mm
measuring decision sinht distance. the and an object height of 1300 mm. See Index 405.1(2)(a) for setback
1070 rnm eye hei~htand the 150 mm object requirements.
hei~htshould be used. the obiect being (2) Apply comer sight distance requirements at signalized
intersections whenever possible due to unanticipated violations of the
located on the side of the intersection nearest signals or malfunctions of the signals. See Index 405.1(2)(b).
fie approachin? driver.
July 1,1995
The application of the various sight distance (a) Lane Width -- The lane width for
requirements for the different types of both single and double left-turn
intersections is summarized in Table lanes on State highways shall be
405.1C. 3.6 m. Under certain circumstances
(4) Acceleration Lanes for Turning Moves onto (listed below), left-turn lane widths of
State Highways. At rural intersections, with 3.3 m or as narrow as 3.0 m may be
stop control on the local cross road, used on RRR or other projects on
acceleration lanes for left and right turns existing State highways and on roads or
onto the State facility should be considered. streets under other jurisdictions when
At a minimum, the following features supported by an approved design
should be evaluated for both the major exception pursuant to Index 82.2.
highway and the cross road: On high speed nual highways or
divided versus undivided moderate speed suburban highways
where width is restricted, the mini-
number of lanes mum width of single or dual left-
turn lanes may be reduced to 3.3 m.
design speed
In severely constrained situations on
gradient low to moderate speed urban
lane, shoulder and median width highways where large trucks are not
expected, the minimum width of
traffic volume and composition single left-turn lanes may be reduced
to 3.0 m. When double left-turn
turning volumes lanes are warranted under these same
horizontal curve radii circumstances the width of each lane
shall be no less than 3.3 m. This
sight distance added width is needed to assure ade-
quate clearance between turning
proximity of adjacent intersections vehicles.
types of adjacent intersections (b) Approach Taper -- On a conventional
For additional information and guidance, highway without a median, an approach
refer to the AASHTO publication, "A Policy taper provides space for a left-turn lane
on Geometric Design of Highways and by moving traffic laterally to the right.
Streets" 1994, the Headquarters Traffc The approach taper is unnecessary
Liaison Engineer and the Project where a median is available for the full
Development Coordinator. width of the left-turn lane. Length of the
approach taper is given by the formula
405.2 Left-turn Channelization on Figures 405.2A, B and C.
( I ) General. The purpose of a left-turn lane is Figure 405.2A shows a standard left-
to expedite the movement of through traftic, turn channelization design in which all
control the movement of turning traffic, in- widening is to the right of approaching
crease the capacity of the intersection, and trac and the deceleration lane (see
improve safety characteristics. below) begins at the end of the approach
taper. This design should be used in all
The District Traffic Branch normally es- situations where space is available,
tablishes the need for left-turn lanes. See usually in rural and s e m i - n . areas or
"Guidelines for Reconstruction of Intersec- in urban areas with high tmflic speeds
tions," August 1985, published by the Cali- andlor volumes.
fornia Division of Transportation
Operations. Figures 405.2B and 405.2C show
alternate designs foreshortened with the
(2) Design Elements. deceleration lane beginning at the U3
point of the approach taper so that part
July 1, 1995
of the df Aeration takes place in the Table 405.2A

through tmff~clane. Figure 405.2C is
shortened further by widening half (or Bay Taper for Median
other appropriate fraction) on each side. Speed-change Lanes
These designs may be used in urban
areas whe:re constraints exist, speeds are Width of Speed-Change Lane
moderate and traffic volumes are -
C
Traffic Stripe or Curb
----- -
relatively low.
.
O ~ d # eof traveled r a y
,
Rare line p m b l to tmveled way
(c) Bay Taper -- A reversing curve along the c.: 7../ Q' I
left edge of the traveled way directs traf-

fic into the left-turn lane. The length of
this bay taper should be short to clearly
delineate the left-turn move and to dis- M = lanpth of Taper
AR = BC = CD = 1/3 .M
I
courage through traffic from drifting into AB' & C'D' arm Parabolic Curwm
the left-turn lane. Table 405.2A gives
offset data for design of bay tapers. In
urban areas, lengths of 18 m and 27 m I OFFSET
DISTANCE
DD' * DD' = DD' =
I
are normally used. On rural high-speed 3.0 m 3.3 m 3.0 m
highways, a 36 m length is considered 0 0 0
appropriate. 0.048 0.051 0.057
0.188 0.207 0.225
(d) Deceleration Lane Length -- Design 0.423 0.485 0.607
speed of the roadway approaching the 0.76 0.825 0.80 'B'
1.50 1.85 1.80
intersection should be the basis for
determining deceleration lane length. It
2.25 2.475 2.70 c'
2.58 2.04 3.10
is desirable that deceleration take place 2.81 3.08 3.38
2.86 3.26 3.54
entirely off the through traffic lanes. 3.0 3.3 3.8
Deceleration lane lengths are given in
Table 405.2B; the bay taper length is in- NOTES:
cluded. Where partial deceleration is (1) The table gives offsets from a base line parallel to the
permitted on the through lanes, as in edge of traveled way at intervals measured from point
Figures 405.2B and 405.2C, design "A". Add " E for measurements from edge of traveled
speeds in Table 405.2B may be reduced way.
15 to 30 kmlh for a lower entry speed. (2) Where edge of traveled way is a curve, neither base line
nor taper between B & C will be a tangent. Use
(e) Storage Length--At unsignalized inter- proportional offsets from B to C.
sections, storage length may be based on (3) The offset "EMis usually 0.6 m along edge of traveled
the number of turning vehicles likely to way for curbed medians; Use " E = 0 m for striped
arrive in an average 2-minute period medians.
during the peak hour. As a minimum,
space for 2 passenger cars should be Table 405.28
provided at 7.5 m per car. If the peak
hour truck traffic is 10 % or more, space Deceleration Lane Length
for one passenger car and one k c k
should be provided. Design Speed Length to
(kmfh) stop (m)
At signalized intersections, the storage 50 75
length may be based on one and one-half
to two times the average number of vehi- 60 94
cles that would store per signal cycle de- 70 113
pending on cycle length, signal phasing, 80 132
and arrival and departure rates. The Dis- 90 150
trict Traffic Branch should be consulted
for this information. 100 169
July 1,1995
When determining storage length, the for left-turning traffic. Nevertheless, right-
end of the left turn lane is typically turn lanes can be justified on the basis of
placed at least 1 m, but not more than capacity, analysis, and accident experience.
10 m, from the nearest edge of shoulder In rural areas a history of high speed rear-
of the intersecting roadway. Although end accidents may warrant the addition of a
often set by the placement of a right-turn lane.
crosswalk stripe or limit line, the end of
the storage lane should always be In urban areas other factors may contribute
located so that the appropriate turning to the need such as:
template can be accommodated.
High volumes of right-turning traffic
(3) Double Left-turn Lanes. At signalized in- causing backup and delay on the through
tersections on multilane conventional high- lanes.
ways and on multilane ramp terminals,
double left-turn lanes should be considered Pedestrians conflicting with right turning
if the left-turn demand is 300 vehicles per vehicles.
hour or more. The lane widths and other
design elements of left-turn lanes given Frequent rear-end and sideswipe
under Index 405.2(2) apply to double as accidents involving right-turning
well as single left-turn lanes. vehicles.
The design of double left-turn lanes can be (2) Design Elements.
accomplished by adding one or two lanes in (a) Lane and Shoulder Width--The basic
the median. See "Guidelines for Recon- lane width for right turn lanes
struction of Intersections", published by shall be 3.6 m. Shoulder width
Headquarters, Division of Traffic shall be a minimum of 1.2 m.
Operations, for the various treatments of Whenever possible, consideration
double left-turn lanes. should be given to increasing the
(4) Two-way L@-turn Lane (TWLTL). The shoulder width to 2.4 m to facilitate the
TWLTL consists of a striped lane in the passage of bicycle traffic and provide
median of an arterial and is devised to space for vehicle breakdowns.
address the special capacity and safety Although not desirable, lane and
problems associated with high-density shoulder widths less than those given
strip development. It can be used on 2-lane above can be considered for right turn
highways as well as multilane high- lanes under the following conditions and
ways. Normally, the District Traffic with the approval of a design exception
Operations Branch should determine the pursuant to Index 82.2.
need for a TWLTL.
On high speed rural highways or
The minimum width for a TWLTL moderate speed suburban highways
shall be 3.6 m (see Index 301.1). where width is restricted,
The preferred width is 4.2 m. Wider consideration may be given to
TWLTL's are occasionally provided to reducing the lane width to 3.3 m
conform with local agency standards. with approval of a design exception.
However. TWLTL's wider than 4.2 m are
not recordmended, and in no case should the On low to moderate speed roadways
width of a TWLTL exceed 4.8 m. in severely constrained situations,
Additional width may encourage drivers in consideration may be given to
opposite directions to use the TWLTL reducing the minimum lane width to
simultaneously. 3.0 m with approval of a design
exception.
405.3 Right-turn Channelization
( I ) General. For right-turning traffic, delays
are less critical and conflicts less severe than
July 1,1995
Figure 405.2A
Standard Left-turn Channelization
11:
U ' d
d E-I
p'c
a
Egg
cc aJ=
64
-
0
0
July 1.1995
Figure 405.28
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization
(Widening on one Side of Highway)
July 1,1995
Figure 405.2C
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization

(Widening on Both Sides in Urban Areas with Short Blocks)
0)
.!I 0
0
L I-
0)
2-!
. a ",
0)
0)
2%
p
+ In+ B E U6 n2
0 c
'+~ E $ E d COG
o 0
"f!? 2ng 4 5 %a
20:
" !.
.E E
F
0
T.c a
+0'Ei! E g a g +"
L + x O 0
---
o n ma,C
.- "2 c , C 0 )
n a E1 c 1.5- 0,-
2 E+ a- a c
0 0 '-11 TJ;uo
-u €5 r C
g1 1i m
gC
0 ;coo
13-z
0) - 0
-0 w-
2 2 Z.! 0
C-
a
O
pm L
"@ 0. .T2t ga,
na.!~q
1 EI a on m
6 : p68 an e 6
ELL ~ m * az nk
ill tit
I I
July 1,1995
Shoulder widths may also be consid- cause problems as M i c volumes increase.

ered for reduction under constricted Serious conflicts occur when the right-
situations. Whenever possible, at turning vehicle must weave across multiple
least a 0.6 m offset should be lanes on the local street in order to turn left
provided where the right turn lane is at a major cross street close to the ramp
adjacent to a curb. Entire omission terminal. Also, rear-end accidents can occur
of the shoulder should only be as right-turning drivers slow down or stop
considered in the most severely waiting for a gap in local street traffic. Free
constricted situations and where an right turns usually end up with yield, stop,
3.3 m lane can be constructed. or signal controls thus defeating their
Gutter pans can be included within a purpose of increasing intersection capacity.
shoulder, but cannot be included as Free right turns should generally be avoided
part of the lane width. unless there is room for a generous
Additional right of way for a future acceleration lane or a lane addition on the lo-
right-turn lane should be considered cal street. See Index 504.3(2) for additional
when an intersection is being designed. information.
(b) Tapers--Approach tapers are usually un- 405.4 T r a c Islands
necessary since main line trac need not
be shifted laterally to provide space for A traffic island is an area between traffic lanes
the right-turn lane. If, in some rare infor control of vehicle movements or for
stances, a lateral shift were needed, the pedestrian refuge. An island may be designated
approach taper would use the same for- by paint, raised pavement markers, curbs,
mula as for a left-turn lane. pavement edge, or other devices. Examples of
tr&c island designs are shown on Figure
Bay tapers are treated as a mirror image 405.4.
of the left-turn bay taper.
Traffic islands usually serve more than one
(c) Deceleration Lane Length--The function, but may be generally classified in three
conditions and principles of left-turn separate types:
lane deceleration apply to right-turn
deceleration. Where full deceleration is (a) Channelizing islands which are designed
desired off the high-speed through to confine specific traffic movements
lanes, the lengths in Table 405.2B into definite channels;
should be used. Where partial de- (b) Divisional islands which serve to
celeration is permitted on the through separate traffic moving in the same or
lanes because of limited right of way or opposite direction; and
other constraints, average running
speeds in Table 405.2B may be reduced (c) Refuge islands to aid and protect
15 to 30 km/h for a lower entry speed. pedestrians crossing the roadway. If a
For example, if the main line speed is divisional island is located in an urban
80 km/h and a 20 km/h deceleration is area where pedestrians are present,
permitted on the through lanes, the de- portions of each island can be
celeration length may be that required for considered a refuge island.
60 km/h. Traffic islands are also used to discourage or
(d) Storage Length--Right-turn storage prohibit undesirable movements.
length is determined in the same manner ( I ) Design of Traflc Islands. Island sizes and
as left-turn storage length. See Index shapes vary from one intersection to an-
405.2(2)(e). other. They should be large enough to
(3) Right-turn Lanes at OjJ-ramp Intersections. command attention. Channelizing islands
Diamond off-ramps with a free right turn at should not be less than 5 m2 in area,
the local street and separate right-turn off- preferably 7 m2. Curbed, elongated
ramps around the outside of a loop will divisional islands should not be less than
1.2 m wide and 6 m long.
July 1, 1995
@ The approach end of each island should be

offset 1 m to the left and 1.5 m to the right
through traffic to minimize accidental
impacts.
of approaching traffic, using standard 1:15
parabolic flares, and clearly delineated so Figure 405.4
that it does not surprise the motorist. These Traffic Island Designs
offsets are in addition to the normal 0.6 m
left and 2.4 m right shoulder widths. Table
405.4 gives standard parabolic flares to be
used in island design. On curved alignment,
parabolic flares may be omitted for small
triangular traffic islands whose sides are less
than 7.5 m long. NOTE:
The approach nose of a divisional island
should be highly visible day and night with Channsbiq Lbnd
appropriate use of signs (reflectorized or
illuminated) and object markers. The ap-
proach nose should be offset 1 m from the
Table 405.4
Parabolic Curb Flares Commonly Used
@ = Length of flare in meters
@ = Maximum offset in meters
@ = Distance along base line in meters
@ = Offset from base line in meters
@is
I shown in table thus =
OFFSET IN METERS FOR GIVEN "Xu DISTANCE
@ 2 4 5 8 10 12 15 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 45
July 1,1995
(2) Delineation of Trafic Island. Generally, (2) Spacing and location. By a combination of
islands should present the least potential interchange ramps and emergency
hazard to approaching vehicles and yet per- passageways, provisions for acc-ess to the
form their intended function. When curbs opposite side of the freeway may be
are used, the B type is preferable except provided for law enforcement, emergency,
where an A type curb is needed for traffic and maintenance vehicles to avoid extreme
control or pedestrian refuge (see Indexes out-of-direction travel. Access should not
209.1 and 209.2). Islands may be desig- be more frequent than at 5 km intervals. See
nated as follows: Cha~ter 7 of the Traffic Manual for
(a) Raised paved areas outlined by curbs. addihonal information on the design of
emergency passageways. Emernencv
(b) Flush paved areas outlined by pavement passageways should be located where
markings. decision sinht distance is available (see
(c) Unpaved areas (small unpaved areas Table 20 1.7).
should be avoided). Median openings at close intervals on other
On facilities with speeds over 75 km/h, the types of highways create interference with
use of any type of curb is discouraged. fast through traffic. Median openings
Where curbs are to be used, they should be should be spaced at intervals no closer than
500 m. If a median opening falls within
located at or outside of the shoulder edge, as 100 m of an access opening. it should be
provided in Index 209.3. placed opposite the access opening.
In rural areas, painted channelization sup- (3) Length of Median Opening. For any three
plemented with raised pavement markers or four-leg intersection on a divided high-
would be more appropriate than a raised way, the length of the median opening
curbed channelization. The design is as for- should be at least as great as the width of the
giving as possible and decreases the conse- crossroads pavement, median width, and
quence of a driver's failure to detect or rec- shoulders. An important factor in designing
ognize the curbed island. median openings is the path of the design
In urban areas, speeds less than 75 km/h vehicle making a minimum left turn at 8 to
allow more frequent use of curbed islands. 15 km/h. The length of median opening
Local agency requirements and matching varies with width of median and angle of
existing conditions are factors to consider; intersecting road.
however, the use of raised islands has Usually a median opening of 18 m is
diminished and traffic engineers generally adequate for 90 degree intersections with
prefer flush painted channelization islands. median widths of 6.6 m or greater. When
405.5 Median Openings the median width is less than 6.6 m, a
median opening of 21 m is needed. When
( I ) General. Median openings, sometimes the intersection angle is other than 90
called crossovers, provide for vehicular degrees, the length of median opening
crossings of the median at designated should be established by using truck turn
locations. Except for emergency passage- templates (see Index 404.3).
ways in a median barrier, median openings (4) Cross Slope. The cross slope in the median
are not allowed on urban freeways. opening should be limited to 5%.
Median openings on expressways or divided Crossovers on curves with super elevation
conventional highways should not be curbed exceeding 5% should be avoided. This
except when the median between openings cross slope may be exceeded when an
is curbed, or it is necessary for delineation existing 2-lane roadbed is converted to a 4-
or for protection of signal standards lane divided highway. The elevation of the
and other necessary hardware. In these new construction should be based on the 5%
special cases B4 curbs should be used. An cross slope requirement when the existing
example of a median opening design is roadbed is raised to its ultimate elevation.
shown on Figure 405.5.
of intersection
see note 2)
I I
Left Turn ~ a n e
Parabolic Flare .............
.......... Parabolic Flare .
.............. ..............................................................................
I Left Turn Lane
----I) -- - - - - - - -- -----------
4
Bay Taper
INTERSECTION MEDIAN OPENING
NOTES:
1 - For length of bay taper, see Table 405.2A.
2 - L = Length of median opening: varies with width of median and angle of intersecting road.
Usually for 90. intersection, L=18 rn for median of 6.6 m and wider. L=21 rn for median
narrower than 6.6 rn
3 - See Index 405.2.
July 1, 1995
(5) References. For information related to the lanes may be provided when necessary (see
design of intersections and median open- Index 405.3).
ings, "A Policy on Geometric Design of (3)Alternate Designs. Offsets are given in
Highways and Streets," AASHTO, 1994, Figure 405.7 for right angle intersections.
should be consulted. For skew angles, roadway curvature, and
405.6 Access Control possibly other reasons, variations to the
right-angle design are permitted, but the
The basic principles which govern the extent to basic rule is still to approximate the wheel
which access rights are to be acquired at paths of the design vehicle.
interchanges (see Index 504.8) also apply to A three-center curve is an alternate treatment
intersections at grade on expressways. Cases of that may be used at the discretion of the
access control which frequently occur at designer.
intersections are shown in Figure 405.7. This
illustration does not presuhe to cover all 405.8 City Street Returns and Corner
situations. Where required by traffic conditions, Radii
access taking should be extended in order to
insure proper operation of the expressway The pavement width and comer radius at city
lanes. Reasonable variations which observe the street intersections is determined by the type of
basic principles referred to above are accept- vehicle to be accommodated taking into
able. consideration the amount of available right of
way, the roadway width, the number of lanes
405.7 Public Road Intersections on the intersecting street, and the number of
The basic design to be used at right-angle public pedestrians.
road intersections on the State Highway System At urban intersections, the California truck or
is shown in Figure 405.7. The essential the Bus Design Vehicle template may be used to
elements are sight distance (see Index 405.1) determine the comer radius. Where STAA truck
and the treatment of the right-turn on and off the access is anticipated, the STAA Design Vehicle
main highway. Encroachment into opposing template may be used giving consideration to
traffic lanes by the turning vehicle should be factors mentioned above. (See Index 404.3.)
avoided or minimized. Smaller radii of 5 to 30 m are appropriate at
( I ) Right-turn Onto the Main Highway. The minor cross streets where few trucks are
combination of a circular curve joined by a turning. Local agency standards may be ap-
2:l taper on the crossroads and a 22.5 m propriate in urban and suburban areas.
taper on the main highway is designed to fit Encroachment into opposing traffic lanes should
the wheel paths of the appropriate turning be avoided.
template chosen by the designer.
It is desirable to keep the right turn as tight 405.9 Widening of 2-lane Roads at
as practical, so the stop or yield sign on the Signalized Intersections
minor leg can be placed close to the inter- Two-lane state highways may be widened at
section. intersections to 4-lanes whenever signals are
(2) Right-turn Off the Main Highway. The installed. Sometimes it may be necessary to
combination of a circular curve joined by a widen the intersecting road. The minimum de-
45 m taper on the main highway and a 4:l sign is shown in Figure 405.9. More elaborate
taper on the crossroads is designed to fit the treatment may be warranted by the volume and
wheel paths of the appropriate turning tem- pattern of traffic movements. Unusual turning
plate and to move the rear of the vehicle off movement patterns may possibly call for a dif-
the main highway. Deceleration and storage ferent shape of widening.
'n
Encroachments Limited
Encroachments Limited to this Sight Line
to this Sight Line
-
Mapr Rood
---C
4 -
- Access control on expressways shall extend to end

of taper or at least 15 m beyond end of corner

I
+4
n
60 rn or as required for
C
storage of waiting vehicles 25:1 taper
- L
Shoulder (See Note 2 )
.................
+ STATE HIGHWAY
-six~
+
P
P
.................................
Shoulder (See Note 2 )

33:1 or 2/3WV taper
which ever is greater
NOTES:
@ LAYOUT LEFT OF INTERSECTION IS
THE SAME AS THAT ON THE RIGHT
Q WHERE WIDTH IS RESTRICTED SHOULDER WIDTH
MAY BE REDUCED AND PARKING RESTRICTED.
FOR BICYCLE USE, A MINIMUM 1.2 m SHOULDER
IS REQUIRED (1.5 rn if gutter is present).
WIDENING
July 1, 1995
a -
Topic 406 Ramp Intersection Table 406
Capacity
- Analysis
-
The following procedure for ramp intersection
Traffic Flow Conditions at
analysis may be used to estimate the capacity of Intersections at Various Levels
any signalized intersection where the phasing is of Operation
relatively simple. It is useful in analyzing the
need for additional turning and through traffic
lanes. ILV/hr Description
(a) Ramp Intersection Analysis--For the
typical local street interchange there is
usually a critical intersection of a ramp
and the crossroads that establishes the Stable flow with slight, but acceptable delay.
capacity of the interchange. The Occasional signal loading may develop. Free
capacity of a point where lanes of traffic midblock operations.
intersect is 1500 vehicles per hour. This
is expressed as intersecting lane vehicles
per hour (ILV/hr). Table 406 gives Unstable flow with considerable delays
values of I L V h for various traffic flow possible. Some vehicles occasionally wait two
conditions. or more cycles to pass through the intersection.
If a single-lane approach at a normal Continuous backup occurs on some approaches.
intersection has a demand volume of
1000 vph, for example, then the 1500 (Capacity):
intersecting single-lane approach volume Stop-and-go operation with severe delay and
cannot exceed 500 vph without delay. heavy congestion(l). Traffic volume is limited
The three examples that follow illustrate by maximum discharge rates of each phase.
the simplicity of analyzing ramp Continuous backup in varying degrees occurs
intersections using this 1500 I L V h on all approaches. Where downstream capacity
concept. is restrictive, mainline congestion can impede
orderly discharge through the intersection.
(b) Diamond Interchange--The critical inter-
section of a diamond type interchange (I) The amount of congestion depends on how much the
must accommodate demands of three
I L V b value exceeds 1500. Observed flow rates
conflicting travel paths. As traffic
will normally not exceed 1500 ILVhr, and the
volumes approach capacity, signalization excess will be delayed in a queue.
will be needed. For the spread diamond
(Figure 406A), basic capacity analysis is
made on the assumption that 3-phase
signalization is employed. For the tight
diamond (Figure 406B), it is assumed
that 4-phase signal timing is used.
(c) 2 Quadrant Cloverleaf--Because this
interchange design (Figure 406C)
permits 2-phase signalization, it will
have higher capacities on the approach
roadways. The critical intersection is
shared two ways instead of three ways
as in the diamond case.
July 1,1995
Figure 406A a
Spread Diamond
July 1,1995
ir?
* Figure 4068
Tight Diamond
diamond, where almost

between intersections
Location A Location B
*NOTE: When no storage at all is permitted, left-turn movement is

cleared during this phase.
Critical Lane Volumes:
ILV=Intersecting Lane Vehicles. 100

1500 ILV/Hr.
July 1,1995
Figure 407A
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks

15 m Radius
SCALE IN METERS
July 1,1995
Figure 4078
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks

18 m Radius
SCALE IN METERS
July 1. 1995
Figure 407C
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks

15 m Radius
July 1,1995
Figure 4070
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks - 18 m Radius
SCALE IN METERS
July 1,1995
Figure 407E
Bus Wheel Tracks - 12.8 m Radius
SCALE IN METERS
July 1, 1995
traffic control devices, topography, right of way

CHAPTER 500 controls, local planning, proximity of adjacent
interchanges, community impact, and cost.
Even though interchanges are, of necessity,
Topic 501 - General designed to fit specific conditions and controls,
it is desirable that the pattern of interchange
ramps along a freeway follow some degree of
-
Index 501.1 Concepts consistency. It is frequently desirable to
A traffic interchange is a combination of ramps rearrange portions of the local street system in
and grade separations at the junction of two or connection with freeway construction in order to
more highways for the purpose of reducing or effect the most desirable overall plan of traffic
eliminating traffk conflicts, to improve safety, service and community development.
and increase traffic capacity. Crossing conflicts Interchange types are characterized by the basic
are eliminated by grade separations. Turning shapes of ramps: namely, diamond, loop,
conflicts are either eliminated or minimized, directional, hook, or variations of these types.
depending upon the type of interchange design. Many interchange designs are combinations of
these basic types. Schematic interchange
501.2 Warrants patterns are illustrated in Figure 502.2 and
AU connections to freeways are by traffic Figure 502.3. These are classified as: (a) Local
interchanges. An interchange or separation may street interchanges and (b) Freeway-to-freeway
be warranted as part of an expressway (or in interchanges. See Chapter X of "A Policy on
special cases at the junction of two non-access Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,"
controlled highways), to improve safety or AASHTO, 1994, for additional examples.
eliminate a bottleneck, or where topography
does not lend itself to the construct6n-of 502.2 Local Street Interchanges
intersection. The use of isolated off ramps or partial inter-
changes should be avoided because of the
501.3 Spacing 7
The minimum interchange spacing shall driver confusion. In general, interchanges with
be 1.5 km in urban areas, 3.0 km in a l l ramps connecting with a single cross street
rural areas, and 3.0 km between are preferred.
freeway-to-freeway interchanges and
local street interchanges. To improve (a) Diamond Interchange--The simplest
operations of closely spaced interchanges the form of interchange is the diamond.
use of auxiliary lanes, grade separated ramps, Diamond interchanges provide a high
collector distributor roads, andlor ramp metering standard of ramp alignment, direct
may be warranted. turning maneuvers at the crossroads,
and usually have minimum construction
See Design Information Bulletin No. 77 for costs. The diamond type is adaptable to
additional information on interchange spacing, a wide range of traffic volumes. The
including the procedural and documentation capacity is limited by the capacity of the
requirements to be fulfilled prior to requesting intersection of the ramps at the
an exception to the above standards. crossroad. This capacity may be
increased by widening the ramps to two
Topic 502 - Interchange Types or three lanes at the crossroad and by
widening the crossroad in the
intersection area. Crossroad widening
502.1 General will increase the length of under-
The selection of an interchange type and its crossings and the width of over-
design are influenced by many factors including crossings, thus adding to the bridge
the following: the .speed, volume, and cost. Ramp intersection capacity
@ composition of traffic to be served, the number
of intersecting legs, the standards and ar-
analysis is discussed in Topic 406.
rangement of the local street system including
July 1,1995
Figure 502.2
Typical Local Street Interchanges
TYPE L-1 TYPE L-2
TYPE L-3 TYPE L-4
TYPE L-5 TYPE L-6

July 1,1995
Figure 502.2
Typical Local Street Interchanges

(continued)
TYPE L-7
TYPE TYPE L-9
TYPE L-10 TYPE L-11
TYPE L-12 TYPE L-13

July 1,1995
Figure 502.3
Typical Freeway-to-freeway
Interchanges
TYPE F-I (ALT "A") TYPE F-I (ALT "B")
TYPE F-2
TYPE F-3 TYPE F-4

July 1,1995
Figure 502.3
Typical Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges

(continued)
TYPE F-5 TYPE F-6
TYPE F-7 TYPE F-8

July 1,1995
The compact diamond (Type L-1) is attention should always be given to exit
most adaptable where the freeway is ramps that end in a hook to ensure that
depressed or elevated and the cross adequate sight distance around the
street retains a straight profile. Type L- curve, deceleration prior to the curve or
1's are suitable where physical, end of anticipated queue, and adequate
geometric or right of way restrictions do superelevation for anticipated driving
not permit a spread diamond speeds can be developed.
configuration. (c) Cloverleaf Interchanges--The simplest
The spread diamond (Type L-2) is cloverleaf interchange is the two-
adaptable where the grade of the cross quadrant cloverleaf, Type L-7 or Type
street is changed to pass over or under L-8, or a combination where the two
the freeway. The ramp terminals are loops are on the same side of the cross
spread in order to achieve maximum street. Type L-7 eliminates the need for
sight distance and minimum intersection left-turn storage lanes, on or under the
cross slope, commensurate with structure, thus reducing the structure
construction and right of way costs, costs. These interchanges should be
travel distance, and general appearance. used only in connection with controls
A spread diamond has the advantage of which preclude the use of diamond
flatter ramp grades, greater crossroads ramps in a l l four quadrants. These
left-turn storage capacity, and the controls include right of way controls, a
flexibility of permitting the construction railroad track paralleling the cross street,
of future loop ramps if required. and a short weaving distance to the next
interchange.
The split diamond with braids (Type
L-3) may be appropriate where two The Type L-9, partial cloverleaf inter-
major crossroads are closely spaced. change, provides loop on-ramps in
(b) Interchanges with Parallel Street addition to the four diamond-type
Systems--Types L-4, L-5 and L-6 are ramps. This interchange is suitable for
interchange systems used where the large volume turning movements. Left-
freeway alignment is placed between turn movements from the crossroads are
parallel streets. Types L-4 and L-5 are eliminated, thereby permitting two-phase
used where the parallel streets will operation at the ramp intersections when
signalized. Because of this feature, the
operate with one-way traffic. In Type Type L-9 interchange usually has
L-4 slip ramps merge with the frontage capacity to handle the volume of
street and in Type L-5 the ramps interchange traffic which can be
terminate at the intersection of the accommodated on the crossroads.
frontage road with the cross street,
forming five-legged intersections. 1n The four-quadrant cloverleaf interchange
Type L-6 the freeway ramps connect (Type L- 10) has free-flow characteristics
with two-way parallel streets. The for all movements. It has the disadvan-
parallel streets in the Types L-4, L-5 and tage of a higher cost than a diamond or
L-6 situation are usually too close to the partial cloverleaf design and a relatively
freeway to permit ramp intersections on short weaving section between the loop
the cross street between the parallel ramps which limits capacity. Collector-
frontage streets. distributor roads should be incorporated
The "hook" ramps of the Type L-6 are in the design of four-quadrant cloverleaf
often forced into tight situations that lead interchanges to separate the weaving
to less than desirable geometrics. The conflicts from the through freeway
radius of the curve at the approach to the traffic.
intersection should exceed 50 m and a (d) Trumpet Interchanges--A trumpet
tangent of at least 50 m should be design, Type L- 11 or L-12, may be used
provided between the last curve on the when a crossroads terminates at a
ramp and the ramp terminal. Special freeway. This design should not be
used if future extension of the should be discussed with the Project

crossroads is probable. The diamond Development Coordinator and Traffic
interchange is preferable if future Operations Reviewer early in the project
extension of the crossroads is expected. development process.
(e) Single Point Interchange (SP1)--The Designers should refer to the 1994
Type L- 13 is a concept which essentially AASHTO Publication "A Policy on
combines two separate diamond ramp Geometric Design of Highways and
intersections into one large at-grade Streets" (the Green Book) for more
intersection. It is also known as an detailed information on Single Point
urban interchange. Type L- 13 requires Interchanges.
approximately the same right-of-way as
the compact diamond. However, the 502.3 Freeway-to-freeway
construction cost is substantially higher Interchanges
due to the structure requirements. The ( I ) General. The function of the freeway-to-
capacity of the L-13 can substantially freeway interchange is to link freeway
exceed that of a compact diamond if long segments together so as to provide the opti-
signal times can be provided and left mum highway system. Parameters such as
turning volumes are balanced. cost, environment, community values,
This additional capacity may be offset if traffic volumes, route continuity, map
nearby intersection queues interfere with relatability, and safety should all be
weaving and storage between considered. Both the sign route and the
intersections. The disadvantages of the major traffic volume should be to the left at a
L-13 are: 1) Future expansion of the freeway-to-freeway interchange, if possible.
interchange is extremely difficult; 2) (2) Design Considerations.
Stage construction for retrofit situations
is costly; 3) Long structure spans require (a) Cost--The differential cost between in-
higher than normal profiles and deeper terchange types is often significant. A
structure depths; and 4) Poor pedestrian cost-effective approach will tend to
circulation that could lead to providing a assure that an interchange is neither over
grade separated pedestrian structure if nor underdesigned. Decisions as to the
pedestrian volumes are high. relative values of the previously
Typically, the SPI is best suited for mentioned parameters must be consistent
undercrossings; it is difficult to provide with decisions reached on adjacent main
good geornetrics where the cross street line freeways.
rolls up and over the freeway. (b) System Balance--The freeway-to-
Special attention should be given to freeway interchange is a critical link in
signing, striping, lighting and sight the total freeway system. The level of
distance due to driver unfamiliarity with traffic service provided will have impact
the non-conventional geornetrics and upon the mobility and overall
features of the L-13. The SPI is effectiveness of the entire roadway
significantly longer and wider than system. For instance, traffic patterns
conventional intersections, therefore, will adjust to avoid repetitive bottle-
pavement delineation is particularly necks, and to the greatest degree
important in order to guide the driver possible, to temporary closures,
through the intersection. The sight accidents, etc. The freeway-to-freeway
distance to pavement delineation on crest interchange should provide flexibility to
vertical curves is reduced as compared to respond to these needs so as to
flat grades or sag vertical curves. maximize the cost effectiveness of the
(Night-time sight distance on sag vertical total system.
0 curves can be supplemented by street
lighting.) Proposals for Type L-13
(c) Elimination of Connections--Freeway-
to-freeway interchanges need not include
interchanges on crest vertical curves all possible turning movements.
July 1, 1995
Connections serving minor traffic well as reductions in the freeway-to-

volumes or significantly out-of-direction freeway interchange costs.
traffic movements should be omitted
unless it can be demonstrated that traffic Signing--Freeway-to-freeway traffic
service and other benefits justify the may be signed via the local street
costs. Considerations include: system. Routes should be
sufficiently direct and well oriented
Traffic volumes--Turning traffic vol- to insure that the unfamiliar driver
umes may be nominal or a small per- can follow them.
centage of the total interchanging (d) Local Traffic Service--In metropolitan
traffic. areas a freeway-to-freeway interchange
Circuitry--Connections may only is usually superimposed over an existing
serve significantly out-of-direction street system. Local and through traffic
traffic movements. requirements are often in conflict. Com-
binations of local and freeway-to-
Freeway location--Where three free- freeway interchanges can result in
ways cross so as to form a relatively designs that are both costly and so
small triangle, the omission of the complex that the important design
backward freeway-to-freeway conckpts of simplicity k d consistency
connections from one leg of the are compromised. Therefore, alternate
triangle to another may have little plans separating local and freeway-to-
negative impact on local or through freeway interchanges should be fully
traffic service. explored. Less than desirable local
interchange spacing may result;
Use of local streets--low turning however, this may be compensated for
volumes may be accommodated by upgrading the adjacent local
reasonably well by way of local interchanges and street system.
interchanges and the local street Local traffic service interchanges should
system. There may be both traffic not be located within freeway-to-free-
operational advantages and economic way interchanges unless geometric
savings from utilizing and improving standards and level of service will be
this local system in lieu of providing substantially maintained.
the freeway-to-freeway connections.
(e) Alignment--It is not considered practical
Staging--Staging possibilities should to establish fixed freeway-to-freeway in-
be thoroughly assessed. Provisions terchange alignment standards. An
should be made for adding or interchange must be designed to fit into
upgrading ramps and connectors at a its environment. Alignment is often
later time. For example, an initial controlled by external factors such as
loop ramp might be later upgraded to terrain, buildings, street patterns, route
direct connector. adoptions, and community value consid-
erations. Normally, loops have radii in
Effect on other traffic movements-- the range of 50 m to 65 m and direct
Provision of minor movements may connections should have minimum radii
be detrimental to traffic operation on of 260 m. Larger radii may be proper
major branch connections and the in situations where the skew or other site
main line freeways. conditions will result in minimal
Costs--All construction and right of increased costs. Direct connection radii
way savings and costs attributable to of at least 350 m are desirable from a
traffic operational standpoint. High
the elimination of turning
movements should be considered.
This includes possible additional
alignment and sight distance standards
should be provided where possible. a
local interchange and street costs as
Drivers have been conditioned to expect a (b) Combination Interchanges--The three-

certain standard of excellence on California quadrant cloverleaf, Type F-2, with one
freeways. The designer's challenge ,is to direct connection may be necessary
provide the highest possible standards where a single move carries too much
consistent with cost and level of service. traffic for a loop ramp or where the one
quadrant is restricted by environmental,
Types. Several freeway-to-freeway in- topographic, or right of way controls.
terchange design configurations are shown
on Figure 502.3. Many combinations and The two-loop, two-direct connection
variations may be formed from these basic interchange, Type F-3, is often an
interchange types. appropriate solution. The weaving
conflicts which ordinarily constitute the
(a) Four-Level-Interchange--Direct connec- most restrictive traffic constraint are
tions are appropriate in lieu of loops eliminated, yet cost and right of way
when required by traffic demands or requirements may be kept withm
other specific site conditions. The Type reasonable bounds. Consideration
F-1 interchange with direct should be given to providing an
connections provides the maximum in auxiliary lane in advance of the loop off-
mobility and safety. However, the high ramps to provide for vehicle
costs associated with this design require deceleration.
that the benefits be fully substantiated.
The Type F-1 Alternative "A" (c) Four-Quadrant Cloverleaf--The four-
quadrant cloverleaf with collector-
interchange utilizes a single divergence distributor roads, Type F-4, is ordinarily
ramp for traffic bound for the other the most economical freeway-to-freeway
freeway; then provides a secondary interchange solution when all turning
directional split. Each entrance ramp on movements are provided. The four-
a Type F-1A interchange is provided quadrant cloverleaf is generally
separately. The advantages of the Type applicable in situations where turning
F- 1A are: 1) reduced driver confusion volumes are low enough to be
since there is only one exit to the other accommodated in the short weaving
freeway, and 2) operations at the sections. It should be designed with
entrance may be improved since the collector-distributor roads to separate
ramps merge with the mainline one at a weaving conflicts from the through free-
time. way traffic.
The Type F-1 Alternative "B" (d) Freeway Terminal Junction--Types F-5,
interchange provides separate directional F-6, F-7, and F-8 are examples of inter-
exit ramps and then merges the entering change designs where one freeway
traffic into a single ramp before terminates at the junction with another
converging with the mainline. Since the freeway. In general, the standard of
Type F-1B combines traffic from two alignment provided on the left or median
ramps before entering the freeway, it is lane connection from the terminating
important to verify that adequate freeway should equal or approach as
weaving capacity is provided beyond the near as possible that of the terminating
entrance. Separating the directional split freeway. Terminating the median lane
of exiting traffic reduces the volume to on a loop should be avoided. It is
each of the two ramps and therefore may preferable that both the sign route and
improve the level of service of the weave the major traffic volume be to the left at
section prior to the exit. the branch connection diverge. The
Design for a four-level interchange may choice between Types F-7 and F-8
combine the configuration of the Type should include considerations of traffic
F1-A and F1-B interchange to best suit volumes, route continuity, and map
the conditions at a given location. relatability. When these considerations
July 1,1995
are in conflict, the choice is made on the

basis of judgment of their relative
Topic 504 -lnterchange Design
merits.
Standards
Topic 503 - lnterchange Design 504.1 General

Topic 504 discusses the standards that pertain to
Procedure both local service interchanges (various ramp
configurations) and freeway-to-freeway
503.1 Basic Data connections. The design standards, policies and
Data relative to community service, traffic, practices covered in Indexes 504.2, and 504.5
physical and economic factors, and potential through 504.8 are typically common to both
area development which may materially affect ramp and connector interchange types. Indexes
design, should be obtained prior to interchange 504.3 and 504.4 separately discuss ramp
design. Specifically, the following information standards and freeway-to-freeway connector
should be available: standards, respectively.
(a) The location and standards of existing 504.2 Freeway Entrances and Exits
and proposed local streets including
types of traffic control. ( I ) Basic Policy. All freeway entrances
and exits, except for direct connec-
(b) Existing and proposed land use tions with median High Occupancy
including such developments as Vehicle lanes, shall connect to the
shopping centers, recreational facilities, right of through traffic.
housing developments, schools, and
other institutions. (2) Standard Designs. Desi~nof freeway
entrances and exits should conform to the
(c) A traffic flow diagram showing average ~tandard designs illustrated in Fimre
daily traffic and design hourly volumes, 504.2A (single lane). and Figure 504.3C
as well as time of day (a.m. or p.m.), ltwo lane entrances and exits) andlor Figure
anticipated on the freeway ramps and 504.4 (diverging branch connections).
affected local streets or roads. appropriate.
(d) The relationship with adjacent inter- The minimum deceleration length
changes. shown on Figure 504.2A shall be
(e) The location of major utilities, railroads, provided prior to the first curve
or airports. beyond the exit nose to assure
adequate distance for vehicles to
503.2 Approval decelerate before entering the curve.
The same standard should applv for the first
Interchanges are among the major design curve after the exit from a collector-
features which are to be reviewed by the Project distributor road. The range of minimum
Development Coordinator, other Headquarters "DL" (distance) vs. "R" (radius) is given in
staff, and the FHWA Transportation Engineer, the table in the lower part of Figure 504.2A
as appropriate. Major design features include above the exit ramp diagram. Strong
the freeway alignment, geometric cross section, consideration should be given to lengthening
location of separation structures, closing of local the "DL distance given in the table when
roads, frontage road construction, and work on the subsequent curve is a descending loop
local roads. Particularly close involvement or hook ramp, or if the upstream
should occur during preparation of the Project condition is a sustained downgrade (see
Study Report and Project Report (see the Project AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of
Development Procedures Manual). Such Highways and Streets, 1994, Chap. 10 for
reviews can be particularly valuable when additional information).
exceptions from advisory or mandatory design
standards are being considered and alternatives
are being sought.
I July 1,1995
'
Figure 504.2A
Single Lane Freeway Entrances and Exits

R=lOW m
6-z 51' 52"
L-4B.BW rn
T=25.002 m
e
ACCELERATION W E @ 4
SEE DETAIL "A"
I
100 m 50 m Var.
ENTRANCE
DETAIL "A"
-----
C
B4 Curbx
OPTIONAL B-4 CURB AT INLET NOSE
( S e e I n d e x 504.3(10))
INLET NOSE
NOTES:
@ Minimum len th between exit nose and and of
160 m for fuh stop at end of ramp.
ramp is
"DL-istance should be len thened for descending, short

@radms curves, or if e n t e r e 8 from a sustained downgrade.
Lass than BO
On ringle lane freewa to freeway connections the right
80-150
151-300
@ paved shoulder ahall g e 3 rn.
over 300 82.3
@ Aon 1.2freeway
m left paved rhoulder is preferred in urban arean;
to freeway connections it shall be 1.5 m.
0
5 When freeway is not on tan ant alignment, select radius t o
approximate same degree of convergence(see Index 504.2(3)).
@ ko;ta as if it were to be center of a 0.3 m radius curb
@ 1:15 Flare, 15 m long -

Table 405.4.
2% ruperelevation may be acceptable for the 1000 m radiun
@ curve on entrance rampr.
x 504.2(4) for decision right
to exit nose.
riris
EXIT
July 1,1995
The exit nose shown on Figure 504.2A may On entrance ramps the distance from the
be located downstream of the 7 m inlet nose (4.25-meter point) to the end of
dimension: however. the maximum paved the acceleration lane taper should equal the
width between the mainline and ramp sum of the distances shown on Figure
shoulder edges should be 6 m. Also, see 504.2A. The 50: 1 taper may be curved to fit
pavement cross slope requirements in Index the conditions, and the 1000 m radius curve
504.2(5). may be adjusted (see Figure 504.2q note 5).
Refer to the HOV Guidelines and Ramp When an exit must be located where
Meter Design Guidelines for additional phvsical restrictions to visibility cannot be
information specific to direct connections to corrected by cut widening or object
HOV lanes and metered entrance ramps and removal. an auxilia~lane in advance of the
connectors. exit should be provided. The length of
(3) Location on a Curve. Freeway entrances auxiliary lane should be a minimum 180 m,
and exits should be located on tangent 300 m preferred.
sections wherever possible in order to (4) Design Speed Considerations. In the design
provide maximum sight distance and of interchanges it is important to provide
optimum traffic operation. Where curve vertical and horizontal alignment standards
locations are necessary, the ramp entrance which are consistent with driving conditions
and exit tapers should be curved also. The expected on branch connections. Sight
radius of the exit taper should be about the distance on crest vertical curves should be
same as the freeway edge of traveled way in consistent with expected approach speeds.
order to develop the same degree of diver- (a) Freeway Exit--The design speed at the
gence as the standard design (see Figure exit nose should be 80 kmh or greater
504.2B). for both ramps and branch connections.
Figure 504.2B Decision s i ~ h tdistance eiven in Table
201.7 should be provided at freeway
exits and branch connectors. Al
Location of Freeway Ramps secondary exits on collector-distributor
on a Curve roads. a minimum of 190 m of decision
sieht distance should be ~rovided, In all
cases, sight distance is measured to the
/ Standard nose distance - 7 rrP
"
center of ramp lane right of the nose.
Large r a d i i or
%
>
*
short tangent (b) Freeway Entrance--The design at
koach
inlet n se should be consistent with
&!s@ oach alignment standards. If
:
'amond ram_ branch
with hi-h - nt
standards. the desi~nspeed should be at
least 80 kmlh.
(c) Ramps--See Index 504.3(1)(a).
(d) Freeway-to-Freeway Connections -- See
Index 504.4(2).
(5) Grades. Grades for freeway entrances and
exits are controlled primarily by the
requirements of sight distance. Ramp
/ q
R3= 2/3 R 2 or more the exception of descendin entrance ramps
on kamh connections and ascending exit ramps. where a 1%
use 6mand 120m steeuer grade is allowed. However. the 1%
steeuer grade should be avoided on
July 1,1995
.. . exDresswavs with sustained upgrades

descending loops to mmumze overdriving of
fie ramp (see Index 504.3 (7)). exceeding 2%. a 450 m length of
f
a i
Profile grade considerations are of particular order to insure satisfactory operating
concern through entrance and exit gore conditions. Additional length may be
areas. In some instances the profile of the warranted based on the thorough
ramp or connector, or a combination of analysis of the site specific grades,
profile and cross slope, is sufficiently traffic volumes, and calculated speeds;
different than that of the freeway through and after consultation with represen-
lanes that grade breaks across the gore may tatives of the Headquarters Traffic
become necessary. Where adjacent lanes or - Operations Program and the Office of
lanes and pore areas at freewav entrances Project Planning and Design. Also, see
and exits . not in the same lane. the
. are
m c Merence in ~avementcross slope
Index 204.5 "Sustained Grades".
should not exceed 5%. 504.3 Ramps
In addition to the effects of terrain, grade (1) General.
lines are also controlled by stnkture (a) Design Speed -- When ramps terminate
clearances (see Indexes 204.6 and 309.2). git an intersection at which all traffic is
Grade lines for overcrossing and ex~ectedto make a turn in^ movement,
undercrossing roadways should conform to the minimum design speed don? the
the requirements of HDM Topic 104 Roads r houl
Under Other Jurisdictions.
-
(a) Freeway Exits--Vertical curves located
J1 d e s h meed should meet or exceed the
desi~nedwith a minimum 80 km/h design
- <wed- of the highwav facilitv for
s t o ~ ~ i nsipht
g distance. Beyond this which the throu~h movement is
point, progressively lower design provided. The design speed along the
speeds may be used to accommodate ramp will vary depending on alignment
loop ramps and other geometric features. and controls at each end of the ramp.
Ascending off-ramps should join the An acceptable approach is to set design
crossroads on a reasonably flat grade to speeds of 40 km/h and 80 km/h at the
expedite truck starts from a stopped ramp tendnus and exit nose,
condition. If the ramp ends in a crest respectively, the appropriate design
vertical curve the last 15 m of the ramp speed for any intermediate point on the
should be on a 5% grade or less. There ramp is then based on its location
may be cases where a valley gutter is relative to those two points. When short
necessary to prevent crossroads water radius curves with relatively lower
from draining onto the ramp. design speeds are used, the vertical sight
distance should be consistent with
On descending off-ramps. the sag verti- approach vehicle speeds. See Index
cal curve at the ramp terminal should be 504.2(4) for additional information
a minimum of 30 m in length. regarding design speed for ramps.
(b) Freeway Entrances--Entrance profiles (b) Lane Width--Ramp lanes shall be a
should approximately parallel the profile minimum of 3.6 m in width.
of the freeway for at least 30 m prior to Where ramps have curve radii of
the inlet nose to provide intervisibility in 90 m or less with a central angle
merging situations. The vertical curve at greater than 60 degrees, the
the inlet nose should be consistent with single ramp lane, or the lane
approach alignment standards. furthest to the right if the ramp i s
Where truck volumes (three-axle or multilane, shall be widened in
more) exceed 20 per hour on ascending accordance with Table 504.3 in
entrance r a m ~ s to freeways and order to accommodate large truck
July 1,1995
wheel paths (see Topic 404). (e) Lane Additions -- Lane additions to
Consideration may be given to widening ramps are usually accomplished by use
more than one lane on a multilane ramp of a 36 m bay taper. See Table 405.2A
with short radius curves if there is a for the geometrics of bay tapers.
likelihood of considerable bus or truck (f) Ramp Metering--The standards
usage of that lane. described in the HDM are to be applied
to both metered and non-metered ramps.
Table 504.3 However, attention is directed to the
"Ramp Meter Design Guidelines".
Ramp Widening for Trucks These guidelines, when used in
-- -- - -- conjunction with HDM standards,
Ramp Radius Widening Lane Width should provide adequate guidance in the
design of metered ramps. Ramp Meter
Development Plans, developed by the
District Traffic Operations unit should be
consulted to determine if entrance ramps
need to be designed to accommodate
future metering hardware andlor future
lane configurations.
(2) Location and Design of Ramp Zntersections
on the Crossroads.
Factors which influence the location of ramp
intersections on the crossroads include sight
distance, construction and right of way
costs, circuitry of travel for left-turn move-
ments, crossroads gradient at ramp intersec-
(c) Shoulder Width--Shoulder widths tions, storage requirements for left-turn
for ramps shall be as indicated in movements off the crossroads, and the
Table 302.1. Typical ramp shoulder proximity of other local road intersections.
widths are 1.2 m on the left and 2.4 m Ramp terminals should connect where the
on the right. The narrower widths
indicated in Table 302.1 may be grade of the overcrossing is 4% or less t~
considered for multilane situations avoid -wtential overturning of trucks.
where blockage of one lane by a For left-turn maneuvers from an off-ramp at
disabled vehicle will not create excessive an unsimalized intersection. the len-gth of
queuing on the ramp. ~rossroadsopen to view should be -mater
(d) Lane Drops--Typically, lane drops are to than the product of the prevailin speed of
be accomplished over a distance equal to vehicles on the crossroads. and the time
213WV. Where ramps are metered, the required for a s t o ~ ~ vehicle
ed on the ramp ta
recommended lane drop taper past the execute a left-turn maneuver, This time is
meter limit line is 50 to 1. Where estimated to be 7- 112 seconds.
conditions preclude the use of a 50 to 1 Where a separate right turn lane is provided
taper. the lane should be drop~edusing at ramI, terminals. the turn lane should not
a taper of no less than 30 to 1. continue as a "free" right unless pedestrian
However, the lane drop taper past volumes are low. the right turn lane
the limit line shall not be less continues as a separate full width lane for at
than 15 to 1. least 60 m prior
. . to merging and access
Lane &OD tapers should not extend control is mamtamed for at least 60 m ~ a s t
the 2-meter point (the beginning the ramp intersection. Provision of the
of the weaving length) without the "free" right should also be precluded if left
provision of an auxiliarv lane. turn movements of anv kind are allowed
within 125 m of the ramp intersection.
July 1, 1995
Figure 504.3A
Location of Ramp Intersections
on the Crossroads
Unsignalized and based on 7.5 second

horizontal sight distance criteria
e
I K -jI
I
- Near Lane %- - i
- 1 I=
-
C
-! ETW\ I
--
Ramp .E
SECTION A - A
a=Distance from edge of traveled way to bridge railing.

b=Distance from center of near lane to eye of ramp vehicle driver.
Ramp driver's eye is asaumed to be located 3 m from the edge of
shoulder, but not less than 4 m from the ETW. (Therefore, b = 1.8 m +
rhoulder width + 3.0 m) See Index 405.1.
c=Ramp set back from end of bridge railing.
d=Corner Sight distance along highway from intersection. ( See Table above.)
Sight distance is measured from a 1070 mm eye height on the ramp
to a 1300 mm object height on the crossroad.
V=Anticipated prevailing apeed on crossroad.
July 1,1995
Horizontal sight restrictions may be caused requirement for signing, delineation and
by bridge railings, bridge piers, or slopes. signal phasing.
Sight distance is measured between the (3) Superelevation for Ramps. The factors
center of the outside lane approaching the controlling superelevation rates discussed in
ramp and the eye of the driver of the ramp Topic 202 apply also to ramps. As indicated
vehicle assumed 3.0 m back from the edge in Table 202.2 use the 12% em, rate except
of shoulder at the crossroads. Figure where snow and ice conditions prevail. In
504.3A illustrates the determination of ramp restrictive cases where the length of curve is
setback from an overcrossing structure on too short to develop standard supereleva-
the basis of sight distance controlled by the tion, the highest obtainable rate should be
bridge rail. The same relationship exists for used (see Index 202.5). If feasible, the
sight distance controlled by bridge piers or curve radius can be increased to reduce the
slopes. standard superelevation rate. Both edge of
Where ramp set back for the 7-112 second traveled way and edge of shoulder should be
criteria is unobtainable, sight distance examined at ramp junctions to assure a
should be provided by flaring the end of smooth transition.
the overcrossing structures or setting back Under certain restrictive conditions the
the piers or end slopes of an undercrossing standard superelevation rate discussed above
structure. may not be required on the last curve (near
If signals are warranted within 5 years of the ramp intersection) of a multi-curve
construction, consideration may be given to diagonal ramp. The specific conditions
installing signals initially in lieu of providing under which lower superelevation rates
the 7-1/2 second horizontal sight distance. would be considered must be evaluated on a
However, this is not desirable and corner case-by-case basis and must be discussed
sight distance commensurate with design with the Project Development Coordinator.
speed should be provided where obtainable Documentation shall be as required by the
(see AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Coordinator.
Design of Highways and Streets, 1994). (4) Single-lane Ramps. Single lane ramps are
For additional information on sight distance those ramps that either enter into or exit
requirements at signalized intersections, see from the freeway as a single lane. These
Index 405.1. ramvs are often widened near the ramp
For new construction or major intekection with the crossroads tb
reconstruction of interchanges, the accommodate turning movements onto or
minimum distance between ramp from the ramp. When additional lanes are
intersections and local road intersec- Qrovided near the entrance ran-q intersection
tions be 125 m. The preferred the lane d r o should
~ be accomplished over 4
. . shalldistance should be 160 m. This distance eaual to U3WV. The lane to be
does not apply to Resurfacing, Restoration t that traffic
dropped should be on the r i ~ hso
and Rehabilitation (RRR), ramp widening, merges left.
restriping or other 'proj&ts which do not Exit ramps in metropolitan areas may require
reconfigure the interchange. This standard multiple lanes at the intersection with the
does apply to projects proposing to realign a crossroads to provide additional storage and
local street. capacity. If the length of a single lane ramp.
Where intersections are closely spaced, exceeds 300 m. an additional lane should be
traffic operations are often inhibited by short provided on the ramp to permit passing
weave and storage lengths, and signal maneuvers, Figure 504.3B illustrates
phasing. In addition it is difficult to provide alternative ways of transitioning a single
proper signing and delineation. Whenever it lane exit ramp to two lanes. The decision to
becomes necessary to locate a ramp terminal use Alternate A or Alternate B is generally
close to an intersection, the District Traffic based on providing the additional lane for
Branch should be consulted regarding the the minor movement.
July 1, 1995
Figure 504.3B
Transition From a Single-Lane
Exit Ramp to Two Lanes
July 1,1995
Figure 504.3C
Two-Lane Entrance and Exit Ramps
@ (5) Two-lane Exi? Ramps. Where design year to accommodate the design vehicle. See
Index 504.3(1) for a discussion on ramp
passenger cars yer hour. a %-lanewidth of widening for trucks.
should be provided initiallv. Radii for loop ramps should normally range
Provisions should be made for possible from 45 m to 60 m. Increasing the radii
widening to three or more lanes at the beyond 60 m is typically not cost effective
crossroads intersection. Figure 504.3C as the slight increase in design speed is
illustrates the standard design for a 2-lane usually outweighed by the increased right of
exit. & auxiliary lane a~~roximatelv 400 m way requirements and the increased travel
long should be provided in advance of a 2- distance. Curve radii of less than 35 m
lane exit. For volumes less than 1500 but should also be avoided. Extremely tight
more than 900. a one-lane width exit ramp curves lead to increased off-tracking by
should be ~rovided with -~rovision for trucks and increase the potential for vehicles
addin? an auxiliary lane and an additional to enter the curve with excessive speed.
lane on the ramp. Of particular concern in the design of loop
(6) Two-lane Entrance Ramps. A standard two ramps are the constraints imposed on large
lane entrance ramp is illustrated in Figure trucks. Research indicates that trucks often
504.3C. This design may be utilized in enter loops with excessive speed, either due
situations where the estimated design year to inadequate deceleration on exit ramps or
volume exceeds 1500 equivalent passenger due to driver efforts to maintain speed on
cars per hour. The configuration shown in entrance ramps to facilitate acceleration and
Figure 504.3C, which includes the merging. Where the loop is of short radius
provision of a 300 m auxiliary lane parallel and is also on a steep descent (over 6%), it
to the freeway, will typically only be used is important to develop the standard 213 full
e where adequate capacity exists on the
through facility in the design year. Where
capacity is limited, consideration should be
superelevation rate by the beginning of the
curve (see Index 504.2(5)). On loop
entrance ramps this can often be facilitated
given to extending the auxiliary lane to the by beginning the ramp with a short tangent
next interchange or adding additional lanes (20 m to 30 m) that diverges from the cross
to the freeway. For most urban situations, it street at an angle of 4 to 9 degrees.
is recommended that multiple ramp lanes Consideration should be given to developing
taper to a single lane prior to the 2-meter additional tangent length if conditions allow.
separation point (where merging is The ramp lane structural section should be
considered to begin). A thorough investiga- provided on shoulders for curves with a
tion of ramp volumes versus through facility radius less than 90 m (see Index 608.6).
volumes must be made for off-peak as well
as peak periods if metering of the ramp is (8) Distance Between Successive On-ramps.
anticipated. Early discussion with the The minimum distance between two
Headquarters Traffic Reviewer and Project successive on-ramps to a freeway lane
Development Coordinator or Geometric should be the distance needed to provide the
Reviewer is recommended whenever two standard on-ramp acceleration taper shown
lane entrance ramps are being considered. on Figure 504.2A. This distance should be
(7) Loop Ramps. Normally, loop ramps should about 300. .m unless the upstream ramp adds
have one lane and shoulders unless a second rn awuliary lane in which case the
lane is needed for capacity or ramp metering downstream ramp should merpe with the
purposes. Consideration should be given to auxiliary lane in a standard 50:l
providing a directional ramp when loop Convergence. The distance between on-
volumes exceed 1500 vehicles per hour. If ramp noses will then be controlled by
.
two lanes are provided, normally only the interchange geometry.

right lane needs to be widened ibr trucks. (9) Distance Between Successive Exits. The
See Topic 404 for additional discussion on minimum distance between successive exit
lane widths and design of ramp intersections ramps for a i d e sign in^ should be 300 m on
500-20 HIGHWA DESIGN MANUAL
July 1, 1995
$he freeway and 180 m on collector- freeway to freeway connectors, except as

distributor roads. discussed or modified below.
(10) Curbs. Curbs should not be used on ramps (2) Design Speed. The design speed for sin~le
except in the following locations: lane directional and all branch connections
should be a minimum of 80 km/h. When
(a) An 80 mm concrete curb (Type B-4, smaller radius curves. with lower design
Index 209.2), may be used on both meeds. are used the vertical sipht distance
sides of the separation between freeway should be consistent with approaching
lanes and a parallel collector-distributor vehicle meeds. Design speed for loop
road. connectors should be consistent with Index
(b) A B-4 curb may be used as shown in 504.2(4).
Figure 504.2A to control drainage or (3) Grades. The maximum ~rofile~radeon
where the gore cross slope would be freewav-to-freewav connections should not
greater than allowed in Index 504.3(3). exceed 6%. Flatter grades and longer
When the optional B-4 curb is used at vertical curves than those used on ramps are
the entrance ramp inlet nose, the needed to obtain increased stopping sight
shoulder adjacent to the curb should be distance for higher design speeds.
the same width as the ramp shoulder
approaching the curb. The B-4 gutter (4) Shoulder Width.
pan can be included as part of the (a) Single-lane and Two-lane Connections--
shoulder width. As stated in Index The width of shoulders on single-
405.4(2), curbs are typically lane and two-lane (except as
discouraged where design speeds are described below) freeway-to-
over 75 kmk. The appropriateness of freeway connectors shall be
curbs at gore areas must be determined 1.5 m on the left and 3.0 m on
on a case-by-case basis. the right. A single lane freeway-
(c) Curbs may be used where necessary at to-freeway connector that has
the ramp connection with the local street been widened to two lanes solely
for the protection of pedestrians, for to provide passing opportunities
channelization, and to provide compati- and not due to capacity
bility with the local facility. requirements shall have a 1.5 m
left shoulder and at least a 1.5 m
(d) Curbs may be used where necessary to right shoulder (see Index 504.4(5)).
control drainage.
(b) Three-lane Connections--The width of
(e) The Type E curb may be used only in shoulders on three-lane connec-
special drainage situations, for example, tors shall be 3.0 m on both the
where drainage parallels and flows left and right sides.
against the face of a retaining wall. In
general, curbs should not be used on the (5) Single-lane Connections. Freeway-to-
high side of ramps or in off-ramp gore freeway connectors may be single lane or
areas except at collector-distributor multilane. Where desi~nyear volume is
roads. between 900 and 1500 eauivalent passenFer
cars Der hour. initial construction should
(II) Dikes. The use of dikes should conform to provide a sin~lelane connection with the
the requirements of Index 835.3. ca~abilityof adding an additional lane.
(12) Ramp Capacity. See Chapter 5 of the Single lane directional connectors should be
Highway Capacity Manual for an analysis designed usin? the general configurations
of ramp capacity. shown on Figure 504.2A. but utilizing
the flatter diverge angle shown in Fig=
5 04.4 Freeway-to-Freeway Connections 504.4. Single lane loop connectors may use
a diverge angle of as much as that shown on
(I) General. All of the design criteria discussed Figure 504.2A for ramps, if necessary. The
in Indexes 501.3, 504.2 and 504.3 apply to
July 1, 1995
Figure 504.4
Diverging Branch Connections

July 1,1995
choice will depend upon interchange (particularly on ramps with 1.5 m shoulders
configuration and driver expectancy. Single on each side), and the potential for queuing
lane connectors in excess of 300 m in len-pth back onto the departing freeway.
should be widened to two lanes to provide
for as sine maneuvers (see Index 504.5 Auxiliary Lanes
504.4(4)). In order to ensure satisfactory operating
(6) Branch Connections. A branch connection conditions, auxiliary lanes may be added to the
is defined as a multilane connection between basic width of traveled way.
two freeways. A branch connection should Where an entrance ramp of one interchange is
be -~rovidedwhen the design year volume closely followed by an exit ramp of another
exceeds 1500 equivalent assenger cars per interchange, the acceleration and deceleration
m. lanes should be ioined with an auxiliary lane.
Merging branch connections should be Auxiliary lanes should be provided in d cases
desi~ned as shown in Figure 504.3C. when the weaving distance. measured as shown
dive rein^ branch connections should be in Figure 504.2A. is less than 600 m. Where
designed-as
- shown in Figure 504.4. The interchanges are more widely spaced and ramp
diverging branch connection leaves the main volumes are high, the need for an auxiliary lane
freeway lanes on a flatter angle than the between the interchanges should be determined
standard 2-lane ramp exit connection in accordance with Index 504.7.
shown in Figure 504.3B. The standard Auxiliary lanes may be used for the orientation
ramp exit connects to a local street. The of traffic at 2-lane ramps or branch connections
diverging branch connection connects to as illustrated on Figure 504.3C and Figure
another freeway and has a flatter angle that 504.4. The length and number of auxiliary
allows a higher departure speed. lanes in advance of 2-lane exits are based on
At a branch merge. an 800 m length of percentages of turning traffic and a weaving
auxiliary lane should be provided beyond analysis.
the merge of one lane of the inlet, exce~t Auxiliary lanes may be warranted when merging
where it does not appear that capacity on the an ascending entrance ramp with high truck
freeway will be reached until five or more volumes onto a mainline facility with a sustained
years after the 20 year design -period. In this upgrade. An auxiliary lane would allow
case the length of auxiliary lane should be a entrance ramp traffic to accelerate to a higher
minimum of 300 m. For diverging speed before merging with mainline. traffic, or
connections where less than capacity simply provide more opportunity to merge. See
conditions bevond the design year are Index 504.2 for specific requirements.
anticipated. the lencth of auxiliary lane in
advance of the exit should be 400 m. 504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at
(7) Lane Drops. The lane drop taper on a Interchanges
freeway-to-freeway connector should not be The basic number of mainline lanes should not
less than 213WV. be dropped throuvh a local service interchange.
The same standard should also be applied
(8)Metering. Any decision to meter freeway- to freeway-to-freeway interchanges where less
to-freeway connectors must be carefully than 35% of the traffic is turning (see Figure
considered as driver expectancy on these 504.4). Where more than 35% of the freeway
types of facilities is for high-speed traffic is turning, consideration may be given to
uninterrupted flow. If metering is antici- reducing the number of lanes. No decision to
pated on a connector, discussions with the reduce the number of lanes should be made
Headquarters Traffc Reviewer and Project without the approval of the District Traffic
Development Coordinator should take place Operations Unit. Additionally, adequate
as early as possible. Issues of particular structure clearance (both horizontal and vertical)
concern are adequate deceleration lengths to should be provided to accommodate future
the end of the queue, potential need to widen construction of the dropped lane if required.
shoulders if sight distance is restricted
July 1,1995
Where the reduction in traffic volumes is determining the adequacy of weaving sections
sufficient to warrant a decrease in the basic near single lane ramps. It is often referred to as
number of lanes, a preferred location for the the Level of Service (LOS) D method. This
lane drop is beyond the influence of an inter- method is also documented in Traffic Bulletin 4
change and preferably at least 1 krn from the which is available from the Traffic Operations
nearest exit or inlet nose. It is desirable to drop Program. The LOS D method can be used to
the right lane on tangent alignment with a project volumes along a weaving section. These
straight or sag profile so vehicles can merge left volumes can be compared to the capacities along
with good visibility to the pavement markings in the same weaving section. Volumes in
the merge area (see Index 20 1.7). passenger car equivalents per hour (PCEPH)
should be adjusted for freeway grade and truck
504.7 Weaving Sections volumes. Table 504.7C and Figures 504.7D
and E are reprinted from the 1965 HCM and
A weaving section is a length of one-way provide information regarding vehicle
roadway where vehicles are crossing paths, distribution by lane.
changing lanes, or merging with through traffic
as they enter or exit a freeway or collector- The results obtained form Figure 504.7A (the
distributor road. Leisch Method) for single-lane ramps with an
auxiliary lane and weaving rates exceeding 2500
A single weaving section has an inlet at the PCEPH should be checked using the LOS D
upstream end and an exit at the downstream method.
end. A multiple weaving section is character-
ized by more than one point of entry followed A method for analyzing multilane weaving
by one or more points of exit. sections has been developed by the Institute of
Transportation Studies, University of
A rough approximation for adequate length of a California, Berkeley. This methodology is
weaving section is 0.3 m of length per weaving similar to the Level of Service D approach and
@ vehicle per hour. This rate will approximately
provide a level of service C. Refer to the
PC compatible software is available to perform
the analysis. The District Traffic Operations
January 3 1, 1995 Design Information Bulletin unit should have copies of the software and
Number 77 on Interchange Spacing for have information on the applicability of the
additional weaving requirements. program.
There are various methods for analyzing Weaving capacity analyses other than those
weaving sections. Three methods which described above should not be used on
provide valid results are described below. California highways. Other methods, such as
The Leisch method, which is usually considered the one contained in the 1994 HCM, may not
the easiest to use, is illustrated in Figure always produce accurate results.
504.7A. This method was developed by Jack Weavin~sections in urban areas should be
Leisch & Associates and may be used to desiened for level of service C or D. Weaving
determine the length of weaving sections for sections in rural areas should be designed for
both freeways and collector-distributor roads. level of service B or C. Design rates for lane
The Leisch weaving charts determine the level balanced weavin~sections where at least one
of service for the weaving volumes for the ramD or connector will be two lanes should not
length of the weaving section from the first result in a level of service lower than the middle
panel on the lower left of the chart. The of level of service D us in^ Figure 504.7A. In
analysis is dependent on whether the section is determining acceptable hourly operating
balanced or unbalanced, as defined in Figure volumes, peak hour factors should be used.
504.7B. The level of service for the total
volume over aIl lanes of the weaving section is On main freeway lanes the weavin? len-h
then found from the panels on the right of the measured as shown in Figure 504.2A should
chart. The weaving - chart should not be not be less than 500 m except where excessive
e extrapolated.
Pages 234-238 of the 1965 Highway Capacity
cost or severe environmental~constraintswould
reauire consideration of a shorter length. 300 m
of l e n d should be added for each additional
Manual (HCM) provide a method for
July 1,1995
lane to be crossed by weaving vehicles. It from the junction to the intersection with the
should be noted that a weaving analysis must be crossroads.
considered over an entire freeway segment as Case 6 represents a slip ramp design. If the
weaving can be affected by other nearby ramps. ramp is perpendicular to the locdfrontage road
The District Traffic Operations Branch should refer to Case 3. In Case 6 if the crossroads is
be consulted for difficult weaving analysis near the ramp junction to the local road it is
problems. recommended that access control be acquired on
the opposite side of the local street from the
504.8 Access Control junction.
Access rights shall be acquired along
interchange ramps to their junction with
the nearest public road. At such iunctions,
f a
extend 30 m beyond the end of the curb return
or ramD radius in urban areas and 100 m in rural
areas. or as far as necessary to ensure that entry
onto the f a c d i i
L- Access control shall
extend at least 15 m beyond the end of
the curb return, ramp radius, or taper.
Typical examples of access control at
interchanges are shown in Figure 504.8. These
illustrations do not presume to cover all
situations or to indicate the most desirable
designs for all cases. Whenever there is access
control on both sides of a local street, the State
owns that R N and a maintenance agreement is
needed.
It is also desirable to obtain access control on
the opposite side of the local road from ramp
terminals to preclude the construction of future
driveways or local roads within the ramp
intersection. This access control would limit the
volume of traffic and the number of phases at
the intersection of the ramp and local facility,
thereby optimizing capacity and operation of the
ramp. Through a combination of access control
and the use of raised median islands along the
local facility, intersections should be located at
least 125 m from the ramp intersection. Right in
- right out access may be permitted beyond 60 m
from the ramp intersection. The length of
access control on both sides of the local facility
should match.
In Case 2 consider private ownership within the
loop only if access to the property is an adequate
distance from the ramp junction to preserve
operational integrity.
In Case 3 if the crossroads is near the ramp
junction at the local road it is recommended that
full access control be acquired on the local street
July 1,1995
Figure 504.7A
July 1.1995
Figure 504.78
Lane Configuration of Weaving Sections
4 f 4
N N m N 4- m 4 m N
July 1,1995
Table 504.7C
Percent of Throu h Traffic Remaining in Outer Through Lane
!Level of Service D Procedure)
APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OF THROUGHa TRAFFIC

REMAINING IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE IN
TOTAL VOLUME OF
THE VICINITY OF RAMP TERMINALS AT
THROUGH TRAFFIC,
LEVEL OF SERVICE D.
ONE DIRECTION (vpt~) 8- LANE^ 6-LANEC 4- LANE^
FREEWAY FREEWAY FREEWAY
6500 and over 10 - -
-
6000 6499 10 - -
-
5500 5999 10 - -
-
5000 5499 9 - -
-
4500 4999 9 18 -
-
4000 4499 8 14 -
3500 - 3999 8 10 -
3000 - 3499 8 6 40
2500 - 2999 8 6 35
2000 - 2499 8 6 30
1500 - 1999 8 6 25
Up to 1499 8 6 20
a. Traffic not involved in a ramp movement within 1200 m in either direction.

b. 4 lanes one way
c. 3 lanes one way
d. 2 lanes one way
July 1,1995
Figure 504.7D
Percentage Distribution of On- and Off-ramp Traffic
in Outer Through Lane and Auxiliary Lane
(Level of Service D Procedure)
CASE I - SINGLE - LANE ON- AND OFF-RAMPS WITHOUT AUXILIARY LANE
(THIS CHART MAY BE USED REGARDLESS O F ACTUAL SPACING BETWEEN
ON- AND OFF-RAMPS, BUT AS NOTED BELOW* CAUTION MUST BE
EXCERCISED IN USING THESE VALUES.
CASE I1 - SINGLE - LANE - ON- AND OFF-RAMPS WITH AUXILIARY WNE*"

(A) L = 3 0 0 m
EXAMPLE:
GNEN: L = 300 m
PORTION OF V, THROUGH
(FROM TABLE 504.7C = 475 VPH
ON-RAMP = 1.000 VPH
OFF-RAMP = 1 , 2 0 0 VPH
ON-RAMP TO OFF-RAMP = 0
FIND: V1 (voL. IN OUTHER THROUGH LANE) 8 150 m =
475 + (0.80)(1,000) +
(0.24)(1,200) =
1 , 5 6 3 VPH
(B) L = 450 m
(C) L = 6 0 0 m
(D) L = 750 m
(E) L = DO0 m
900 m 710 m 800 m 460 m 300 m I60 m 0
CIRCLED VALUES @ INDICATE PERCENTAGE OF ON-RAW TRAFFIC IN LANE SHOWN. UNCIRCLED VALUES INDICATE
PERCENTAGE OF OFF-RAMP TRAFFIC IN LANE SHOWN. (REMAINING PORTION OF TRAFFIC IS IN LANE(S) TO LEFT OF OUTER
THROUGH LANE.)
THESE PERCENTAGES ARE NOT NECESSARILY THE DISTRIBUTIONS UNDER FREE FLOW OR LIGHT R A W TRAFFIC. BUT
UNDER PRESSURE OF HIGH VOLUMES IN THE RIGHT LANES AT THE POINT BEING CONSIDERED AND WITH ROOM AVAILABLE IN
OTHER LANES.
* MINIMUM X IN RIGHT LANE CANNOT BE LESS THAN X OF THROUGH TRAFFIC IN RIGHT LANE AS DETERMINED FROM
TABLE 504.7C (SEE NOTE, FIG. 6047E).
** SEE FIGURE 504.2A FOR METHOD OF MEASURING LENGTH L (WEAVING LENGTH).
July 1, 1995
Figure 504.7E
Percentage of Ramp Traffic in the Outer Through Lane

(No Auxilia
Y
(Level of Service Procedure)
Lane) '8
EXAMPLE:
-
A NORMAL CAUXLATION B -CHECKCAKULATIONS
2 LANES ONE-WAY BECAUSE % IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT 450 M IS BELOW
"THROUGH TRAFFIC" = 2,400 VPH DASHED LINE, R E U E I L A T E ASSUMING ON-RAMP TRAFFIC IS
"ON-RAMP" = 800 VPH THROUGH TRAFFIC.
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT @
THROUGH (FROM TABLE 504.79 = 0.30 X 2,400 = 720
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT a
THROUGH (FROM TABLE 504.7C) 0.40 X 3,200 = 1,280
ON-RAMP (PROM CHART ABOVE) = 0.30 X 800 = 14a SINCE CALCULATION B (1.280) IS GREATER THAN
960 CALCULATION A (960) USE 1,280.
*THESE PERCENTAGES ARE NOT NECESSARILY THE DISTRIBUTIONS UNDER FREE PLOW OR LIGHT RAMP TRAFFIC,
BUT UNDER PRESSURE OF HIGH VOLUMES IN THE RIGHT LANES AT THE LOCATION BEING CONSIDERED AND WITH
AVAILABLE ROOM IN OTHER LANES.
N a IF RAMP PERCENTAGE IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT POINT UNDER CONSIDERATION IS BELOW DASHED
LINE, THEN AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE SHOULD BE RECALCULATED ASSUMING RAMP TRAFFIC IS
THROUGH TRAFFIC. USE HIGHER VALUE. SEE W L E ABOVE.
July 1,1995
Figure 504.8
Typical Examples of Access
Control at Interchanges
Limit of access control is minimum
15 m beyond end of ramp radius.
CASE 1 Minimum limit of access control

DIAMOND INTERCHANGE is end of pavement taper.
CASE 2
CROSS ROAD AT GRADE
PRIVATE OWNERSHIP IN LOOP
- Desirable
LEGEND
ACCESS CONTROL
CASE 3
LOCAL ROAD CONNECTION
July 1.1995
Figure 504.8 (cont.)

Typical Examples of Access
Control at Interchanges
Owned
CASE 4
TYPICAL PAR-CLO DESIGN
CASE 5
CROSS-ROAD WITH
STATE-OWNED LOOP I
L
----_--_---------- ----- -
LEGEND
P
ACCESS CONTROL
CASE 6
\ Desirable
IiI
ONE-WAY FRONTAGE ROAD
July 1,1995
tures in specific projects (during the design

CHAPTER 600 stage) must be submitted to the Ofice of Project
DESIGN OF THE PAVEMENT pl&ng and Design (OPPD) for apprival
before completing the final design phase of a
STRUCTURAL SECTION project.
Topic 601 General - Suggestions for research studies and changes in

design standards may also be submitted to
Considerations in Design of the OPPD for consideration, evaluation, and recom-
Pavement Structural section mendations by the Pavement Design and
Rehabilitation Committee (PDRC) which is
-
Index 601.1 Introduction
chaired by the Structural section -and Design
Standards Swialist in OPPD. The PDRC is a
Design of the pavement structural section is the multifunctio&il committee that includes repre-
determination of a combination of pavement, sentatives from various Corporate Headquarters
base, and subbase layers that is best suited to functional units and the Engineering Service
specific project conditions. In California, this Center (ESC), which in turn, receive input from
combination of materials placed in layers above their counterpart functional units in the Districts.
the top of the basement soil (the grading plane) The mission of the PDRC is to provide advice
is most often referred to as the "structural and recommendations on State highway system
section". The AASHTO "Guide for Design of pavement structural section design issues to
Pavement Structures" refers to it as the Caltrans Corporate Headquarters Management
"pavement structure". to ensure continued quality of pavement
Design of the structural section is not an exact structural section design, construction, rnainte-
nance and rehabilitation and coordinate their
science. The many variables involved make it decisions throughout Corporate Headquarters,
impossible to reduce the problem to exact the Districts and the ESC.
mathematical formulas based entirely on theory.
The design guidelines and standards included The Structural Section and Design Standards
herein are based on a wide range of information Specialist is also a member of the Research
including: theory; test track studies; experimen- Program Advisors Council and, as such, has
tal sections; research on materials, methods, and direct input on all research suggestions
equipment; and perhaps one of the most submitted to the Ofice of Research for
important of all, the observation of structural consideration by the Research and Development
section uerformance throughout the state and the Committee.
nation. he final s t r u c t d section design must The new edition of the Caltrans "Asphalt
be based on a thorough investigation of specific Concrete Overlay Design Manual", will be titled
project conditions including materials, environ- the "Pavement Rehabilitation Manual". This
mental conditions, projected traffic, lifecycle manual, which is presently being prepared by
economics, and on the performance of other like the Office of Materials Engineering and Testing
project structural sections under similar Services (METS), covers the prescribed
conditions in the same area. Caltrans design of AC overlavs for rehabilitation
Research and experimentation are continuing in of existing kphalt concrete pavement (ACP)
order to provide improved design methods and (utilizing a field deflection method that measures
standards which take advantage of state-of-the- deflection of the pavement surface under a
art materials and methods technology. Submit- concentrated wheel load) and portland cement
tal of new ideas by headquarters and district concrete pavement (PCCP). PCC pavement and
staff, especially those involved in the design, AC pavement rehabilitation strategies are also
construction, maintenance, and materials engi- discussed in this manual in Indexes 611.8 and
neering of the structural section is encouraged. 6 11.9 respectively.
Suggested research should be sent to the Office The design of both new AC structural sections
of Research, New Technology and Research and AC overlays using the deflection method are
@ Program in Sacramento. Suggestions for the
incorporation of experimental construction fea- also covered in the local agency manual entitled
"Flexible Pavement-Structural Section Design
July 1,1995
Guide for California Cities and Counties", 601.3 Basic Structural Elements of the
which was developed by METS. This Manual Roadway
is being updated b y ~ & T S and will include The various basic structural elements of the
design standards for PCC pavement that are roadway are shown diagrammatically in Figure
essentially the same as those shown in Topics 601.3. The characteristics and dimensions of
606 and 607 of this manual. the various types of pavements, surface
The AASHTO "Guide for Design of Pavement treatments, bases, and subbases normally used
Structures", although not adopted by Caltrans, are discussed and shown in subsequent texts
is a comprehensive reference guide that provides and figures respectively. Standard structural
background that is helpful to those involved in section drainage systems are diagrammed herein
design of pavement structural sections. This (Topic 606) and are detailed in the Standard
reference is on file in OPPD and a copy should plans. Specific materials requirements are
be available in each District. Design procedures described in the Standard Suecifications and
included in the AASHTO Guide are used by Standard Special Provisions (SSPS).
FHWA to check the adequacy of the specific
structural sections adopted for Caltrans projects,
as well as the procedures and standards included
-
Topic 602 Structural Section
in Chapter 600 of this manual. The AASHTO Design Procedures
Guide was developed by a team of nationally
recognlz.ed pavement design experts with 602.1 Information to be Submitted to
detailed input from several states, including the Office of Project Planning and
California. Design
The following are instructions for submittal of
601.2 Structural Section Design pavement structural section design information:
Objectives
( I ) Geotechnical Design Report or Materials
Structural sections, except for experimental Report. One copy of the Geotechnical
construction for research, are to be designed Design Report or Materials Report for all
using methods or standards described herein. projects must be sent to OPPD and to METS
This will assure adequate strength and durability by route slip prior to the submittal of the
to carry the predicted traffic loads for the design structural section designs.
life of each project. Alternative designs (flexible
and rigid) must be considered for each project, (2) District Approvals. One print of structural
as appropriate, per specific project conditions. section designs that have been approved by
the District Director must be sent to OPPD
Generally, the most economical design should with a letter of transmittal and a location
be selected based on the "life-cycle costs" which strip map. The letter must state the design
include initial cost, maintenance cost, and period, R-value(s) of the basement soil, the
anticipated rehabilitation costs during the se- R-vdue(s) selected for the structural
lected lifecycle period. The design choice may, section(s) design and the lane traffic index
however, be dictated by specific project condi- (TI) for each design. AU attachments larger
tions such as predicted uneven foundation than letter size should be folded to 2 16
settlements, highly expansive basement soils, mm x 280 mm. A copy should also be sent
groundwater, availability of materials, type of to METS for their files.
pavement on existing adjacent lanes or facilities,
traffic considerations, stage construction, size of (3) Nonstandard or "Special"Designs. Non-
project, or other factors. Since some of these standard designs or "special" designs to
conditions can be compensated for at increased satisfy unique project specific conditions or
cost, they become a factor in the lifecycle cost for research purposes must be fully justified
analysis. Topic 609 discusses the pavement and submitted to OPPD for approval. The
type selection and economic analysis procedures submittals must be in duplicate and include
in detail. the proposed structural section design(s) and
a location strip map. The letter of transmittal
should include the design period, the
ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT (ACP) PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT (PCCP)
(HALF-SECTION) (HALF-SECTION)
AC dike.
AC dike,
aa required
Shoulder as required
h Embanbmnt or Basement t k Embankment or Basement Soil 3

MULTILANE HIGHWAYS -
(P
3
(P
3
P
9,
3:
(P
31
0
9)
9.
Gradlng Plane or Subgrade Backing s
Backing
Embanhent or r e n t Soil A a
Notes: TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
1. Thew iiiuatratkruare onty to ahow nomenclature and am not to be u a d for geometrk c r o u rection details, .ee Chapter 300.
2. Stmtural -Ion drainage element8 whkh am mandatory for moat proJecta,both on multilane and two lane highways, are
illu8tratedand diwuued under Topks 606 and 607.
3. PCC shoulders are to be wed for ail PCCP new construction, however, AC .hwldera may be uaed when justified and approved
per Index 602.1(3).
4. ACP ia lypkal, howover, PCCP may be wed.
R-value(s) of the basement soil(s), the Caltrans' policy and guidelines on the use of
R-value(s) selected for the structural proprietary items are covered in the Office
section(s) design, the lane TI for each Engineer's Plans, Specifications and
structural section, and justification for the Estimate (PS&E) Guide under 'Trade
non-standard or special design(s). A copy Names." This policy is based on Public
must also be sent to METS for their review Contract Code, Division 2, Chapter 3,
and comments to OPPD. Article 5, Paragraph 3400. It is also
virtually coincident with FHWA policy
(4) Selection of Pavement Type. A life-cycle requirements. Basically the use of
costs analysis must be done for pavement proprietary materials, methods, or products
type selection on new construction projects will not be approved unless:
with TI 2 10.
(a) There is no other known material of
One complete copy of the documentation for equal or better quality that will perform
the type of pavement approved by the the same function, or
District Director must be submitted to
OPPD, to be filed for reference. The (b) There are overwhelming reasons for
submittal must contain the same information using the material or product in the
required in Index 602.1(2), District public's interest, which may or may not
Approvals, for both flexible and rigid include savings, or
structural section designs. In addition, it (c) It is essential for synchronization with
must include the data required by the existing highway or adjoining facilities,
instructions set forth under Topic 609 for or
selection of pavement type.
(d) Such use is on an experimental basis,
(5) Subsequent Revisions. Any subsequent with a clearly written plan for "follow-
changes in structural sections must be trans- up and evaluation."
mitted in accordance with the appropriate in-
structions stated above with proper reference In addition to the PS&E Guide
to the original. requirements, the FHWA requires that the
following information be documented when
(6)Proprietary Items. The use of new a proprietary item is specified in the design
materials, methods, or products may involve of a pavement structural section:
specifying a patented or brand name
method, material, or product. The use of (a) If it must be constructed on or
proprietary items is discouraged in the immediately adjacent to an existing
interest of promoting competitive bidding. facility: year the existing facility was
constructed and the original structural
The use of proprietary items requires section details,
approval by the Federal Highway Admini-
stration (FHWA) Division Office if Federal- (b) Traffic Data (ADT, Peak Hour Flow,
aid funds are involved in the project. Use of Truck Traffic AADT, TI),
proprietary materials can be approved for (c) Accident Data,
Caltrans by the Chief, Division of Structures (d) Construction cost of the project,
for those facilities designed by the Division
of Structures. Use in District designed (e) Name of FHWA representative who
facilities can be approved by the District reviewed the proposed project, and
Director or the District Division of Design (f) Tentative advertising schedule.
Chief if such approval authority has been
specifically delegated by the District The review and approval process is also
Director. Copies of d correspondence included in the PS&E Guide.
documenting consideration and approvals of If the proprietary item is to be used
the use of proprietary items must be experimentally and there is Federal
forwarded to OPPD to monitor conformance participation, the request for FHWA
to this policy. approval must be submitted to the Chief,
Value Analysis and Resource Conservation
July 1,1995
Branch in OPPD. The request must include This AASHO Road Test concept is applied in
a work plan which indicates specific the conversion of a mixed truck traffic stream of
functional managers and units which have different axle loads and axle configurations into
been assigned responsibility for objective a common denominator, the 80 kN ESAL. The
follow-up, evaluation, and documentation of truck stream, mix, and loads for the
the effectiveness of the proprietary item. project are converted to an equivalent number of
See Section 2-04 Scope of Work ("Con- 80 kN single axle loads for the design period.
struction-evaluated Research") of the Finally, this sum is converted to a Traffic Index
Construction Manual for further details on or TI which is used in the respective standard
the work plan and the approval procedure. section selection or design procedures for port-
land cement concrete pavement and for asphalt
Technical assistance is available from METS concrete pavements, as described in Topics 607
and OPPD to assist with designs that utilize and 608. Derivation of the TI is covered in
new materials, methods, and products. Index 603.4.
-
Topic 603 Traffic Data for
Unfortunately, for the purpose of pavement
structural section design, the development of
Structural Section Design truck traffic projections is not always a simple
straight line projection of available data. This is
603.1 Introduction especially true in areas where there are rapid
growth patterns and changing land use. Since
The primary goal of the design of the pavement the early 1970's, there has been a growing trend
structural section is to provide a structurally to allow local planning agencies a more
stable and durable pavement and base system influential role in the planning of the State
which, with a minimum of maintenance, will highways including the Interstate routes down
carry the projected M i c loading for the to the project level. This has been especially
designated design period. This topic discusses true where regional or local planning agencies
the factors to be considered and procedures to have developed or adopted models
be followed in developing a projection of truck (developed by others) which are used to project
traffic for design of the "pavement structure" or traffic growth.
the structural section for specific projects.
The Caltrans Planning staffs are nevertheless
Pavement structural sections are designed to responsible for developing traffic projections
carry the projected truck traffic considering the (including trucks) for the planning and design of
expanded truck traffic volume, mix,and the axle State highways. In urban areas, it is generally
loads converted to 80 kN equivalent single axle most appropriate to obtain mc projections
loads (ESAL's) expected to occur during the from traffic models. Model input data should be
design period. The effects on pavement life of in conformance with the adopted land use plan
passenger cars, pickups, and two-axle trucks and Department of Finance population forecasts.
are considered to be negligible. Traffic forecasts made by regional or local
Trafficinformation that is required for structural agencies may be used as thi basis of ESAL and
section design includes axle loads, axle subsequent TI determination if the District
configurations, and number of applications. Division Chief for Planning is satisfied that the
The results of the M H O Road Test traffic model used is adequate for the purpose,
(performed in the early 1960's in Illinois) have model &ta and factors are appropriate, and that
shown that the damaging effect of the passage the land use plan and population requirements
of an axle load can be represented by a number have been satisfied. On the other hand, where a
of 80 kN ESAL's. For example, one applica- project is on a new or upgraded route in a rural
tion of a 53 kN single axle load was found to setting, with low traff~cvolumes, the develop-
cause damage equal to an application of ment of projected traffic may be solely a straight
approximately 0.23 of an 80 kN single axle line projection of available 3aritc &ta taken
load, and four applications of a 53 kN single from the T&c Volumes and the Annual
axle were found to cause the same damage (or Average Daily Truck Traffic booklets developed
reduction in serviceability) as one application of by the Caltrans Traffic Operations Program.
an 80 kN single axle.
600-6 HIGHWAY DESI[GN MANUAL
July 1,1995
The Office of Transportation Analysis in the projections or expansion factors. The his-
Planning Program should be notified by the torical data that is most commonly used for
District Division Chief for Planning if there is a truck traffic volume and loading projections
significant difference between the traffic used to by Caltrans comes from two routine
determine ESAL's and the traflic forecast by the statistical data gathering studies which are
regional agency. carried out by the Districts, under -tion
of the Traffic Operations Program, on a
603.2 Design Period statewide basis. These are the Vehicle
New pavement structural sections must be Classification Program and the Truck
designed to carry the projected one-way truck Weight Studies.
traffic for a period of 20 years following its The first and most comprehensive of these
opening to traffic. When shorter design periods data sources is the Vehicle Classification
are proposed, they must be supported by Program. Classification counts are made at
documentation and submitted to OPPD for many stations throughout the State Highway
approval; see Index 602.1(3). System on a rotating basis to develop a
Because of the many independent variables statistical data base from which the Annual
involved,. the service life before major Average Daily Truck Traffic (AADTI')
maintenance or rehabilitation is required may information booklet is compiled for all
actually be considerably longer or shorter than routes. This booklet, which is published
the design period. With the emphasis that is annually for statewide use, provides AADT
now placed on the incorporation of positive for all vehicles; total truck A m , the truck
drainage into the pavement structural section, it AADT for 2,3,4, and 5 or more axles; and
is anticipated that the actual service life of the one way ESAL that would be generated
pavements will generally exceed the design life. by 50 percent of the two-way truck AADT
It is recognized, in the economic comparison of reported in a one year period. This
AC and PCC pavement structural sections (see information is identified by kilometer post at
Index 609.3), that ACP generally requires some selected count stations and is statistically
significant maintenance or rehabilitation at 10 to interpolated for selected points in between.
15 years of service while the PCCP will not The data obtained from the AAMT booklet
generally require any significant work until or may not be adequate to predict truck traffic
after the design period has transpired. for a specific project. Therefore, it is often
On AC facilities where it is anticipated that
necessary to take special counts on streets
widening will occur within the design life of the and highways at or near the project site. In
pavement and when feasible, the AC pavement addition, land use planning and other
layer may be incrementally constructed (stage pertinent information should be considered
construction). The ACP structural section must in estimating increases in truck volumes and
still be designed for 20 years of service (i.e.: masses during the design period, especially
20-year Traffic Index), however, the AC pave- where it is likely that there may be industrial
ment layer may be appropriately reduced in or commercial expansion.
thickness with the xdization that a new AC The second of the primary data sources is
surface layer will be placed concurrent with the the Truck Weight Study, which is done in
future widening. Use of the stage construction accordance with guidelines established by
strategy will be considered a "special" design the FHWA. This is a biennial program that
and will require approval by OPPD, see Index involves the weighing of trucks and
602.1(3). Also see Index 608.5 for shoulder recording of data at selected locations
design considerations if future roadway widen- throughout the state to develop a statistical
ing is potential. An economic analysis must representation of the magnitude of axle
also be performed to assist in project decisions. loadings on the four axle configurations (2,
3,4, and 5 or more) which are identified in
603.3 Truck Traffic Projection the Classified Truck Counts.
( I ) Mainline Trafic. Considerable judgment is OPPD uses this information to develop
required to develop realistic M i c volume ESAL Constants that represent the estimated
July 1,1995
@ total accumulated ESAL, for each of the four

axle configurations, during the design
Table 603.38
period. The current 10 and 20-Year ESAL Lane Distribution Factors
Constants are shown in Table 603.3A. for Multilane Roads
Table 603.3A Number of Factors to be Applied to Expanded
Lanes in One Average Daily Trucks
ESAL Constants Direction
l ~ a n e1 Lane 2 Lane 3 Lane 4
Vehicle Type 10-Year 20-Year
Constants Constants
2-axle trucks 690 1380 Three 0.2 0.8 0.8
3-axle trucks 1840 3680 Four 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.8
4-axle trucks 2940 5880 NOTES:
1. Lane 1 is next to the center line or median.
5-axle trucks or more 6890 13 780 2. For more than four lanes in one direction, use a
factor of 0.8 for the outer two lanes and any
The ESAL Constants are used as multipliers collector lanes and a factor of 0.2 for all other lanes.
of the expanded AAlYIT to determine the
total design period ESAL's and in turn the
Traffic Index (TI). The ESAL's and the Finally, an expansion factor is developed for
resulting TI are the same magnitude for both each axle classification. In its simplest
AC and PCC pavement design alternatives. form, the expansion is a straight-line
projection of the AADTT data. When using
The distribution of truck trac by lanes the straight-line projection the data is
must be considered in the structural section projected to find the AADTT at the middle of
design for all multilane facilities. It is the design period, thus representing the
readily apparent that the distribution by lanes average AADTT for each axle classification
varies widely depending on a number of for the design period. The expanded
factors including overall traffic volumes, AADTT, for each axle classification, is
number of lanes, location (urban or rural), multiplied by the appropriate lane
proximity of ramps to and from commercial distribution factor (fraction of the total
and industrial areas, etc. Truck traffic is AADTI) to arrive at the expanded AAIYIT
generally lightest in the median lanes with for the lane. The lane AAMT is multiplied
progressive increases toward the outside by the design period ESAL constant for each
lanes. At locations with closely spaced on- corresponding axle classification. Finally,
ramps and off-ramps, during heavy traffic the summation of these totals equals the total
periods the lane next to the outside lane be- one-way ESAL's for the lane which is
comes the heavy truck traffic lane. Also, converted into the TI for the lane.
unusual events such as accidents, slides,
slipouts, and maintenance and repair work When other than a straight-line projection of
create unpredictable shifts of traffic between available truck traffic data is used for design
lanes. In addition, future widening may purposes, the procedure to be followed in
create a permanent shift in lane distribution developing traffic projections will vary. It
during the design life of the pavement will be dependent on a coordinated effort of
structural section. Because of the the District's Planning and Traffic Divisions
uncertainties and the variability of lane dis- working closely with the Regional
tribution of trucks, arbitrary lane distribution Agencies.
factors have been established for design - -pur- (2) ShouZder Traflc. AC shoulders adjacent to
e poses as shown in Table 603.3B. the outer lane (with either AC or PCC
pavements on the mainline) are designed for
the TI determined from 2% of the ESAL of
July 1,1995
the outer lane, however, a TI less than 5.0 the inner edge of the required widening, see
should not be used. The design of inner 504.3(1)(b).
shoulders is covered under Index 603.3(5) (4) Auxiliary Lane Trafic. Because of struc-
and Index 608.5. When PCC pavement and tural section drainage considerations, the
shoulders are used, the design is a standard auxiliary lane structural section should have
structural section as covered in Topic 607. the same thickness for the pavement, base,
(3) Ramp Trafic. Estimating future truck and subbase layers as those specified for the
traffic on ramps is more difficult than on adjoining outer lane of the traveled way.
through traffic lanes. The relative effect of (5) Median Shoulder Trafic. Paved medians
commercial and industrial development of an are subject to occasional use by maintenance
area is much greater on ramp truck traffic trucks and other heavy maintenance
than it is on mainline truck traffic. vehicles. Occasionally, disabled heavy
Ramp traffic is relatively more destructive to commercial vehicles or emergency vehicles
pavement than through traffic because of the may use the median. Generally, medians
greater amount of acceleration and de- less than 3.6 m in width on all paved 4-lane
celeration that occurs. The sharper cross sections are constructed with the same
curvature and steeper grades normally structural section as the median traveled way
encountered on ramps also contribute to the lane. Median shoulders on 4-lane divided
increased destructive effect of traffic. highways are arbitrarily paved with 60 mm
of AC over a variable AB thickness.
Repair of the structural section elements of
ramps usually requires more complex traffic When there is a potential for restriping to
control procedures, especially in urban add a lane or lanes to carry mainline or high
areas. In order to minimize the potential occupancy vehicle traffic, an estimate of
congestion, tr&c delay, highway workers traffic should be made. This and other
exposure to traffic, and out-of-the-way pertinent factors should be considered in
travel, ramps especially in urban or determining the structural section under the
industrial areas should be designed for a median shoulder.
higher TI than that determined from a
projected ramp AADTI'. 603.4 Traffic Index
As an alternative to estimating and projecting The Traffic Index or TI is a measure of the
an AADTI' to determine the ramp TI, ramps number of ESAL's expected in the design lane
may be classified and designed as follows: over the design period. The TI does not vary
directly with the ESAL's but rather according to
(a) Light Traffic Ramps - Ramps serving the following exponential formula and as
undeveloped and residential areas should be illustrated in Table 603.4A.
designed for a TI of 8.0.
(b) Medium Traffic Ramps - Ramps in
metropolitan areas, business districts, or Where:
where increased truck traffic is quite likely
to develop because of anticipated TI = Traffic Index
commercial development within the design ESAL= Equivalent 80 kN Single Axle Loads
period should be designed for a TI of 10.0.
Table 603.4B illustrates the determination of the
(c) Heavy Traffic Ramps - Ramps that serve TI for outside and median lanes of an 8-lane
weigh stations, industrial areas, truck freeway. The expanded AAIYIT and the TI'S
terminals, andlor maritime shipping facilities shown in Table 603.4B are taken from the
during the design period should be designed flexible pavement design example (described in
for a TI of 12.0. Index 608.4) and are not intended to be used in
When ramps are widened to handle truck the design for a specific project.
off-tracking, the full structural section,
based on the ramp TI, should be extended to
July 1,1995
Table 603.4A
Conversion of ESAL to Traffic lndex
ESAL TI* ESAL TI*
23 500 13 500000
6.0 12.5
47 300 18 900000
6.5 13.0
89 800 26 100 000
7.0 13.5
164 000 35 600 000
7.5 14.0
288 000 48 100 000
8.0 14.5
487 000 64300000
8.5 15.0
798 000 84 700 000
9.0 15.5
1 270 000 112000000
*NOTE:
The determination of the TI closer than 0.5 is not justified. No interpolations should be made.
Table 603.48
Example Determination of the 20 Year Traffic lndex
for an 8-lane Freeway
Outside Lanes Median Lanes
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Vehicle Type ESAL 20 Year Expanded Total 20 Year Expanded Total 20 Year
Constants Average Daily ESAL Average Daily ESAL
Trucks (C01.2 x Co1.3) Trucks (C01.2 x Co1.5)
2-axle trucks 1380 935 1 290 300 235 324 300
3-axle trucks 3680 550 2 024 000 140 515 200
4-axle trucks 5880 225 1 323 000 55 323 400
5-axle or more 13 780 1025 14 124 500 255 3 513 900
Totals ---- ---- 18 761 800 ---- 4 676 800
Traffic Index (TI) for 20 Year Design, From Table 603.4A = 12.5
July 1,1995
Topic 604 - Basement Soils which the seasonal moisture content will
remain nearly constant, or
604.1 Introduction (c) Providing an overlaying structural sec-
The resistance value (R-value) is a parameter tion of sufficient thickness to counteract
representing the resistance to deformation of a the expansion pressure by dead-load
saturated soil under compression at a given pressure (surcharging), or
density. The R-value is measured with the (d) Using two-stage construction by placing
stabilometer, and is used in the design of a thin structural section to permit the un-
flexible and rigid pavements. It is an indication derlying material to expand and stabilize
of the ability of the soil to carry the dead load of before placing leveling and surface
the structural section and the superimposed courses, or
traffic live load. (e) Stabilizing the moisture content by mini-
Almost all compacted soils have a tendency to mizing the access of water through
expand when given access to water. As soils surface and subsurface drainage and the
expand and take on water, the load supporting use of a waterproof membrane (i.e.,
ability decreases, as indicated in laboratory tests geotextile fabrics or rubberized asphalt
by a decreasing R-value. Thus, a prescribed membrane), or
expansion pressure apparatus is used to verify (f) Relocating the project alignment to a
the basement soil R-value as needed for both more favorable soil condition.
flexible pavement and for portland cement
concrete pavement (PCCP). Treatments (a), (b), (c), and (d) should be used
The amount of expansion created by increased with caution since undesirable soil expansion
has occurred on some projects where these
moisture content and the consequent loss of methods were used. Treatment (e) is considered
density is limited by the overlying dead load of to be the most effective approach if relocation is
the structural section materials placed over the not feasible. METS will assist, upon request, to
soil. When the loading pressure of the select the most appropriate method of treating
overlying material and the expansive forces expansive soils for individual projects.
within the soil become equal, the expansion is
halted and no further loss of R-value occurs. If the soil is non-expansive, the R-value for
Then the soil is in the most unstable state it will design is based on the presumption that the soil
reach with the given dead load pressure of the will become saturated at some time during its
overlying structural section layers. Under these service life. This procedure indicates the lowest
conditions, the structural section design thick- strength condition that will most likely occur
ness and strength must be sufficient to protect during this period. The use of positive
the soil in question from differential deformation subgrade and structural section drainage
or displacement from the trac live loads. In systems will minimize the duration of a satu-
addition, the thickness of cover, provided by the rated lowest-strength condition. A positive
structural section, must apply adequate deadload structural section drainage system, as covered in
pressure to prevent further expansion which Indexes 606.2 and 606.3, will serve to
would result in decreased stability. minimize water-related structural section
If the soil is identified as potentially expansive, damage.
special design and construction considerations 604.2 Determination of Design R-Value
should be given. Design alternatives which
have been used to compensate for expansive R-values of soils to be encountered on a project
soils are: are provided in the Materials Report.
(a) Treating expansive soil with lime or Considerable variation in these values within
other additives to reduce expansion in project limits is quite common. Since a design
the presence of moisture, or R-value must be chosen for design of the
structural section, it is important to know the
(b) Replacing the expansive material with a extent of material represented by the various R-
non-expansive material to a depth below value tests.
July 1. 1995
@ Since a wide variation of materials types and

deposits found within project limits are quite
in increased construction costs that exceed
potential materials cost savings.
common, it is not practical to establish hard and
fast rules for selecting a design R-value. 604.3 Borrow
Increased emphasis on the provision of positive Local or imported borrow is used to make up
structural section drainage, as discussed in for deficiencies in available quantities of
Topic 606, allows a more liberal approach (than excavation material to construct embankments.
in the past) to the selection of design R-values. The R-value of the excavated material on the
Judgment based on experience should still be project is generally specified as the minimum for
exercised to assure a reasonably "balanced the borrow. When borrow material of this
design" which will avoid excessive costs quality is not economically available or when all
resulting from over conservatism. Examples of the earthwork consists of borrow, the R-
from the past should be used only as indicators value specified for the borrow becomes the
of potentially good or bad practice. design R-value. Since no minimum R-value is
If the range of R-value is small or if most of the required by the Standard Specifications for local
values are in a narrow range with some scattered borrow, a minimum must be specified by
higher values, the lowest R-value should be Special Provision (SP) to cover material placed
selected for the structural section design. The within 1.2 m of the finished grade.
lowest R-value should not, however, 604.4 Compaction
necessarily govern the structural section design The Standard Specifications require 95 percent
throughout the length of long projects. If there relative compaction of untreated bases, sub-
are a few exceptionally low R-values and they bases, and earthwork for a minimum depth of
represent a relatively small volume of basement 200 rnm below the grading plane. This require-
soil or they are concentrated in a small area, it ment should not be modified by special
may be possible to specify placing this material provision.
in the bottom of an embankment or in the slope
area outside the structural section limits. In addition, the Standard Specifications require
Occasionally lime treatment of a short length not less than 95 percent relative compaction be
may be cost effective. obtained for a minimum depth of 800 mm below
Experimental test section performance indicates finished grade for the width of the traveled way
that the use of geotextiles (engineering fabrics) and auxiliary lanes plus 1 m on each side. This
may allow the designer to select a higher R- specification is sometimes waived by SP, with
value for structural section design where OPPD approval, when such action is justified in
basement soils are variable and areas of isolated accordance with Index 602.1(3). Acceptable
low R-value materials (5 20) are difficult to reasons for a waiver are:
locate. The placement of geotextiles below the (a) A portion of a local road is being replaced
structural section will provide subgrade with a stronger structural section, or
enhancement by bridging soft areas and (b) Partial-depth reconstruction is specified,
providing a separation between soft pumpable or
subgrade fines and high quality subbase or base
materials. The Pavement Consulting Services (c) Existing buried utilities would have to be
Branch of METS can assist in the selection and moved, or
use of geotextiles for this application.
(d) Interim widening projects are required on
Where changing geological formations and soil low volume-roads, intersection channel-
types are encountered along the length of a ization~,or frontage roads.
project, it may be cost-effective to design more In addition to the submittal instructions referred
than one structural section to accommodate to above, the location(s) where the SP applies
major differences in R-value that extend over a should be shown on the typical cross section(s).
considerable length. Care should be exercised, The 800 mm depth of compaction should not be
however, to avoid multiple variations in the waived for the traveled way or auxiliary lanes of
@ structural section design that may actually result State highways, freeways, or for freeway
ramps.
July 1,1995
Topic 605 - Subbases and express the relative value of various materials
when compared to gravel. It is important to
Bases note that the various materials must meet the
specified quality requirements, such as grading,
605.1 Introduction to ensure the validity of the assigned gravel
The characteristics of various subbases and factor. Gravel factors for the various types of
bases that may be used in structural sections are base materials are provided in Table 605.1.
discussed in the following text. Generally, Since pavement design is a continually evolving
these subbases and bases may be used in field, the following text is not intended to rule
various combinations to design the most out new materials or procedures which may be
economical structural section for the specific developed. The METS may be contacted for the
project. Standard structural sections are used latest in subbase and base materials and related
for portland cement concrete pavement (PCCP) design considerations.
with optional base and subbase combinations.
Because different types of treated and untreated 605.2 Aggregate Subbase (AS)
aggregates have different capacities for resisting Aggregate subbase (AS) is normally specified as
the forces imposed by traffic, this factor must be the lowest element of any structural section
considered when determining the thickness of because it generally results in the most
the structural section elements. This is economical design. It may consist of more than
accomplished with gravel factors (Gf) which one layer. Whenever the basement soil has an
Table 605.1
Subbases and Bases
Type of ater rial' Abbreviation Gravel Factor (GP) Design R-Value
Aggregate Subbase AS-Class 1 1 .O 60
AS-Class 2 1 .O 50
AS-Class 3 1 .O 40
AS-Class 4 1 .O specify
AS-Class 5 1 .O specify
Aggregate Base AB-Class 2 1.1 78
AB-Class 3 1.12 specify
Asphalt Treated ATPB 1.4 NA
Permeable Base
Cement Treated Base CTB-Class A 1.7 NA
CTB-Class B 1.2 80
Cement Treated CTPB 1.7 NA
Permeable Base
Lean Concrete Base LCB 1.9 NA
Lime Treated Subbase LTS 0.9 +- UCS NA
6.9
Notes: Legend:
1 .For Asphalt Concrete Base (ACB), see Index 605.7. NA = Not Applicable
2.Must conform to the quality requirements of AB-Class 2. UCS = Unconfined Compressive Strength in MPa
July 1, 1995
R-value of 40 or more or whenever the normal Class A CTB is used directly under AC
design process results in a thin layer of subbase, to provide added strength under heavy
consideration should be given to eliminating the truck ar3ftc or placed directly below a
subbase layer and designing a thicker base. The TPB .
decision is generally based on the lowest initial (b) Class B CTB consists of aggregate with
cost, since both designs should be structurally an R-value of not less than 60 which
equal. is mixed with cement in an amount
Whenever a blanket of permeable material is sufficient to raise the R-value to not less
required under the full width of the structural than 80.
section to handle subsurface water, the Either Class A or Class 3 CTB may be used
permeable layer is considered as subbase in the with asphalt concrete pavements to increase its
design calculations. load carrying capacity and durability. Due to the
slab strength of Class A and the high stability of
605.3 Aggregate Bases (AB) Class B, use of either is often the most
Untreated aggregate bases may be used under economical choice over aggregate bases because
AC pavement when economical. When an less base thickness is required.
untreited aggregate base is proposed for use CTB can be plant-mixed or road-mixed. Plant
with AC pavement, its use in lieu of a treated mixing is preferred, but road-mixing is permit-
permeable base (TPB) must be justified in ted when quantities are too small to make plant-
accordance with Index 606.2(3). It can be used mixing cost effective. Road-mixing should be
below the TPB layer but its surface should be justified in the Geotechnical Design Report or
stabilized with an asphalt prime coat. Materials Report, as applicable.
605.4 Stabilized Bases and Subbases Where cohesionless sand is used as subbase
Asphalt, portland cement, a combination of under a cement-treated base, it is necessary to
0 portland cement and pozzolanic materials, lime,
and other cementing or stabilizing agents can be
provide a "working table" of aggregate subbase,
aggregate base or cement treated base aggregate.
combined with selected aggregate or soils or This "working table" normally will be from
with native materials to improve their stability 75 m m to 105 mrn thick to provide for the
and strength as load carrying elements of the proper construction of the cement-treated base.
structural section. The use of such materials The "working table" is considered as a subbase
depends on a number of variables including material in the design.
relative cost and availability of materials, native
material types, environmental conditions, traffic 605.6 Lean Concrete Base (LCB)
projections, and established standards and Lean concrete base (LCB) was developed to
practices. provide a more rigid, less erodible base than the
Asphalt or cement may be used to improve low- traditional Class A CTB for use under PCCP.
quality aggregates for use as base or subbase The use of LCB reduces the effect of pumping
material. action and resultant step-faulting in PCCP.
The type and amount of stabilizing agent should LCB is a concrete mixture of aggregate mixed
be developed from tests of available materials with about one-half the cement content of
and then cost comparisons made against conventional concrete.
untreated specification aggregates. The advantages of LCB as compared to CTB
include:
605.5 Cement Treated Bases (CTB)
(a) LCB has greater long term strength than
Cement treated base (CTB) is generally used CTB,
only with asphalt pavements and is specified in (b) The same slipform paving equipment
two classes described as follows: used for placement of PCCP may be
e (a) Class A CTB consists of aggregate
mixed with sufficient cement to produce
a base with considerable slab strength.
used to place the LCB,
(c) LCB may be placed to more accurate 605.9 Lime Treated Subbase (LTS)
grade tolerances, and Some soils, when treated with lime, will form
(d) Most important, the LCB surface is cementitious compounds resulting in a relatively
harder and is less subject to the erosion high strength material. When this cementing
that contributes to step-faulting created results in an unconfined compressive strength
by pumping action of k c k trafk on the (USC) of 2.75 MPa or greater, as determined
PCCP. by California Test 373, it can provide a
605.7 Asphalt Concrete Base (ACB)
satisfactory, economical substitute for AS. On
light duty roads a lime treated soil may also
Although frequently referred to as a separate provide a satisfactory base layer.
item, asphalt concrete base (ACB) is a plant- The gravel factor for LTS is calculated from the
mixed dense-graded asphalt concrete that is UCS of the treated soil measured in MPa using
similar to that used for the surface course, the formula:
except that a coarser aggregate grading may be
specified for added stability. ACB is designated
as Type A or Type B, depending on the quality
of the aggregate. Type A is primarily a crushed
aggregate, which provides greater stability than
Type B. -
Topic 606 Drainage of the
When used with portland cement concrete Pavement Structural Section
pavement, the ACB is to be placed in the
thicknesses shown in Table 607.2. 606.1 Introduction
When used with asphalt concrete pavement Premature distress in both flexible and rigid
(ACP), the ACB is to be considered as part of pavements is generally caused by exposure to
the pavement layer. The ACB will be assigned heavy truck traffic when the pavement structural
the same Gfas the remainder of the AC in the section is in a saturated condition. Saturation of
structural section. the structural section or underlying foundation
materials or both generally results in a decrease
605.8 Treated Permeable Bases (TPB) in strength or ability to support heavy truck axle
loads. Potential problems associated with
Treated permeable bases (TPB) are mixtures of saturation of the structural section and the
high quality coarsely graded crushed aggregate subgrade foundation include pumping action,
and a binder material. The binder material may differential expansion (swelling) of subgrade
be either asphalt or portland cement. The deci- soils, frost damage in freeze-thaw areas, erosion
sion to use either asphalt treated permeable base and piping of fine materials creating voids
(ATPB) or cement treated permeable base which result in the loss of subgrade support,
(CTPB) is based primarily upon economic icing of pavement surface from upward
considerations and materials availability. The seepage, stripping of asphalt concrete
option chosen is generally the PE's decision for aggregates, and accelerated oxidation of asphalt
ACP. When PCCP is used, the option (cement binder. Rapid removal of water from the
or asphalt treated) will be the contractors at the structural section is essential and is generally
time of bid based upon construction economics dependent on the inclusion of a positive
and materials availability. drainage system.
TPB provides a highly permeable drainage layer
within the structural section. The permeable 606.2 Flexible Pavement Structural
base extends laterally from 0.3 m outside the Section Drainage
edge of pavement on the high side to the outside ( I ) General Background. Water can enter into
edge of the collector trench on the low side of flexible pavement as surface water through
the structural section, see Figure 606.2A. The cracks, joints, and asphalt concrete
TPB layer is an integral part of the structural infiltration and as groundwater from an
section and provides all or part of the strength intercepted aquifer, a high water table or a
function normally required of the base layer. localized spring. The saturation of, or the
July 1,1995
Figure 606.2A
Typical AC Section with TPB

Drainage Layer
80 mm Plastic Pipe
I 4
1.5 m
-- 7.2 m
-- -- 2.4 m
Shoulder
e (Unslotted)
Shoulder Traveled Way Outlets 8 60 m f
Filter Fabric
On high side on tangentL
and on superelevation on curves
A B \ See Detail A
NOTES: 1. Section shown is a half-section of a divided highway. An edge drain

collector and outlet system should be provided on both sides of 2-way
crowned section.
2. This figure is only intended to show typical pavement structural section
details, for geometric cross section details, see Chapter 300.
Traveled Way , Shoulder
L-AB I I
Filter Fabric
I I '80 mm Plastic Pipe (Slotted)
side of Tengents
LOW
Detail A and Superelevations
July 1,1995
Figure 606.2B
Cross Drain lnterceptor Trenches
Trench
B
prnb 0- I Cross Drain InterceptorTrench at
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*
m Normal to Center Line of Roadway
dc.:::.ACPorPCCP: . . . . . . . :
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I.
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. I .
oOo 0 ' 0 0 . . . . . . . .. . . .
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . ....
O a a aaTPBoaa . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......
Q a , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . ....
, . .
a a 0
0.15 m
Filter Fabric 1
Intermediate Cross Drain
(Longitudinal Section)
End of TPB
i 0.15 m Minimum
. . . . . . . . . . .
Terminal Cross Drain

July 1,1995
0 presence of, water in the pavement structural

section decreases the supporting strength, or
(b) A collector system.
(c) Outlets, vents, and cleanouts.
load-carrying capacity, of succeeding un-
treated layers underlying the AC. This (3) Drainage Layer. A drainage layer consisting
results in increased deflection under heavy of either 75 rnm of asphalt treated permeable
wheel-loads, thereby leading to structural base (ATPB) or 105 mm of cement treated
cracking and a pumping action which permeable base (CTPB) should be placed
accelerates the fatigue failure of AC. immediately below the AC pavement for
interception of surface water that enters the
Both sources of water should be considered structural section. Exceptions, such as for
and provisions should be made to handle areas where mean annual rainfall is very low
both. Estimated surface water inflow added (c 125 mm) or where the basement soil is
to estimated groundwater inflow equals the free draining (a permeability 2 3.53 x
total inflow to be removed by positive 104m/s) must be justified in the structural
drainage systems. The structural section section submittal (See Index 602.1). The
drainage system, which is designed to drainage layer is extended laterally from 0.3
handle surface water inflow, is generally m outside the edge of traveled way on the
separate from the subsurface drainage high side to the edge of the collector trench
system that is designed to accommodate on the low side. A typical AC section with a
encroaching groundwater. The estimated treated permeable base (TPB) is shown in
groundwater inflow can be determined by a Figure 606.2A.
combination of field investigations.
analytical techniques and graphical methods: When there is concern that the infiltrating
"Subsurface Drainage" is discussed in surface water may saturate and soften the
Chapter 840. An analytical method to underlying subbase or subgrade (due either
estimate surface water inflow is discussed in to exposure during construction operations
0 Index 606.2(3). or under service conditions) a prime coat or
other suitable membrane should be utilized.
The Geotechnical Design Report or It should be applied to the base, subbase, or
Materials Report for a project will provide subgrade on which the TPB layer is placed
pertinent information and recommendations to prevent erosion of the underlying
regarding both groundwater and surface material.
water as appropriate. The District Materials
Engineer and METS Pavement Consulting Either of the standard ATPB or CTPB layers
Services Branch may be contacted for (75 mm and 105 rnrn respectively) will
assistance in developing appropriate features generally provide greater drainage capacity
in the plans and specifications to address the than is needed under AC pavements. The
problem of water in the structural section. standard thicknesses are based primarily on
The remainder of this index relates to the constructability with an added allowance to
flexible pavement structural section drainage compensate for construction tolerances.
system that is required to drain surface water Under a unique combination of conditions,
that enters the structural section. such as where the infiltration rate exceeds
(2) Drainage Components and Related Design 15 mm/h and the pavement is very wide
Considerations. Rapid drainage of a (4 lanes or more on a single cross slope),
pavement structural section is essential to the following procedures may be used to
minimize the length of time the structural determine the necessary layer thickness. If
section is saturated. This can best be material other than ATPB or CTPB with a
achieved by placing a highly permeable different permeability is used under such
drainage layer system under the full width of conditions, it is necessary to check the
the pavement surface during initial adequacy of the layer thickness.
construction. The basic components of a The estimated quantity of surface water that
a flexible pavement structural section drainage
system are:
will penetrate the AC pavement (Q in m3/s/m
of roadway) may be determined by the
equation:
(a) A highly permeable drainage layer.
Where:
Where: k =the permeability of the material used in
the drainage layer, in meter per second
W =width, in meters, of the drainage (0.0529 mls for ATPB, and 0.014 m/s
layer measured normal to the center for CTPB), and
line, and
s = the pavement cross slope, in meter per
I =the infiltration rate, in millimeters per meter.
hour.
First, 25 mm is added to the calculated
In Table 606.2 are "design rates" permeable layer thickness to compensate for
for each District, which may be used in the possible contamination during construction
event other than the standard 75 mm ATPB and to allow for construction tolerances,
layer or the 105 mm CTPB layer is used. then the total thickness is determined by
rounding up to the nearest 15 mm.
Table 606.2 (4) Collector System. A 80 mm slotted plastic
pipe should be installed in a longitudinal
Design Infiltration Rate collector trench as shown in Figure 606.2A.
In areas where the profile grade is equal to
I I (mmlh) to be used in:
District I or greater than 4%, intermediate cross drain
interceptors, as shown in Figure 606.2B
should be provided at an approximate
1 8 spacing of 150 m. This will limit the
longitudinal seepage distance in the drainage
2 8 for ~ o d o County
c use 5 layer, thereby minimizing the drainage time
3 5 for Rte 49 and east use 8 and preventing the buildup of a hydrostatic
4 10 head under the AC surface layer. Cross
5 8 drain interceptor trenches must be sloped to
6 8 drain.
7 8 In addition, a cross drain must be provided
8 10 at the low-end terminal of TPB projects, as
9 5 shown in Figure 606.2B. Care should be
10 5 for Rte 49 and east use 8 taken to coordinate the cross drains with the
11 8 longitudinal structural section drainage
12 8 system. Drainage layers in roadway inter-
Note: These values were developed for each District using sections and interchanges may require
the average mean annual rainfall and the average Mean additional collector trenches, pipes, and
One-hour Storm (taken from California Department of outlets to assure rapid drainage of the
Water Resources Bulletin 195, dated October 1976). structural section.
A standard longitudinal collector trench
If local rainfall data is available for the width of 0.3 m has been adopted for new
project site the following equation may be construction to accommodate compaction
used to determine the infiltration rate, "I" : and consolidation of the Treated Permeable
Material (TPM) alongside and above the
I = (0.33)(design hourly rainfall intensity) 80 rnm slotted plastic pipe. The TPM type
The required thickness, t (in rnrn), of the (cement or asphalt treated) for use in the
drainage layer may be calculated using the collector trenches will be at the contractors
equation: option.
Filter fabric should be placed as shown in
t = lOOOQ Figures 606.2A and 606.2B, to provide
ks
protection against clogging of the TPM by
intrusion of fines.
July 1,1995
0 On curvilinear alignments, superelevation of

the roadway may create depressions at the
pavement, a bridge approach slab, a sleeper
slab, a pavement end anchor, or a pressure
low side of pavement where the collected relief joint. In any of these cases, a cross
water can not be drained away. An drain interceptor should be provided.
adjustment to the profile grade may be Details of cross drain interceptors at various
necessary to eliminate these depressions. locations are shown in Figure 606.3. The
When a superelevation cross slope begins to cross drain outlets should be tied into the
drain the water through the TPB to the low longitudinal edge drain collector and outlet
side of pavement, the edge drain at the high system with provision of maintenance
side of superelevation is no longer required. access for cleaning.
Conversely, as the superelevation transition (7) Structural Section Design Considerations.
returns to the normal roadway cross slope, The normal flexible pavement design proce-
the standard edge drain should begin to dure, as covered under Index 608.4, is fol-
collect water flowing back to the original lowed to develop AC pavement structural
low side of pavement. sections which incorporate a drainage layer
(5) Outlet Pipes. Plastic pipe (unslotted) outlets to accommodate surface infiltration. A
should be provided at proper intervals for gravel factor (Gf) of 1.4 is used for ATPB
the pavement structural section drainage with a standard thickness of 75 mm. A
system to be free-draining. The spacing of standard thickness of 105 mrn is used for
outlets (including vents and cleanouts) CTPB with a Gf of 1.7. Because of their
should be limited to approximately 60 m. relative rigidity, no R-value is assigned to
The trench for the outlet pipe must be either ATPB or CTPB and the design is
backfilled with material of low permeability, handled in the same manner as described for
or provided with a cut-off waU or Class A CTB in the structural section design
diaphragm, to prevent piping. procedure, see Index 608.4(6).
The outlets must be daylighted, connected to 606.3 Rigid Pavement Structural
culverts or drainage structures, or dis- Section Drainage
charged into gutters or drainage ditches.
The area under the exposed end of a (1) General Background. The lack of adequate
daylighted outlet should have a splash block structural section drainage for concrete
or be paved to prevent erosion and the pavement has become increasingly evident.
growth of vegetation which will impede Extensive research of concrete pavement
flows from the outlet. Ready access to performance, both in the field and in the
outlets, and the provision of intervening laboratory, has revealed that the primary
cleanouts when outlet spacing exceeds a cause of deterioration is the trapping and
maximum distance of 75 m, should be retention of surface water inflow, in a
provided to facilitate cleaning of the "choker" or "bathtub" type section, coupled
structural section drainage system. Typical with exposure to heavy truck axle loading.
details are shown on the Standard Plans for This combination creates the potential for
Edge Drain Outlet and Vent Details. severe pavement damage, especially in
heavily traveled truck lanes. Heavy trucks
The end of each outlet pipe should be depress the edges of curled slabs at the
indicated by an appropriate marker to facili- transverse joints. When the structural
tate location and identification for mainte- section is saturated, the resultant pumping
nance pwposes and to reduce the likelihood action results in the erosion of the cement
of damage by vehicles and equipment. treated base (CTB) or aggregate subbase
Consult the District Division of Maintenance (AS), which were specified for the
for the preferred method of identification. construction of concrete pavement in
(6) Cross Dmin Interceptors. When using California from about 1950 to the late
e TPB, special attention should be given to
drainage details wherever water flowing in
1970's. In addition, the pumping action
along the outer edge of the pavement has
resulted in the erosion and movement of fine
the TPB encounters impermeable abutting
July 1.1995
materials from the existing aggregate base

under the adjoining shoulders. The fine ma-
fine materials from the adjoining untreated
base or subbase.
@
terials from -both sources are transported by
pumping action and deposited under the Figures 607.2A and 607.2B show typical
trailing edge of the pavement slabs, resulting edge drain collector system details when ei-
in step faulting, uneven slab support, and ther of the treated permeable bases (ATPB
slab rocking and cracking. Failure of the or CTPB) or either of the dense bases (LCB
inner edge of the shoulder also results from or ACB) are used.
loss of aggregate base support. When a dense base is used, the edge drain
(2) Current Base Standardr. In an effort to system should extend continuously along
provide positive drainage and minimize base the outside edge of the truck lane and along
erosion and resultant slab faulting, edge the median lane edge when the median lane
drains and lean concrete base were adopted is on the low side of the superelevation, if
as standards for new construction in 1980. positive drainage can be obtained. When a
The current concrete pavement design treated permeable base is used, the edge
standards (adopted in 1982), include a drain at the high side of superelevation may
structural section drainage system. As be discontinued as described in Index
shown in Table 607.2, the following four 606.2(4).
options are available to be used as bases in A 80 mm slotted plastic pipe with 3 rows of
PCCP structural sections: slots is the standard for edge drain systems.
(a) Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB) Desirable spacing of cleanouts or outlets is
60 m + to accommodate cleaning. Longer
(b) Cement Treated Permeable Base (CTPB). runs between cleanouts or outlets signifi-
(c) Lean Concrete Base (LCB) cantly increase the required maintenance
effort.
(d) Asphalt Concrete Base (ACB) Edge drain cross section details for all PCC
Because of their excellent drainage char- pavement-base-shoulder combinations are
acteristics, the treated permeable bases must included in the Standard Plans.
be given first consideration in the design of Generally, the structural section drainage
structural sections for concrete pavements.
These cross sections are illustrated in systems described above will provide for
Figures 607.2A and 607.2B and are detailed rapid drainage to minimize the time of satu-
in the Standard Plans. Cross sections for ration under heavy traffic. Drainage of
dense base layers are also shown in Figures groundwater should be handled by separate
607.2A and 607.2B. drainage systems, see Chapter 840.
Allowing water to penetrate the structural
In low lying agricultural areas or wetlands, section from below is not recommended.
pavement grade must be established at an
elevation that will assure the rapid egress of (4) Cross Drain Interceptors. When using
water from the permeable base layer. If this TPB, special attention should be given to
is not practical, the use of permeable base drainage details wherever water flowing in
may not be advisable. Edge drains should, the TPB encounters impermeable abutting
however, be provided with either base type pavement, a bridge approach slab, a sleeper
when the system can be positively drained. slab, a pavement end anchor, or a pressure
relief joint. In any of these cases, a cross
(3) Edge Drain Systems. Edge drain collector drain interceptor should be provided.
and outlet systems (as shown in the
Standard Plans for Structural Section Details of cross drain interceptors at various
Drainage) are to be provided for all four locations are shown in Figure 606.3. The
bases. The system includes a 80 mm cross drain outlets should be tied into the
diameter slotted plastic collector pipe, longitudinal edge drain collector and outlet
surrounded by treated permeable material, system with provision of maintenance
encamdated in a filter fabric barrier to access for cleaning.
pre6nt contamination by the intrusion of
July 1, 1995
Figure 606.3
Cross Drain Interceptor Details
For Use with Treated Permeable Base (TPB)
0.15 m
- I r/
Min.
A LL-
profile G, , 80 mm Plastic Pipe (slotted)

. .
--------
Structure Approach,
Slab EL Drainage Symm
-----
AT STRUCTURE APPROACH
Weakened Plane Joint
80 mm Plastic Pipe
0
0.6 m Filter Fabric
AT END ANCHOR
Weakened
/plane ~oint\
80 mm Plastic Pipe
Filter Fabric
AT PRESSURE RELIEF JOINT

July 1.1995
-
Topic 607 Portland Cement structural sections are included for a range from
very high to relatively low volumes of traffic.
Concrete Pavement Structural Therefore, PCCP should be considered as a
Section Design potential alternative for all state highway
facilities, allowing a comparison of life-cycle
607.1 Introduction economics along with other pertinent or
overriding factors to determine the pavement
Generally, the use of portland cement concrete type to be used on any given project.
pavement (PCCP) has been confined to
moderate to high traffic volume freeways. A 607.2 Design Procedure for Rigid
rational design method for the design of PCCP Pavement
was adopted in 1967 with the hope that it would
better relate the PCCP thickness to traffic Standard structural section thicknesses are
loading and that it might result in the use of shown in Table 607.2 and should be used in the
PCCP on a wider variety of facilities and design of all new PCCP. Structural section
ultimately in some long term cost and service element thicknesses vary with Traffic Index (TI)
benefits. It was found, however, that the and R-value of the basement soil material.
rational design method did not reflect field Procedures for developing the TI are described
conditions accurately and it was not sensitive to in Topic 603. Determination of the R-Value for
wide variations in truck traffic. The 1967 the basement soil to be used is discussed in
design method was replaced in 1982 by a series Index 604.2.
of standard structural sections that were later Treated permeable bases (ATPB and CTPB)
updated but are still current. These standard must be given first consideration in PCCP
structural sections are based primarily on structural section design, as discussed in Index
experience and research. A major change is that 606.3. The final selection of which of the four
cement treated base (CTB), the traditional bases, shown in Table 607.2, to be used on a
standard for PCCP (from 1950 to late 70's), is given project, depends on specific factors
no longer considered to be appropriate for relative to the available materials, terrain,
PCCP because of its susceptibility to erosion. environmental conditions, and past performance
Some of the factors that were considered in of PCCP under similar project or area
adopting the current PCCP procedures include: conditions. Questions on selection of base may
be directed to the Pavement Consulting Services
(a) Minimizing drainage related problems Branch in METS.
encountered in California on PCCP over
the preceding 30 year period. The standard design directly addresses the all
too common drainage related problems
(b) Dropping the 1967 rational design discussed in Index 606.3 by the incorporation
method which did not represent actual of either an asphalt or cement treated, free-
field conditions or the pavement deterio- draining base with an edge drain collector and
ration occurring in California. outlet system or a dense non-erodible base with
(c) Offering the potential for cost savings: an edge drain collector and outlet system.
by elimination of subbase on high Optional combinations are diagramed in Figures
quality basement soil, and by elimination 607.2A and 607.2B. Details of structural
of base where the basement soil is free- section drainage systems are shown in the
draining. Standard Plans.
(d) Offering the potential for use of PCCP, The design procedures preclude the use of
as an alternate to asphalt concrete pave-
ment, on relatively low to medium truck PCCP over low R-value materials (R < 10)
m c volume facilities (TIs from 6 to unless the material is treated with an approved
stabilizing agent such as lime. PCCP is also
10). precluded for use over expansive basement soil
Under current procedures truck traffic and soil (Plasticity Index > 12) and over areas subject to
conditions are the principal factors considered in significant differential settlement or lateral
selecting the structural section. Standard movement.
July 1.1995
Table 607.2
PCCP Structural Section Thickness Guidelines (mm)

Basement Soil R-value 10-40'
TI PCCP Treated Aggregate Subbase ~ a s e ~ Subbase
Permeable Base3 Base (AB) (AS) (LCB,ACB) (As)
(A'I'pB)
(CTPB)
6-7 150 105 105 105 105 120
7.5-8 185 105 105 105 105 120
8.5-10 215 105 105 105 105 150
10.5-12 230 105 105 150 120 185
12 + 260 105 105 245 150 215
Basement Soil R-value > 40
TI PCCP Treated Aggregate Subbase Base2 Subbase
Permeable Base3 Base (AB) (AS) (LCB,ACB) (As)
(ATPB)
(CTPB)
6-7 150 105 105 -- 105 --
7.5-8 185 105 105 -- 105 --
8.5-10 215 105 120 -- 120 --
10.5-12 230 105 120 -- 120 --
12 + 260 105 105 105 150 --
NOTES :
1. With an expansive basement soil (Plasticity Index > 12) and/or basement soil R-value c 10, a flexible
structural section (ACP) should be specified unless the R-value of the basement soil is raised above 10 by
treatment, to a minimum depth of 200 rnm, with an approved stabilizing agent such as lime.
2. CTB with a 30 mm DGAC cap may be used only under special conditions with the approval of OPPD.
3. The standard thickness under PCCP for both ATPB and CTPB is 105 mm which allows the contractor the
option to choose the most economical base.
Lafad
LCB = Lean Concrete Base
ACB = Asphalt Concrete Base
ATPB = Asphalt Treated Permeable Base
CTPB = Cement Treated Permeable Base
AT3 = Aggregate Base
AS = Aggregate Subbase
July 1.1995
Figure 607.2A
Concrete Pavement Details

(Concrete Shoulders)
_- - -- --
-
Inner Shoulder Traveled Way Outer Shoulder
A 4 PCC-A b ,B
I
- 0 - * . * o ' . . o . o O o
0 . 0 D D
Plastic Pipe (Slotted), LOW

Filter Fabric, High Side of Side of Tangents and
Tangents and Superelevations Su~erelevations
Fabric
Permeable Base
..~.-.ed Way L - Outer Shoulder

I.
1e Bars ' 'Base (LCB. ACBI ' 'lie Bars
te
iflr Fabric, High Side 01
Plastic Pipe (Slotted), Low' 1
Side of Tangents and Filter
Tangents and Superelevations
Superelevations Fabric
Dense Base
July 1,1995
I
Figure 607.28
(Asphalt Concrete Shoulders)
Travded Way Outer Shoulder

--
A A
*
Filter Fabric, High Side of

Plastic Pipe (Slotted), Low
Tangents and Superelevations
Side of Tangents and
Superelevations
Permeable Base
I -
Slope -
.,dl ~'"..'..'..'.". .-'
.,,.*, .,$
Traveled Way
..."".. ....-""
'"
A
-,-
A
4:;.. !.:::+... ,:.:v?'!:::+:$<;.k.;:,$;

Outer Shoulder
::.. '.. .......'..
,., . ' ..
Filter
Base (LCB, ACB) Fabric
plastic pipe (slotted), LOW'
Side of Tangents and
Superelevations
Dense Base
a Nbrr: PCC shoulders am to be used for all PCCP new construction, however, AC
shouldem may be u8ed when justified and approved per Index 602.1(3).
1
July 1,1995
607.3 Structural Section Geometry (2) Ramps. When ramp widening is required
on loop ramps to handle truck off-tracking,
On projects with three or more lanes in one as covered in Index 504.6, the full structural
direction, the PCCP thickness is varied for the section should extend to the inner edge of
difference in traffic index between the median the ramp widening.
and outside lanes. Past practice has been to
construct steps, in the subbase and base, at the Heavy trucks create deterioration by flexure
lane line where the PCCP thickness changes. of the pavement. This is compounded on
This practice is still satisfactory. AC ramps by severe damage to the asphalt
concrete pavement near the termini of some
It is also considered acceptable practice to heavy traffic exit ramps, generally caused by
construct a base of uniform thickness and a the dissolving action of oil drippings
tapered pavement as shown in Figure 607.3 if combined with the braking of trucks.
the difference in PCCP thickness between the Therefore, PCCP should be used at all new
outer lanes and median lane(s) is 30 mm or AC exit ramp termini where a significant
less. Placing the treated base hinge point 0.6 m volume of trucks is anticipated.
away from the lane line minimizes the potential
for a "volunteer" longitudinal crack in the base Because of the relatively high cost of con-
at the lane line. When PCC shoulders are structing short lengths of PCCP, its use on
specified, a hinge point may be required at the restoration of existing ramps should be lim-
median edge of the traveled way to maintain a ited to those locations where severe damage
minimum thickness of 120 mm at the edge of has already occurred and maintenance costs
the shoulder. plus traffic delay justify complete replace-
ment.
607.4 Portland Cement Concrete The length of PCC pavement to be placed at
Shoulders and Ramps the termini will depend on experience in the
Tied PCC shoulders are to be used for all PCC area, ramp grades, and the length of queues
pavements. PCC should also be considered for of stopped traffic. A length of 45 m should
ramps near major comme~cial or industrial be considered the minimum. Special care
areas, truck terminals, truck weighing and should be taken to assure adequate skid re-
inspection facilities, etc. sistance in the braking area, especially
where oil drippage is concentrated.
( I ) Shoulders. Special delineation of concrete
shoulders may be required to deter the use The PCC pavement for the termini of AC
of the shoulder as a traveled lane. The exit ramps must be a minimum of 260 rnm
District Division of Operations should be thick over a base thickness of 150 rnm.
consulted to determine the potential need for Special attention should be given to base
anything more than the standard edge stripe. type selection to assure continuity and
On new facilities, if the future conversion of adequacy of drainage.
the shoulder to a traffic lane is within the When the entire new ramp is concrete,
design life of the pavement, the shoulder consider utilizing the same base and
structural section must be equal to that of the thickness as that to be used under the
adjacent traveled way and should be 3.6 m traveled way, especially when concrete
wide. The cross slope should also be the shoulders are utilized. If the base is TPB
same as the traveled way, see Index under the traveled way and shoulder, TPB
302.2(3).
. should be utilized in the ramp
- area whenever
PCC shoulders used with PCC pavement feasible.
(see Figures 607.2A and 607.3 for details) For ramp reconstruction, some use of the
are to be tied to the adjacent lane with tie existing base and subbase layers should be
bars (0.75 m long deformed #15 bars on considered. In some situations, however,
0.75 m centers), see Standard Plan A35A. underground water from landscape irrigation
No more than 15 m width of PCC should be or other sources may tend to saturate the
tied together. existing slow-draining layers, thereby
creating the potential for pumping
July 1,1995
Figure 607.3

Tapered Cross Section For 3 or More Lanes One Direction
AC AC
Shoulder Shoulder
Traveled Way
k
Median Lanes(s) -1 Outside Lane@)
4
m
1 or 2 O 3.6 m -1- 2 or more 8 3.6 m
- Line
Lane Base Hinge Point
ASPHALT CONCRETE SHOULDERS
PCC PCC
Shoulder Shoulder
--
-1-
Traveled Way
4
Median Lanes(s) A Outside Lane@)
'-
lor283.6m 2 or more 8 3.6 m
Tie Bars
CONCRETE SHOULDERS
Leaend
T1 = PCC Thickness For Median Lane TI.
T2 r PCC Thickness For Outside Lane TI.
T3 = T2 If Shoulder May Be Converted To a Traffic Lane: Otherwise T3 = 150 mm Minimum.
B = Constant Base Thickness For Outside Lane TI For The Entire Width.
and pavement damage. In this case the joints may be diagonal or normal to the edge
design should provide for removal of such of pavement to match existing joint spacing
water by a TPB drainage layer when and orientation.
reconstruction is required or at least by (2) Joint Sealing. Caltrans has rarely used joint
providing a longitudinal edge drain system, seals in the past. However, with recent
whenever feasible. developments in joint design and joint
607.5 Asphalt Concrete Shoulders materials, it appears that sealing of joints has
a significant potential for cost effectiveness
AC shoulders should not be used adjacent to provided careful attention is given to
new PCC pavements, however, in those selection of materials as well as construction
instances where AC shoulders are used with of the sealed joints.
concrete pavement they should be designed in Entrance of fines, or incompressibles, into
accordance with Index 608.5 and the details and through pavement joints may lead to, or
shown in Figure 607.2B. contribute to, step faulting, joint spalling,
607.6 Pavement Joints excessive pressure against bridge
abutments, and pavement blowups. This is
( I ) Joint types. Joints used in portland cement especially critical on high elevation routes
concrete pavement are longitudinal and where sanding is used during icing
transverse contact joints, longitudinal and conditions, and in blow-sand areas where
transverse weakened plane joints, and trans- fine sand is deposited on the roadbed. The
verse pressure relief joints. Contact joints problems of step faulting and joint spalling
are formed by placing concrete on one side are also apparent, in varying degrees, under
of a planned joint and allowing it to set a wide range of conditions throughout the
before the concrete is placed on the other state. The entry of surface water into
side of the joint. Transverse weakened pavement joints has also played a major role
plane joints are constructed by partial depth in accelerating pavement deterioration.
sawing of the concrete, or by inserting a Because of the factors discussed above and
plastic strip (if specified as an option) and to minimize the spalling of transverse joints
thereby inducing a tensile shrinkage crack to and the need for costly and disruptive
the bottom of the slab. All longitudinal repairs on heavily traveled urban freeways,
weakened plane joints must be constructed the sealing of all joints to deter the entry of
by partial depth sawing to avoid problems fine or incompressible materials and water
encountered in the past when utilizing the is to be specified on all new conmte
plastic insert method. pavements. However, when one or more
Transverse weakened plane joints are lanes are added for widening, the joints
constructed, as specified in the Standard should not be sealed unless the transverse
Specifications and as shown on Standard and longitudinal joints (and cracks) in
Plan A35A, using the repetitive joint spacing adjacent lanes are also sealed.
of 3.6m,4.6m, 4.0 m, and4.3 m. These When joint. are to be sealed, the joint di-
joints are skewed counterclockwise 1 in 6.
Longitudinal joints (except contact joints) mensions (shape factor) and preparation are
are constructed, by sawing, at all lane lines, critical to good performance and must be
including the edge of traveled way when constructed per the Standard Specifications
concrete shoulders are specified. At and Standard Plans. Siliconejoint sealant is
present, Caltrans does not use dowels in to be used for all transverse and longitudinal
PCCP transverse joints except on an joints. Generally, the joint is prepared by
experimental basis. However, Caltrans sawing, cleaning, and placement of a backer
does use tie bars on all longitudinal joints as rod. The PE can contact the Pavement
shown in the Standard Plans. No more than Consulting Services Branch in METS for
15 m width of PCC should be tied together. technical guidance on sealing materials and
joint design.
When a single lane is being placed to widen
existing concrete pavement, weakened plane
July 1,1995
(3) Other Joint considerations. Transverse should be covered in the Plans and Special
pressure relief joints may be required in the Provisions.
construction of PCCP to relieve longitudinal
forces. These forces may be induced by 607.7 Concrete Pavement Texturing
thermal expansion alone on long flat grades Concrete pavements are textured with striations
or by a combination of thermal and gravita-
tional forces acting over a period of time on running in the longitudinal direction. Initial
relatively steep grades. Unsealed transverse texturing is performed with a burlap drag or a
joints that become filled with "incompressi- broom. This is followed by the application of
ble" materials compound this phenomenon; spring steel tine &vice which will produce
ultimately there is spalling of concrete at the grooves, about 5 mrn deep on 19 mm centers,
joints and the transmission of expansive parallel with the centerline. This type of
forces from s l a b s l a b in the concrete texturing, which is specified in the Standard
pavement which may create blow-ups. Specifications, has been found to provide a
durable skid resistant riding surface. Under
When required, pressure relief joints should average exposure conditions the surface texture
be constructed in conjunction with pavement is expected to last throughout the 20-year
end anchors (see Figure 606.3 and Standard pavement design period with a minimum of
Plan A35A). Since pavement blow-ups are maintenance.
relatively uncommon on State highways in
California, the need for pressure relief joints
is primarily near the end of structures to -
Topic 608 Asphalt Concrete
prevent the transmission of expansive forces Pavement Structural Section
from the concrete pavement to the structure. Design
This is most likely to develop where there
are sustained high temperatures (over 3 2 C)
e in combination with long, flat or steep down
grades (4% or greater) leading to a structure.
608.1 Introduction
Flexible pavement structural sections usually are
constructed of an asphalt concrete surface layer
When specified near a structure, the
pressure relief joint should be located at least that is placed over a treated or untreated base
30 m away from the paving notch and a layer and an untreated subbase layer. The two
maximum of 30 m from the end of the primary alternates (ACP and PCCP) should be
structure approach slab or the sleeper slab. considered in the design of a new highway or
freeway or widening project.
The need to specify the sealing of joints and
the potential need for installation of pressure When compared to rigid pavement (PCCP),
relief joints should be discussed in the asphalt concrete pavement (ACP) has the ad-
Geotechnical Design Report or Materials vantage of being able to adjust more readily to
Report, as appropriate. This report should differential settlement that is likely to occur
also discuss any historical problems where the roadway is constructed on relatively
observed in the performance of PCCP flexible or variable quality basement soil. In
constructed with aggregates found in the addition it can be more readily repaired or recy-
proximity of the project and exposed to cled.
similar physical and environmental condi- The primary disadvantages of ACP are that it
tions. generally requires a higher level of maintenance
Details of concrete pavement expansion and than PCCP and may require significant
contraction joints, end anchors, pressure rehabilitation measures (overlay or surface
relief joints, and structure approach slabs are treatment) due to age hardening and loss of
shown in the Standard Plans or DOS fatigue resistance after initial construction.
Standard Details. Joint construction meth-
ods and &tails and the materials used for 608.2 Asphalt Concrete Pavement
sealing joints are covered in the Standard Materials Types
Special Provisions and Standard The asphalt concrete pavement materials listed in
Specifications. Unique project features Table 608.2 are alternatives that may be
July 1.1995
Table 608.2 way and DGAC shoulders, and increased

safety through reduced driver stress during
Asphalt Concrete Types rainstorms. OGAC surfacing is also known
as an "open graded friction course".
(a) New Construction Projects. The surface
Type Abbreviation Gravel Factor, course of OGAC should be considered
Gf for new DGAC pavement projects in
Dense Graded DGAC See Table areas where one or more of the
Asphalt Concrete 608.4 following conditions apply:
(Types A and B)
Open Graded OGAC 1.4 Hydroplaning is known to be a
Asphalt Concrete problem.
Rubberized RAC * High rainfall intensities are common.
Asphalt Concrete
The cross slope is less than 2% on
Sulfur Extended SEAC * facilities with 3 or more lanes in one
Asphalt Concrete direction.
* Gf has not been determined for these experimental Moderate to high rainfall intensities
materials. The Gf will be provided by METS. are common, especially when
combined with high trfic volumes.
(b) Rehabilitation Projects. OGAC should
considered in design of the pavement structural be considered for use on AC pavement
section. Following is a brief discussion of each rehabilitation projects where one or more
with some guidelines on the conditions where of the following conditions apply:
the use of each type may be appropriate.
There is a high wet weather accident
( I ) Dense Graded Asphalt Concrete (DGAC). frequency.
DGAC consists of a mixture of bituminous
material (paving asphalt) and a close graded Hydroplaning is known to be a
aggregate ranging from coarse to very fine problem.
particles. DGAC is designated as Type A or
Type B, depending on the specified Surface attrition or raveling is occur-
aggregate quality and mix design criteria ring.
appropriate for the job conditions. Special
attention is given to mix design and com- The cross slope is less than 2% on
paction in the construction phase to facilities with 3 or more lanes in one
minimize voids and to assure stabilitv,
durability, and maximum service life.
.- direction.
Moderate to high rainfall intensities
(2) Open Graded Asphalt Concrete (OGAC). are common, especially when
OGAC is a surface course used primarily on combined with high traffic volumes.
DGAC. It has occasionally been used on
portland cement concrete pavements. The (c) Cautions. OGAC should not be used:
primary benefit of using OGAC is the reduc-
tion of wet pavement accidents by As a routine surface seal. See
improving wet weather skid resistance, Division of Maintenance Memoran-
minimizing hydroplaning, reducing water dum, "Roadway Maintenance
splash and spray, and reducing nighttime Surface Treatment Strategies
wet pavement glare. Secondary benefits (Recommended Guidelines)", dated
include better wet-night visibility of traffic January 3, 1994 or contact the
stripes and markers, better wet weather (day Pavement Consulting Services
and night) delineation between the traveled Branch in METS for details.
July 1,1995
In snow areas generally above 900 602.1) and referenced in the project
m elevation (where there is a approval document, typically the PR.
r e tire chains
potential for e ~ ' ~ s u to (3) Rubberized Asphalt Concrete (RAC).
and studded tires). Rubberized asphalt is formulated by mixing
granulated rubber with hot asphalt to form a
In parking areas. tough and elastic binder with less
In areas where tracking of mud from su&eptibility to temperature changes. The
rubberized asphalt is substituted for the
unsurfaced side roads is common regular asphalt as the binder for AC mix.
and frequent. The cost of RAC is significantly higher than
When a life-cycle cost comparison that of conventional DGAC but RAC can be
shows significant cost savings placed routinely in overlays at a reduced
andlor other benefits utilizing thickness using Caltrans Guidelines
alternatives (such as a chip seal in a (Contact METS Pavement Consulting
low traffic volume area). Services Branch for details.).
At intersections where dripping of Field trials of RAC constructed on
oil or fuel from slow or stopped construction-evaluated projects by Caltrans
vehicles and short radius turning appear to be performing well. RAC was
actions could cause the surface to specified on those projects primarily to resist
deteriorate rapidly. tire chain wear, to resist thermal stresses
created by wide temperature variations, and
OGAC is generally used on the traveled way to retard reflection cracking. Today RAC is
and "feathered" out to the approximate generally specified to retard reflection
thickness of the maximum size aggregate cracking, resist thermal stresses created by
within 0.3 m of the outside edge of wide temperature variations and add flexibil-
0 pavement (EP). It may, however, be used
on shoulders when justified in the Project
ity to a structural overlay. Dense graded
RAC is specified to resist tire chain wear.
Report (PR) or Project Scope Summary
Report (PSSR), and primarily based on Rubberized asphalt is also commonly used
safety and/or cost savings. as a binder for surface and interlayer chip
seals and as a pavement joint and crack
OGAC mixtures placed in a thickness of sealant.
18 rnrn or less should utilize the 9.5 mm
maximum aggregate size gradation. When RAC is only used on an experimental basis
the thickness exceeds 18 mm, the 12.5 mrn for new construction, see Index 602.1(3).
w o n should be used. When OGAC is (4) Sulphur Extended Asphalt Concrete
used on pavement rehabilitation as the sur- (SEAC). Sulphur extended asphalt concrete
face course (as part of an overlay to retard is an aggregate mixture that is bound
reflection cracking) it may be substituted di- together with a mixture of asphalt and
rectly for up to 30 mrn maximum of the sulphur. Its use to date has been confined to
recommended overlay thickness. When experimental projects. The use of SEAC is
used as part of the structural section of new dependent on the availability of sulphur, a
construction, a gravel factor (Gf) of 1.4 is by-product of some manufacturing
assigned to the OGAC element. processes, at a price that would make it
more economical than asphalt.
In summary, the use of OGAC is
encouraged where appropriate under the 608.3 Asphalt Surface Treatments
above guidelines. It must, however, be
clearly justified in the PSSR for rehabilita- There are a number of asphalt surface treatments
tion and PR for new construction. For new that may be considered in the design of the
construction or major reconstruction, structural section, see Table 608.3. They
a justification must be included in the
structural section submittal (See Index
generally do not contribute to the strength of the
structural section but fulfill other purposes as
discussed.
July 1,1995
Table 608.3 Protecting thin asphalt concrete (AC)

layers of 75 mm or less from the loss of
Asphalt Surface Treatments adherence to the AB due to traffic load-
induced horizontal shearing forces at the
ACJAB interface.
Abbreviation General
Purpose A prime coat may be warranted, depending
on other factors unique to a given project,
Penetration PT Seal and even though the first conditions shown
Treatment Stabilize above do not exist and the AC thickness is
Prime Coat PC Bond AC to greater than 75 mm and less than 150 mm.
Base No prime coat should be applied when the
AC thickness is 150 mm or greater unless
Paint Binder PB Bond New AC the first two conditions shown above exist.
to Existing
Surfaces and
Contact Joints (3)Paint Binder (PB). A paint binder consists
of an asphaltic emulsion which is applied to
all vertical surfaces of pavement, curbs, gut-
( I ) Penetration Treatment (PT). Penetration ters, and construction joints against which
treatment consists of an application of liquid asphaltic surfacing is to be placed. It
asphalt to an underlying compacted roadbed generally is also applied to existing asphalt
material. It is used principally as a surface surfaces before placing a layer of open
stabilizing agent on light M i c detours, graded or dense graded asphalt concrete.
medians, and -parking areas, and as a dust
palliative. 608.4 Design Procedure for Flexible
(2) Prime Coat (PC). A prime coat is an appli- Pavement
cation of liquid asphalt used to prepare an Design of the flexible pavement structural
untreated base for an AC surface course or section is based on a relationship between the
TPB. The prime coat penetrates the "gravel equivalent" (GE) of the structural
compacted base to the extent that it fills section materials, the Traffic Index (TI), and the
surface voids, hardens the top to prevent R-value (R) of the underlying material. This
erosion, and helps bind it to the AC relationship was developed by METS through
surfacing or TPB layer. A contract item for research and field experimentation and is repre-
sand cover should be provided where any sented by the equation GE = 0.975 (TI)(100-R).
trac will have to use the primed area prior This is illustrated graphically in Figure 608.4,
to paving. which is used primarily to check computed
The purpose of a prime coat is generally values of the required GE for the total structural
limited to: section and for the pavement, base, and subbase
layers.
Minimizing the likelihood of raveling or
displacement of the underlying material The GE requirement for the structural section
when traffic will be routed through the can be provided by a wide variety of pavement,
work on the aggregate base (AB), base, and subbase materials in various
combinations of layer thicknesses that are
Protecting the aggregate base (AB) designed primarily to spread and transmit the
surface by preventing erosion of fines at live load to the underlying roadbed. Base and
the ATPBIAB or CTPBIAB interface, or subbase types are listed in Table 605.1 and
discussed in Topic 605. Asphalt concrete
Protecting the base if extended inclement pavement types are listed in Table 608.2 and
weather andor extended delays in discussed in Index 608.2. The type of materials
placing the surfacing are anticipated, or that might be used in the structural section is
investigated thoroughly by the district materials
staff and recommendations are made in the
July 1.1995
Figure 608.4
Flexible Pavement Structural

Section Design
R - Value
Legend
GE = Gravel Equivalent = 0.975 (TI)(100-R)
TI = Traffic Index
R = Resistance Value or R-Value
July 1.1995
Geotechnical Design Report or Materials Report (2) Structural Section Safety Factors. Con-
based on availability and adequacy to meet the struction tolerances allowed by the contract
project requirements. The pavement type specifications could result in a structural sec-
selection, which has a direct bearing on the base tion that is slightly deficient in thickness.
and subbase materials to be used, is discussed To compensate for this possibility, a safety
in Topics 602 and 609. As indicated in Topic factor is applied by increasing the design
606, positive rapid drainage is very important. thickness of the pavement. For structural
Any omission of the treated permeable base sections that include base andlor subbase
layers must be supported by appropriate written layers, a safety factor of 60 mm is added to
justification, see Index 602.1. the required GE of the AC. Since applica-
tion of the safety factor is not intended to
The projected truck -c data and ultimately increase the total GE of the structural sec-
the TI for structural section design are tion, a compensating thickness is subtracted
developed as described in Topic 603. The R- from the GE thickness of the subbase layer.
value of the basement soil is provided in the Where there is no subbase, the safety factor
Geotechnical Design Report or Materials is subtracted from the base layer. In no case
Report. In some cases there may be significant is the thickness of a layer to be reduced to
variations in this R-value, particularly for less than the allowable minimum.
projects that are several kilometers or more in
length. More than one R-value may be For structural sections that are essentially
designated, for economic reasons, to vary the full depth AC, a safety factor of 30 mm is
structural section to fit local conditions on added to the required GE of the AC. When
selected stretches within a project. determining the appropriate safety factor to
be added, ACE3 and ATPB should be
On projects utilizing ACP, with three or more considered as part of the AC layer. Full
lanes in one direction, separate lane designs are depth AC sections will therefore exceed the
based on the different TI's for the median and calculated required GE by the safety factor
outside lanes. Determination of the ESAL's and since there are no underlying layers to
conversion to lane TI's is illustrated in Tables adjust.
603.4A and 603.4B. This results in variable
structural section layer thicknesses, and in steps (3) Basic Rules for Designing Flexible
in the structural section layers at the lane lines Pavements. When designing flexible
where the thickness changes. structural sections, the following basic rules
will apply:
( I ) Basic Design Data. The basic design data
required for flexible pavement design (a) The TI is determined to the nearest 0.5.
includes: (b) The following standard design formula
(a) R-values from the Geotechnical Design is applied to determine the GE of the
Report or Materials Report, including cover required over the basement soil
that for basement soils, and subbase. and intermediate structural section layers
When the basement soil is expansive, with a known or assumed R-value:
the R-value for that soil is the
"expansion pressure R-value" (which
will result in a thicker subbase but will where:
not affect other layers). GE = gravel equivalent in mm
(b) Number of lanes from the Project Report TI = traffic index (See Index
(or other project approval document). 603.4)
(c) Expanded annual average daily truck R = R-value of the material to be
traffic (AAMT) from the District covered
Division of Planning, for the design
period. This information is developed (c) The GE to be provided by each material
and transformed into the TI, as is determined in order by layer, starting
described in Topic 603, for use in the with the AC and proceeding down-
design of the structural section. wards.
July 1,1995
0 (d) Safety factors are applied by increasing

the GE of the AC by the amount
the design layer thickness, the value is
rounded to the nearest 15 mm. A value
indicated in Index 608.4(2). An equal midway between 15 mm increments is
GE is subtracted from the subbase layer rounded to the next higher value.
(base layer when there is no subbase). (h) The design procedure provides the mini-
The safety factor must be included when mum allowable thickness of AC for the
calculating the required GE of the project conditions. This thickness may
combined AC and base material. When be increased when appropriate to
full depth AC is used, there may not be minimize construction costs, reduce
an underlying layer from which to construction time, match layer placement
subtract the safety factor GE. In these with existing adjacent lanes, reduce the
cases, a full depth AC section will number of layers, etc., provided the
slightly exceed the required cover. minimum GE and construction require-
ments are satisfied.
(e) Base and subbase materials, other than
ATPB, should have a minimum thick- (i) The thicknesses of other structural
ness of 105 mm. When the calculated section layers determined by the
thickness of base or subbase material is procedures described below may be
less than the desired 105 mm minimum adjusted to accommodate construction
thickness, either increase the thickness practice and minimize cost provided the
to the minimum without changing the minimum GE and construction require-
thicknesses of the overlying layers or ments are satisfied.
eliminate the layer and increase the (i) When Lime Treated Subbase (LTS) is
thickness of the AC or base layer to used as a subbase it is substituted for all,
compensate for the reduction in GE. or part, of the required AS layer. The
e (f) Treated permeable bases are placed
under flexible pavement in standard
design thicknesses of the base and AC
surfacing layers are determined as
thicknesses of 75 mm of ATPB or though AS is the planned subbase
105 mm of CTPB, see Index 606.2(3). material. The LTS is then substituted
for the AS. Since AS has a Gf of 1.O,
(g) The thickness of each material layer is the actual thickness and the GE are
calculated by dividing the GE by the equal. When LTS is substituted for the
appropriate Gf (From Table 605.1 or AS, the actual thickness is determined
608.4). Note that the Gf of AC is not a by dividing the GE by the appropriate Gf
constant value. As the TI increases, the based on unconfined compressive
Gf decreases. Also, the Gf of the AC strength (see Index 605.9).
gradually increases for any given TI as
the total thickness of AC increases above (k) Construction convenience andlor rnateri-
150 mm. The following equations can als availability may at times make it ad-
be used to calculate the Gf of asphalt vantageous to the contractor to replace
concrete, but are only provided here for the AS layer with additional base. This
information: substitution should be considered when
the required thickness of AS is less than
AC Thickness (t) less than or equal to 105 rnrn or when otherwise economi-
150 mm: cally justified.
Gf = 5.67/(~1)'" (4) Structural Section Design Procedures. A
AC thickness (t) greater than 150 mm: flexible pavement structural section can
consist of various combinations of rnateri-
Gf = (1.04)(t)1 ' 3 / ( ~ln~ ) als. It is, therefore, necessary to first
consider the types of materials available.
Table 608.4 should normally be used in This information is included in the Geotech-
0 lieu of using these equations to deter-
mine AC thicknesses. When selecting
nical Design Report or Materials Report.
July 1.1995
Table 608.4
Gravel Equivalents of Structural Layers (mm)
Nabs:
1. See Tables 605.1 and 608.2 for subbase, base and asphalt c o w types, abbreviations, and gravel factors (Gf).
2. Standard l a p thihcsses of 75 mm and 105 mm have been adopted respectively for ATPB and CTPB. Thcst in turn cmmpond respectively to
GBs of 105 mm and 180 mm. As discussed in W x 606.2(3), a thicker TPB drainage layer may be wnsided only under a unique combination of
~~.
3. OGAC may be substituted for up to 30 mm of DGAC, as a surface layer, whw warranted by conditions discussed
under Index 608.2(2), thc diffmllcc in Gf not withstaading.
4. DGAC Gf also incnascs as thc thickness incrurses, if the thickness is grata than 150mm - See Index 6084(3)(~).
July 1,1995
0 The procedures to be followed when using

treated bases andlor subbases (CTB-A,
The required safety factor is added to
the initial GE of the AC to determine
LCB, LTS) are somewhat different from the minimum GE of the AC.
those used when only untreated bases and
subbases (AB, AS) are used. These ACB is considered part of the AC
procedures are discussed separately in the pavement layer.
following paragraphs. A computer pro- (5) Design Example 1 - Undrained Structural
gram, based on the procedures presented in Sections Designed per R-values of Underly-
this manual, is available from the METS ing Layers (AC/AB/AS or AC/CTB-B/AS).
Pavement Consulting Services Branch or the
District Materials Engineer, for use in the (a) Determine the required structural section
design of flexible pavement structural GE using the standard design formula
sections. The use of this program enables and the R-value of the basement soil.
the designer to compare numerous combina- For this example, assume an &lane
tions of materials in seeking the most divided freeway will be constructed over
economical structural section. a basement soil with a R-value of 10.
Using the TI example cited in Section
(a) The following rules will apply in addi- 603.4, TI'S of 12.5 and 11.0 are
tion to the basic rules listed above when assigned, respectively, to the outside
an untreated base or CTB-B is utilized. lanes and median lanes. Thus, the total
The GE determined by the formula is required GE is:
the total required, without a safety
factor, for the layer or layers above Inside lanes: 0.975 (11.0)(100-10) = 965
the material whose R-value is used
in the com~utation.
* . . Determine the reauired GE of the AC
(b)
layer using the stabdard design formula.
When a treated permeable base is In this case, R is the R-value of the AB
used, the required GE of the AC is layer.
determined by adding the safety
factor to 40% of the GE required Outside lanes: 0.975 (12.5)(100-78)=268
over the subbase (or basement soil Inside lanes: 0.975(11.0)(100-78) = 236
when it is of such aualitv that AS is
not required). The bated permeable (c) Add the required 60 mm safety factor to
base thickness will be either 75 mrn these values to determine the total GE of
(ATPB) or 105 mm (CTPB). The AC:
thickness of the untreated base or Outside lanes (OL): 268 + 60 = 328 mm
CTB-B is determined using the
standard design formula. Inside lanes (IL): 236 + 60 = 296 mm
(b) When using a treated base which is not (d) Use Table 608.4 to determine the actual
subject to the R-value test, the following thickness required:
rules will apply in addition to the basic OL: 195 mm (GE is 328)
rules listed above.
IL: 165 mm (GE is 296)
The initial GE of the AC is 0.4 of the
total GE required over AS. In cases (e) Determine the GE of the actual
where the basement soil is of such thicknesses from Table 608.4:
quality that AS is not necessary, the OL: 329
R-value of the basement soil is used.
If additional base is to be placed in IL: 287
lieu of the AS layer, use a R-value of (f) Determine the required GE of the com-
50 for this calculation. bined AC and AB layers using the stan-
dard design formula. In this case, R is
the R-value of the AS layer. For this
July 1.1995
example, assume a Class 2 AS which Since AS has a Gf of 1.0, the actual

has a specified minimum R-value of 50. thickness and the GE are equal.
OL: GE = 0.975(12.5)(100-50) = 609 (k) The structural section layer thicknesses
IL: GE = 0.975(11.0)(100-50) = 536 for the above example are:
(g) Add the required 60 mm safety factor to OL: 195 mmAC, 315mmAB,42OmmAS
these values to determine the required **Note* *
GE of the combined AC and AB. If CTB-B is used:
OL: 609 + 60 = 669 195mm AC, 285 mm CTB-B, 420 mm AS
IL: 536 + 60 = 596
(h) Subtract the adjusted GE of the AC IL: 165mm AC, 285 rnm AB, 360 mm AS
(Step e) from the required combined GE
of the AC and AB to determine the
required GE of the AB. If CTB-B is used:
OL: 669 - 329 = 340 165m AC, 255 mm CTB-B, 375 m AS
IL: 596 - 287 = 309
(i) Use Table 608.4 to determine the actual (6)Design Example 2 - Undrained Structural
thickness required for the AB. Sections with Materials not Subject to R-
OL: 3 15 mm (GE is 347) value Tests (AC/CTB-MAS).
IL: 285 mm (GE is 314) (a) Determine the total required structural
section GE as described in (5)(a)above.
If CTB-B is used in lieu of AB, use Table

@) Determine the required GE of the com-
bined AC and CTB using the standard
@
608.4 to determine actual thicknesses: design formula and the R-value of the
OL: 285 mm (GE is 342) AS. In cases where the basement soil is
of such quality that AS is not necessary,
IL: 255 mm (GE is 306) the R-value of the basement soil is used.
For this example assume a Class 2 AS
with a specified R-value of 50.
(j) Subtract the adjusted GE of the AC and
AB layers from the required GE of the Note:When AS is to be replaced with additional
total structural section (Step a) to &ter- base material, use R-value 50 in this
mine the GE of the AS: calculation.
OL: 1097 - 329(AC) - 347(AB) = 421 OL: GE = 0.975(12.5)(100-50) = 609
(Rounded to 420) IL: GE = 0.975(11.0)(100-50) = 536
IL: 965 -287(AC) - 314(AB) = 364 (c) Determine the required GE of the AC
(Rounded to 360) layer by multiplying the required GE of
the combined AC and CTB layers by 0.4
and adding the safety factor.
If CTB-B is used in lieu of AB, the GE of OL: GE(AC) = (609 x 0.4) + 60 = 304
the AS will be:
IL: GE(AC) = (536 x 0.4) + 60 = 274
OL: 1097 - 329(AC) - 342(CTB-B) = 426
(Rounded to 420) (d) Determine the actual thickness of AC re-
quired from Table 608.4.
IL: 965 - 287(AC) - 306(CTB-B) = 372
(Rounded to 375) OL: 180 mm (GE is 296)
IL: 165 mrn (GE is 287) @
July 1,1995
e (e) Add the safety factor to the GE of the

combined AC and CTB layers.
this example, Class 2 AS with a
specified R-value of 50 is assumed.
OL: 609 + 60 = 669 Note: When AS is to be replaced with additional
base material, use R-value of 50 in this
IL: 536 + 60 = 596 calculation.
(f) Subtract the adjusted GE of AC (Step e) OL: GE = 0.975(12.5)(100-50)= 609
from the required GE of the combined
AC and CTB to determine the required IL: GE = 0.975(11.0)(100-50) = 536
GE of the CTB. (c) Determine the required GE of the AC
OL: 669 - 296 = 373 layer by multiplying the required GE of
the combined AC, treated permeable
IL: 596 -287 = 309 base and base layers by 0.4 and adding
(g) Determine the actual thickness required the safety factor. On multiple lane
for the CTB from Table 608.4. roadways the AC thickness is constant
OL: 225 mm (GE is 383) for all lanes and is based on the TI of the
outside lanes.
IL: 180 mm (GE is 306)
All lanes: GE = (609 x 0.4) + 60 = 304
(h) Additional material needed to satisfy the
total GE required over the basement soil (d) Determine the actual thickness of AC re-
is made up with AS. quired from Table 608.4 using the out-
side lane TI (12.5).
OL: 1097 - 296(AC) - 383(CTB) = 41 8
(Rounded to 420) All lanes: 180 mm
IL: 965 - 287(AC) - 306(CTB) = 372 (e) Determine the GE of the actual thickness
e (Rounded to 375)
(i) The structural section layer thicknesses
for the above example are:
from Table 608.4.
OL: 296 (TI = 12.5)
IL: 322 (TI= 11.0)
OL: 18OmmAC225mmCIBA,420mmAS (f) Add the GE of the treated permeable
IL: 165mmA~18OmmCIBA,375mmAS base layer to the GE of the AC.
(7) Design Example 3 - Drained Structural (105 fo; 75 mm of ATPB or 180 for
Sections Which Include Treated Permeable 105 mm of CTPB.) ATPB is used in
Bases. this example.
Note: The efficiency of the drainage layer can be af-
fected by a lack of continuity in the treated
permeable base across the width of the traveled
way. To help assure adequate drainage on a (g) Determine the required GE of the base
multilane facility, the AC pavement and the layer by adding the 60 mm safety factor
treated permeable base layers should not be to the GE required over the AS and then
stepped to accommodate differences in TIs of subtracting the GE of the combined AC
adjacent lanes. The resulting overdesign of the and treated permeable base layers.
AC pavement in the median lanes can be
compensated for by reducing the base and/or OL: GE=609+60-401=268
subbase layer as appropriate to satisfy the CiE
requirement over the basement soil.
(a) Determine the total required structural (h) Determine the actual thickness of base
section GE as described in (5)(a)above. required from Table 608.4. AB is used
in this example.
(b) Determine the required GE of the
combined AC, treated permeable base OL: 240 mm (GE is 264)
e and base using the standard design
formula and the R-value of the AS. In
IL: 150 mm (GE is165)
July 1,1995
(i) Determine the required GE thickness of total thickness of 830 rnrn consisting of
the AS by subtracting the GE thickness 180 mm AC, 75 mm ATPB, 150 mm CTB,
of the combined AC, permeable base, and 425 mm AS. The new lane has a
and base layers from the total GE projected TI of 12.5 and will be constructed
required for the structural section. over a basement soil with a R-value of 10.
OL: 1097 - 29 6(AQ - 10 5(A?PB) - 264(AB) Full depth AC provides a viable alternative
= 432 (Rounded to 435) since it will reduce the number of
construction layers and the time required to
IL: 965-322(AC)-105(ATPB)-165(AB) complete the project. The required GE is
= 373 (Rounded to 375) 1097 mm and a safety factor of 30 mm is
(j) The structural section layer thicknesses added to bring the total required GE to
for the above example are: 1127 mm. From Table 608.4 the full depth
AC thickness is 495 mm above the basement
OL: 180 mm AC, 75 mm ATPB, soil. When a 105 mm working table of AS
240 mm AB, 435 mm AS is vlaced below the AC the required GE for
IL: 180 mm AC, 75 rnrn ATPB, thi AC is reduced to 1022.
150 mm AB, 375 mm AS When a drainage layer is included, the GE
(8) Design Example 4 - Structural Sections of the AC is further reduced by an amount
Which Include A C Base. equal to the GE of the drainage layer. In
this example, assume a 75 mm layer of
Asphalt concrete base (ACB) is a dense ATPB with a GE of 105. Thus, the GE and
grade AC material and differs from other AC thickness of the AC are reduced to 917 and
in that it includes aggregates with a larger 420 mm respectively.
nominal size. ACB can be substituted for
other AC types in the structural section on To assure continuity of the drainage layer
an equal basis except that it is not to be used between the existing and new pavements the
as the surface course. Thus, in the ATPB should be placed at the same level as
preceding example, the structural section AC the ATPB in the existing lane. In this
thickness would be 45 mm for OL and IL, example, the ATPB would be placed
135 rnrn for ACB, etc., if ACB were used. beneath the top 180 mrn of AC. Thus, the
structural section for the additional lane
(9) Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete Structural would be 180 mrn AC, 75 mm ATPB,
Section Design. In some instances, it may 240 mm AC, and 105 mm AS.
be desirable to reduce the total thickness of
the structural section by placing full depth (10) Alternate Designs. The design thicknesses
AC. This can be done using the standard determined by the procedures described
design procedures to calculate the total above are not intended to prohibit other
required GE, including the safety factor of combinations and thicknesses of materials.
30 mm, and using Table 608.4 to determine Adjustments to the thicknesses of the
the actual thickness of AC required. In various materials other than ATPB and
cases where a working table is required, the CTPB may be made to accommodate
GE of the working table is subtracted from construction restrictions or practices, and
the total GE required. Drainage layers may minimize costs: provided the minimum GE
be placed below or at an appropriate level requirements, including safety factors, of
within the full depth AC. When the the basement soil and each layer in the
drainage layer is placed between layers of structural section are satisfied.
AC, the Gf of the AC is determined based At times, experimental designs and/or
on the total thickness of the AC. alternative materials are proposed. These
Design Example 5:
should be designed, constructed and
evaluated in cooperation with METS.
An additional lane is to be added adjacent to
an existing structural section which has a
July 1,1995
@ 608.5 Shoulder Structural Section Median shoulders on divided highways are to be

Design paved with a uniform AC thickness of 60 mrn
over AB without design calculations, unless
The structural section design of outside potential use of the median to carry traffic
shoulders is based on the same method de- dictates otherwise.
scribed for the traveled way in Index 608.4.
Medians 4.2 m or less wide on 4-lane undivided
The design is based on 2% of the projected cross sections should be paved with a uniform
ESAL's in the adjacent lane, however, a TI less AC thickness equal to the structural section of
than 5.0 should not be used. the traveled way.
On new facilities, if the future conversion of the
shoulder to a traffic lane is within the design life 608.6 Ramp Structural Section Design
of the pavement, the shoulder should be 3.6 m The structural section design of AC ramps is
wide and the structural section must be equal to based on the same method used for the traveled
that of the adjacent traveled way. way, as shown in Index 608.4. Refer to Index
Converting shoulders to a portion of a traffic 603.3(3) for determination of design traffic for
lane should only be undertaken when it is the ramps.
last available means to provide increased Provisions of positive, rapid drainage of the
capacity. The preferred solution is permanent structural section is very important, as stated in
conventional widening in accordance with Topic 606, on ramps as well as main lanes.
design standards. However, including drainage systems in ramp
When a decision has been made to convert an structural sections can sometimes create drain-
existing shoulder to a portion of a traffic lane, a age problems such as accumulation of water in
deflection study must be made to determine the the subgrade of descending ramps approaching
structural adequacy of the in-place material. The local street intersections in flat terrain. Such
condition of the existing shoulder must also be situations, where there may be no cost effective
evaluated for undulating grade, rolled-up AC at way to provide positive drainage outlets, call for
the PCC edge, surface cracking, raveling, etc. careful evaluation of local conditions and
judgement in determining whether a drainage
The converted facility must provide a roadway system should be included in each AC ramp
that is structurally adequate for the next ten (10) structural section.
years. This is to eliminate or minimize the
likelihood of excessive maintenance or Ramp shoulder structural sections are to be
rehabilitation being required in a relatively short designed in accordance with Index 608.5 except
period of time because of inadequate structural where ramp widening is required to handle truck
strength and deterioration of the existing AC that off-tracking, see Index 404.1. In such cases,
has become brittle with age which will result in the full ramp structural section should extend to
poor ride quality. the inside shoulder edge of the widened ramp,
see Index 504.3(1)(b).
In an area where there are sustained steep grades
(over 4%) without a truck climbing lane, the PCCP should be used for exit ramp termini
potential for slow moving trucks encroaching on where there is a high potential for exposure to
the shoulder should be considered. If the heavy trucks, as discussed in Index 607.4.
assumed encroachment exceeds 2% of the
ESAL's, the shoulder structural section should 608.7 Structural Section Design for
be designed accordingly. Appurtenant Facilities
Since normally there is no break in the grading Following the pavement structural section
plane under the pavement shoulder contact joint, design procedure for roadside rests and park
the total GE for the shoulder section is usually and ride lots is not practicable because of the
more than required because of the excess base unpredictability of traffic. Therefore, standard
thickness. The structural section can be de- sections, based primarily on arbitrarily chosen
signed with or without an AS layer, depending TI'S, have been adopted.
on the comparative initial costs.
July 1,1995
( I ) Roadside Rest Pavement Design. Table Because traffic use of roadside rests is
608.7(1) gives recommended thicknesses generally unpredictable, TI assumptions
for the elements of structural sections to be have been made which are the basis for
used on entrance and exit ramps, roads, Table 608.7(1). The structural sections are
truck parking areas and auto parking areas in minimal, to keep initial costs down, but are
safety roadside rests. The surface of the reasonable because additional AC surfacing
parking areas in safety roadside rests should can be added later, if needed, and generally
be crowned or sloped to minimize the without incurring exposure to traffic or
amount of surface water penetrating into the traffic handling problems. When stage
underlying layer. Good drainage of surface construction is used to minimize initial
runoff should be provided. costs, the full subbase and base thicknesses
should be placed in the initial construction.
Table 608.7(1)
Structural Sections for Roadside Rests
(Thickness of Layers1 in mm)
R-value of Basement Soil
Usage TI Material 50 & 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19- 10-14 5-9
l lass)^ over
Ramps 8.0
&
Truck
Roads
Truck 6.0
Parking
Areas
Auto 5.5 AC 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Roads AB(2) 120 135 165 180 210 120 120 120 120 120
AS(2) 0 0 0 0 0 120 150 180 210 225
AC2 120 120 135 150 150 165 180 180 195 195
Auto 5.0 AC 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
Parking AN3 120 150 165 195 210 120 120 120 120 120
Areas Awl 0 0 0 0 0 105 135 165 180 210
AC2 90 105 120 120 135 135 150 165 165 180
Notes:
1. AC thicknesses of 75 mm or less must be placed in one lift.
2. Full Depth AC option (No base or subbase).
3. Structural section material options listed for each Usage, TI and R-value are equivalent. The option
chosen is the Project Engineer's decision based on recommendations from the District Materials
Engineer, economics and material availability.
@
0 Table 608.7(1) considers R-value of the

basement soil as the only. variable under
Coal tar pitch emulsion treatment should not
be applied to park and ride lots, however, a
each traffic usage classification. Safety fog seal coat may be required after placing
factors were applied in the ramp design but the AC, particularly if the facility will not be
not for the other areas. used shortly after construction.
( 2 ) Park and Ride Lot Pavement Design. The
layer thicknesses shown in Table 608.7(2)
are based primarily on successful district
-
Topic 609 Selection of
Pavement Type for New
and local agency practice. These designs are Construction
minimal to keep initial costs down, but are
considered reasonable since additional AC
surfacing can be added later, if needed, 609.1 Introduction
without the exposure to traffic or traffic- The two types of pavement generally considered
handling problems typically encountered on for new construction are rigid and flexible
a roadway. pavements as typified by portland cement
The surface of Park and Ride Lots should be concrete pavement (PCCP) and asphalt concrete
crowned or sloped to minimize the amount pavement (ACP), respectively. There is no
of surface water penetrating into the under- formula or clearcut procedure which will
lying layer. Good drainage of surface produce a definite answer as to which pavement
runoff should be provided. A 9.5 mm or type is the most appropriate. In addition,
12.5 mm maximum AC mix is recom- because physical conditions are so variable and
mended to provide a relatively low the influence of other factors differs signifi-
permeability. The AC surfacing should be cantly from location to location, projects must
placed in one lift to provide maximum be studied individually. Therefore, the Project
a density.
Table 608.7( I), Structural Sections for
Engineer must consider the factors in Index
609.2 and make certain assumptions and use
engineering judgement based on the best knowl-
Roadside Rests, should be used in design- edge available when determining which type to
ing the structural section for areas of park specify.
and ride lots that will be used by buses
and/or trucks. Unique conditions may Whatever the factors are that control the
require other special considerations. selection of the pavement type, they should be
documented in the permanent project history
file.
Table 608.7(2)
A detailed economic comparison of pavement
Structural Sections for types (see Index 609.3) must be performed.
Park and Ride Lots Exceptions to this requirement are permitted
under the following conditions:
Thickness of Layers (a) Where an existing pavement will be
R-Value widened or resurfaced with a similar ma-
Basement Soil terial.
(b) Where the new pavement length is less
than 6.5 lane kilometers.
(c) Where the design of the roadway allows
periodic inundation the use of portland
2 60 1 Penetration
Treatment, See
cement
recommended.
concrete pavement is
I Index 608.3(1)
@ * Place in one lift.
July 1.1995
(d) Where it is economically unreasonable to Municipal preference, participating local

locate and construct the highway so that government preference and recognition
unequal settlement or expansion will be of local industry.
eliminated, thus dictating the use of as-
phalt concrete pavement. Another consideration that may have a possible
effect on the final decision is the presence of
(e) Where short freeway to freeway connec- grade controls, such as median barriers,
tions are being made between pavements drainage facilities, lateral and overhead
of the same type. clearances, and structures which may limit the
When detailed economic comparisons are not structural section design or rehabilitation
made, the reasons must be stated fully in the strategies. The pavement type selection should
pavement type submittal, per Index 602.1(4). consider how these appurtenant features affect
the pavement structural section.
609.2 Pavement Type Determination The new construction design or rehabilitation
The choice of pavement type should consider strategy should also minimize the exposure and
the following factors, which are listed and maximize the safety of the construction or
discussed in Appendix B of the AASHTO maintenance forces and their equipment.
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. After considering the various governing factors
Primary factors listed are: and other specific items involved with the
(a) Traffic, project under study, alternative structural
sections should be developed for analysis.
@) Soils characteristics, Once the alternative structural sections are
(c) Weather, chosen, an economic analysis must be done. If
a detailed analysis is not required, per Index
(d) Construction considerations, 609.1, a less comprehensive analysis must still
(e) Recycling, and be done. This analysis is basically to consider
the most economical structural section elements
(f) Cost comparisons. among the various alternatives.
No significance is attached to the order in which If a detailed economic analysis is required, it
the factors are listed. These factors should be should follow the procedure in Index 609.3. It
considered and addressed specifically in all is important to note that economics alone does
project approval documents (PR, PSSR, etc.). not always dictate the final choice for structural
Secondary factors which may be pertinent sections or their alternative elements. After
should also be considered and a statement made analyzing all of the information available, the
that they have been considered. These factors new structural section or rehabilitation strategy
include: is chosen and submitted in accordance with
Index 602.1.
Performance of similar pavements in the
project area. 609.3 Economic Analysis
Life-cycle economic comparisons must be made
Adjacent existing pavements. between properly designed structural sections
Conservation of materials and energy. that would be approved for construction if
selected. The structural section chosen in the
Availability of local materials or contrac- economic comparison must be included in the
tor capabilities. final plans unless a revision is subsequently
approved. In this event a short memorandum is
Traffic and worker safety. prepared referring to the original documentation,
stating the details of the change, the reasons for
Incorporation of experimental features. the change, and the revised life-cycle costs. See
Index 602.1 for documentation requirements.
Stimulation of competition.
July 1,1995
( I ) General Economic Comparison. The eco- voids, repair spalls or broken slabs,
nomic comparison of structural sections occasional slab replacement, etc.),
should be based on total expected lifecycle and
cost. The following general guidelines
should be used: Traffic delay.
(a) The structural sections to be compared (c) Rehabilitation Costs.
should be shown by sketches so that
quantities can be computed and checked. Grooving all lanes in year 15,
(b) A 35-year economic life-cycle period Replacing 10 - 15 slabs per lane
should be used for each project. This kilometer in truck lanes in year 15,
assumes that the pavement structural
section will be maintained and Placing a 105 rnm AC overlay with
rehabilitated to carry the projected traffic interlayer (preceded by slab cracking
over a 35-year period. and seating) in year 25,
(c) A discount rate of 5% is used to convert Engineering cost (preliminary and
costs to present worth. construction charges as percent of
(d) Life-cycle costs are to be computed for rehabilitation costs determined from
the entire pavement structural section, past district records),
including shoulders, for a length of one Appurtenant and supplemental work
kilometer in one direction of travel on (all work to be done to appurtenant
divided highways. The entire structural drainage, safety, and other features
section is included for 2-lane roadways. made necessary by the rehabilitation
( 2 ) PCC Pavement Structural Section. The work),
0 life-cycle cost analysis for a PCCP structural
section should include the following items Traffic delay (obtain cost data from
as appropriate: District Division of Planning),
(aj Initial Costs. Detours (may be included in
appurtenant and supplemental work),
PCCP, and
Treated base (EB, ACB, ATPB, CTPB), Salvage value (estimated remaining
Aggregate base (AB), service life of pavement or value of
structural section materials).
Aggregate subbase (AS), (3) ACP Pavement Structural Section. The
life-cycle cost analysis for an ACP structural
Shoulders, section should include the following items:
Shoulder base, (a) Initial Cost.
Shoulder subbase, ACP,
Structural section drainage system Base (KB,ACB, CIB, AWB, CIPB,AB),
(TPB layer under PCCP andlor edge
drains), and Aggregate subbase (AS),
Joint seal. AC shoulders,
(b) Maintenance Costs. Shoulder base, and
e Maintenance (seal joints and cracks,

slab jacking, undersealing to fill
Shoulder subbase.
July 1.1995
(b) Maintenance Cost. Where:

Maintenance (thin AC blanket, chip PWC = Present worth cost
seals, patching, sealing cracks, etc.), IC = Initial cost
and RC = Rehabilitation cost
Traffic delay. EC = Engineering cost
SC = Supplemental work cost
(c) Rehabilitation Cost. DC = Traffic delay cost
45 mrn AC overlay or equivalent hot PWF = Present worth factor
recycle alternate for all lanes and MC = Maintenancecost
shoulders once every 12 years, SV = Salvage value
Engineering cost (preliminary and It is imperative that careful attention be given to
construction charges as percent of the calculations involved and the data used in the
rehabilitation costs determined from calculations to insure the most realistic and
past district records), factual comparison between pavement types and
rehabilitation strategies.
Appurtenant and supplemental work
(all work to be done to appurtenant An economic life-cycle cost comparison format
drainage, safety, and other features for a 35-year period is presented in Table 609.3.
made necessary by the rehabilitation
work), -
Topic 610 Structure Approach
Traffic delay (obtain costs from Pavement and Structure
District Division of Planning), Abutment Embankment Design
Detours (may be included in 610.1 Introduction
appurtenant and supplemental work),
and The ultimate goal of structure approach slab
design is to provide a smooth transition between
Salvage value (estimated remaining a pavement that is generally supported on a
service life of pavement or value of yielding medium (soil that is subject to
structural section materials). consolidation and settlement) and a structure
The computation of present worth cost for one which is supported on a rekvely unyielding
pavement type can be stated as the formula: foundation (piling or spread footings).
Present worth cost = The approaches to any structure, new or
existing, often present unique geometric,
Initial cost + [(Rehabilitation costs + drainage, structural section, and -c
Engineering Cost + Supplemental Work situations that require special design
Cost + Traffic Delay Cost) x Present Worth considerations.
Factor Number 11 + [(Maintenance costs) x
Present Worth Factor Number 21 - [(Salvage Adequate information must be available early in
value) x Present Worth Factor Number 31. the project development process if all factors
affecting the selection and design of a structure
Using symbols, this also can be expressed as approach system are to be properly assessed. A
follows: field review will often reveal existing conditions
PWC = IC + [(RC + EC + SC + DC) x P W which must be taken into consider&on during
No. 11 + (MC x P W NO. 2) - (SV x the design.
July 1,1995
Table 609.3
Life-Cycle Economic Comparision of Pavement Types
(35-Year Analysis Period and 5% Discount Rate)
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT (PCCP) Cost Per Kilometer With
Shoulders
Initial Cost = %ca>
Rehabilitation at 15 years (grooving and truck lane slab replacement):
Cost = $0
Engineering $ u ) ( O . 1225) = $ 0
Appurtenant and Supplemental Work $-)(O. 1350) = $ 0
Traffic Delay = $ 0
$W
Present Worth of 15-year Rehabilitation $m(0.4810) = $0
Rehabilitation at 25 years (Crack, Seat, and 105 mm AC Overlay):
Cost = $0
Engineering $Ch)(O. 1225) = $ 0
Appurtenant and Supplemental Work $Ch)(O. 1350) = $ 0
Traffic Delay = $ 0
$Ce)
Present Worth of 25-year Rehabilitation $(&(0.2953) = $0
$0
e Maintenance for 35 years (See Index 609.3(2)(b))
Subtotal (A+C+E+F)
Less Salvage Value (of rehabilitation)**
$((16.3742)=
(2112) $ 0 ( 0 . 1 8 1 3 ) =
$
- $c)
0
PCCP Net Present Worth Cost $ 0

ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT (ACP) Cost Per Kilometer
With Shoulders
Initial Cost = $0
Rehabilitation (45 mm Overlay or Hot Recycling 45 mm):
Cost = $0
Engineering $ U ) ( O . 1225) = ( $
Appurtenant and Supplemental Work $Ch)(O. 1350) = $ 0
Traffic Delay = $ 0
$Ci)
Present Worth of Rehabilitation at 12 years $0(0.5568) = $0
Present Worth of Rehabilitation at 24 years $0(0.3101) = $0
Maintenance for 35 years (See Index 609.3(3)(b)) $((16.3742)= $0
Subtotal (G+I+J+K) $ 0
Less Salvage Value (of Resurfacing) ** (1112) $Ci)(0.1813) = - $c)
ACP Net Present Worth Cost $ 0
Savings Per Kilometer Using (PCCPIACP) [Circle appropriate pavement type] $ 0
N r n
* As an initial estimate, use the average annual district maintenance cost for the respective type of pavement.
** Salvage Value Assumptions: For purposes of this example, the original PCCP is expected to require some type of rehabilita-
tion work at 15 and 25 years. At the end of the 35-year comparison, the second rehabilitation is expected to serve 2 years
longer. This provides a salvage value of 2/12 the cost of the second rehabilitation. The original ACP is expected to require
resurfacing or recycling in 12 and 24 years, and the 45 rnm AC overlay or recycling is assumed to last 12 years for a total
service of 36 years.
July 1,1995
These design guidelines must be followed in the specified material. The RE File should include
design of all projects involving new adequate information and guidance to assist the
construction, reconstruction or rehabilitation of RE in fulfilling this responsibility.
structure approaches. They are not, however, a On rehabilitation projects, complete inves-
substitute for engineering knowledge, tigations by the District Division of Operations
experience, or judgment. will be necessary to assess the impact of lane
610.2 Functional Area Responsibilities closures and detours on the traveling public.
Recommendations by the District Division of
Investigations by the Office of Structural Operations staff should be followed when
Foundations (OSF) Structure Foundation andlor developing the project PS&E.
Roadway Geotechnical Engineering Branches, On new construction projects, the DOS is
District Materials Unit, and District Division of responsible for determining whether or not a
Operations will generally be necessary for concrete pavement approach system is used at
complete analysis of the structure approach each bridge site. On rehabilitation projects, the
foundation and embankment conditions, seismic Pavement Rehabilitation Scoping Team will
concerns, and traffic handling. recommend whether or not replacement or
A foundation investigation and analysis should construction of a PCC approach slab(s) is
be performed by the OSF Structure Foundation necessary.
Branch on new construction projects. At the When the construction or rehabilitation of a
request of the Division of Structures (DOS), the concrete pavement approach is necessary, the
OSF Roadway Geotechnical Engineering DOS is responsible for selecting the type of
Branch will prepare a Geotechnical Design concrete approach system to be used.
Report based upon its studies and information
supplied by the District. The report should The Project Engineer (PE) should contact the
include a summary of field investigations, District Liaison Engineer as early as possible in
estimate of settlement by areas, specific the project development process to facilitate
recommendations for foundation treatment, and project scheduling. The PE must provide
a history of the performance of structure pertinent site information to DOS and may
abutment foundations and embankments in the submit recommendations concerning the need
same area. All foundation and embankment for concrete approach systems. Close coordina-
recommendations by the OSF Branches must be tion between the District staff and DOS staff is
carefully followed i i development of the project necessary for the proper selection and design of
PS&E. a structure approach system.
The District Materials Unit is responsible for The PE is responsible for the Plans,
conducting a preliminary soils investigation Specifications, and Estimate (PS&E) of all
which addresses the quality of the materials structure approach contract items below the
available in and under the roadway prism for grading plane, except for the contiguous
constructing the project. Poor quality material, drainage system components placed within the
such as expansive soils, must be precluded from abutments and wingwalls. The PE is
structure abutment embankments. If sufficient responsible for PS&E of drainage outside the
quality roadway excavation material is abutments and wingwalls. Figure 6 10.2A
unavailable for constructing structure abutment shows the limits of structure approach embank-
embankments, the designer may specify select ment material requiring 95% relative compaction
material, local borrow or imported borrow to for which the PE is responsible. The PE is also
satisfy the design requirements. responsible for coordinating and reviewing the
Quality requirements for embankment material adequacy of all drainage ties between the
are normally specified only in the case of structure approach drainage features and other
imported borrow. When select material or local new or existing drainage facilities.
borrow for use in structure abutment em- DOS is responsible for the PS&E of all structure
bankments is shown on the plans, the Resident approach contract items above the grading plane
Engineer (RE) is responsible for assuring the and for the drainage system components placed
adequacy of the quantity and quality of the within the abutments and wingwalls. Questions
Figure 610.2A
Limits of Structure Approach Embankment Material
Embankment
L',B
PLAN
Embankment
Material
Varies (1:2 M Steeper)
SECTION A-A
1.5 m* Maximum 1.5 m* Maximum

(90% Relative Compaction Zone Relative Compaction Zone)
Original Ground
SECTION B-B
July 1,1995
Figure 610.28
Type 45 Structure Approach Layout
Shoulder
Structure
Deck
Shoulder
Plan View
Approach Pavement Slab
stic Pipe (Slotted)
Woven Tape Fabric
Drain
Section A-A
Abutment
July 1,1995
Figure 610.2C
Approach Slab Edge Details
Barrier Railing Barrier Railing
76 mm x 76 mm x 6.4 mm
Steel Angle
Woven Tape 1
I \ /Approach Slab Slab
Fabric ,
Woven Tape 1
Fabric
Styrofoam
Permeable
Fabric
\
Geocomposite
~eocom~osite
Drain
Drain
m
Figure 610.2D
Abutment Drainage ~ e t a i l s *
Abutment Wall
Wingwall
/ Drain
Treated Permeable
1. Applicable to Type 45 Structure Apprc)ach Systems only.

2. Applicable to new construction only.
July 1,1995
concerning approach slab design should be The Type 45 system includes a 9 m long
directed to DOS. Figures 6 10.2B, 6 10.2C and reinforced concrete pavement slab and a
610.2D show diagrammatically the structure 4.5 m long structure approach sleeper slab.
approach features which are DOS The structure approach system extends
responsibilities. laterally across all trafic lanes and shoulder
areas. The approach slab is designed to
Special attention to the structure approach plans, either cantilever over (preferred) or extend to
special provisions and specifications during all the inside faces of both abutment wingwalls.
phases of construction will be required on the
part of both the structure and highway The Type 45 approach system is used only
construction inspectors. on new construction with structures having
diaphragm type abutments. It is primarily
610.3 Structure Approach Pavement used on PCCP but may be used on ACP if
Systems warranted by special site conditions.
Concrete pavement approach systems are used (2) Type 30 Structure Approach Pavement Sys-
on all portland cement concrete pavements tem (Approach SlabDrainage). This
(PCCP) and on multilane asphalt concrete approach slab is a 9 m long reinforced
pavements (ACP) located within currently concrete pavement slab which rests on and
designated urbanized areas. Urbanized areas are is tied to the structure abutment backwall or
identified, by kilometer post, in the Route paving notch. The slab extends laterally
Segment Report, Project Management Control across all traffic lanes and shoulder areas.
System (PMCS) Data Base and State Highway The approach slab is designed to either
Inventory. The current boundaries of urbanized cantilever over or extend to the inside faces
areas are also shown on the official State of both abutment wingwalls.
Highway Map. The Type 30 system is the design standard
There are several pavement slab alternatives that for new construction at structures with seat
may be considered in the design of a structure type abutments. The Type 30 system is also
approach pavement system. These alternatives adaptable to diaphragm type abutments
are designated Types 45, 30, and 10 structure where the Type 45 approach system may be
approach systems. Standard details and special inappropriate. The Type 30 slab is the
provisions have been developed for each type of standard rehabilitation treatment at structures
approach system. DOS will select the with either diaphragm or seat type
appropriate alternate and include applicable abutments.
details and specifications in the PS&E. (3) Type I0 Structure Approach Pavement
On all new construction projects (PCCP or System - Earthquake Zones (Seismic Ramp
ACP), regardless of the type of structure ap- Slab). The Type 10 structure approach slab,
proach selected, provisions for positive drainage 3 m in length, is used only on ACP located
of the approach system are to be incorporated within areas of high magnitude seismic
into the design. activity. This approach slab is designed to
On rehabilitation projects, provisions for
provide a ramp to accommodate the passage
of motor vehicles over the structure in the
positive drainage of the structural section must event that an earthquake creates settlement of
be incorporated into the structure approach the structure abutment embankment and
design. approach pavement. The Type 10 seismic
On new construction projects, overcrossing ramp slab is provided when both conditions
structures constructed in conjunction with the (a) and (b) exist or when condition (c)
State highway facility should receive the same exists:
considerations as the highway mainline. (a) Peak rock acceleration is estimated to be
A brief discussion of the types of structure 0.6 x gravity or greater, as documented
approach pavement systems follows: in the Geotechnical Design Report,
Materials Report or Foundation Report.
( I ) Type 45 Structure Approach System
(Approach and Sleeper SlabdDrainage).
(b) Approach embankment or fill height ex- slab, parallel to and 9 m from the abutment
ceeds 3 m. wall, provides for this movement.
(c) Geologic conditions, as documented in The Type 30 approach system is used at
the Geotechnical Design Report, Materi- structures having either diaphragm or seat
als Report or Foundation Report, indi- type abutments. At a diaphragm type abut-
cate the need for a seismic approach ment, structure movement is accommodated
ramp. at the sealed joint between the approach slab
If an alternate and convenient route is and abutment. Structure movement at a seat
available for use by emergency vehicles, the type abutment will occur at the structure side
use of the Type 10 structure approach of the abutment. The structurelabutment
system is not necessary. joint is designed to handle the movement.
610.4 Structure Approach Pavement The Type 10 approach system is also used at
-
System New Construction both seat and diaphragm type abutments.
Various abutmentlslab tie details are avail-
( 1 ) Foundation and Embankment Design. The able to accommodate structure movement.
structural stability and overall performance (3) Structure Approach Drainage. Special
of the structure approach system depends, to attention must be given to providing a posi-
a significant degree, upon the long term tive drainage system that minimizes the po-
settlement/ consolidation of the approach tential for water damage to the structure
foundation and structure abutment em- approach embankment. The following
bankment. A design that minimizes this post features should be included:
construction settlement/ consolidation is es-
sential. Factors that influence settlement/ (a) Abutment and Wingwall Drainage
consolidation include soil types and depths, A geocomposite drain covered with filter
static and dynamic loads, ground water fabric is used behind both the abutment
level, adjacent operations, and changes in wall and wingwalls, as indicated in
any of the above. All foundation and Figures 610.2B, 610.2C, and 610.2D.
embankment recommendations by the OSF
Branches and District Materials Unit must be A slotted plastic pipe drain, encapsulated
carefully followed by the PE, and any with treated permeable material, is
significant deviations from their recommen- placed along the base of the inside face
dations must be approved by them. of the abutment wall as illustrated in
The relative compaction of material within Figure 610.2D. A pipe outlet system
the embankment limits, shown in Figure carries the collected water to a location
610.2A, must not be less than 95%, except where it will not cause erosion.
for the outer 1.5 m of embankment meas- Coordination with DOS is necessary for
ured horizontally from the side slope. The the exit location of the pipe system. The
District Materials Engineer or OSF may outlet type should be chosen from the
recommend using select material, local standard edge drain outlet types shown
and/or imported borrow to assure that the in the Standard Plans. The PE must
compaction requirements are met and that review the drainage design to insure the
shrink/swell problems are avoided. They adequacy of the drainage ties between
may also recommend a height and duration the abutment and wingwall drainage
of embankment surcharge to accelerate system and either new or existing
foundation consolidation. drainage facilities.
(2) Abutment Details. The Type 45 approach (b) Structural Section Drainage
slab is rigidly tied to the structure abutment Figure 610.2B shows the components
and acts as an extension of the structure. of the positive structural section drainage
Any movement of the abutment will also system. Filter fabric should be placed
occur in the approach slab. A sealed joint on the grading plane to minimize
@ between the approach slab and the sleeper contamination of the treated permeable
base (TPB) for all types of approach
July 1.1995
systems. For the Type 45 approach (4) Pavement Details. ApproacWsleeper slabs
system, a transverse slotted plastic pipe extend the full width of the traveled way and
is installed in the treated permeable layer shoulders. On new construction, or
under the approach slab and adjacent to rehabilitation work where the structure
the sleeper slab to intercept water that railing will be replaced, the approach slab
enters through this joint. The plastic extends laterally to coincide with the edge of
pipe should have a proper outlet to avoid the structure superstructure. The slab
erosion of the structure approach extends over the wingwall, but is separated
embankment. from the top of the wingwall by styrofoam
fdlers to preclude vertical loading of the
(c) Surface Drainage wingwalls when settlement of the
Roadway surface drainage should be embankment occurs. The new structure
intercepted before reaching the ap- railing is then attached to the approach slab.
proach/sleeper slab; likewise, structure The Type 45 approach slab system utilizes a
deck drainage, when practicable, should woven tape fabric which is used as an
be intercepted before reaching the interlayer separator on top of the treated
abutment joint or paving notch. The permeable base to reduce friction and
objective is to keep water away from the accommodate movement of the approach
structure approach embankment. The slab. The sleeper slab functions as a bearing
surface water, once collected, should be surface for the approach slab in the event
discharged at locations where it will not that settlement/consolidation of the structure
create erosion. abutment foundation or embankment occurs.
Containment of surface drainage The sleeper slab also functions as a
requires special breatment when the transition slab to the pavement structural
approach slab edge extends only to the section.
inside faces of the abutment wingwalls. Any longitudinal construction joints (cold
A 76 mm x 76 mm x 6.4 mm steel angle joints) required during construction of the
(see Figure 610.2C), pourable seal, and structure approach or sleeper slabs should
hardboard spacer prevent water from be placed on lane lines. The contact joint at
entering the structural section and the end of the sleeper slab is normal to the
embankment. On wingwalls longer than centerline. Transverse joints may be stag-
9 m, the angle is terminated at the sealed gered at the lane lines at skewed structures;
joint between the approach slab and the as illustrated in Figure 610.2B. The stagger
sleeper slab. may occur 7.2 m or 10.8 m apart for skews
When an AC dike is required to protect of 30 degrees or less and at each lane line
the side slope from erosion, it should be for skews greater than 30 degrees.
placed on the approach and sleeper slabs (5) Guardrail. The extension of the approach
and aligned to tie into the end of the and sleeper slabs across the full width of the
structure railing. The guardrail align- outside shoulder creates a conflict between
ment and edge of shoulder govern the the outside edge of these slabs and the
positioning of the AC dike. standard horizontal positioning of some
When the Type 45 approach system is guardrail posts. Douglas fu block spacers
used, the AC dike will inevitably crack are attached to the posts that conflict with the
due to expansion and contraction at the approach and sleeper slabs to move the post
approach/sleeper slab joint. A metal holes outside the edge of shoulder without
dike insert is used to carry the flow changing the standard alignment of the
across the sealed joint. The insert acts guardrail. These details are covered by DOS
as a water barrier to minimize erosion of Standard Details and by Standard Plans.
the fill slope. Details of the metal dike
insert are shown in the structure
approach plans provided by DOS.
July 1,1995
610.5 Structure Approach Slab - Cracking and seating of the existing PCCP
as well as the pavement reinforcement fabric
Rehabilitation Projects
(PRF) should be terminated at the start of
( I ) Approach Slab Replacement. The Type 30 the transition from the 105 mm AC overlay
approach slab is the primary rehabilitation depth.
standard for both PCCP and ACP. The Prior to placing an AC overlay across a
Type 10 approach slab may be used on ACP structure deck, the PE should contact the
only, if warranted by special site Office of Structures Maintenance regarding
considerations (see Index 6 10.3). the structural adequacy of the structure and
Replacement of a PCC approach slab con- other considerations. If an AC overlay is
sists of removing the existing pavement, ap- permissible, then the Office of Structure
proach slab, cement treated base and Design should be consulted to provide the
subsealing material (if applicable) and then necessary details.
replacing with an appropriate type of (4) Composite Pavements. Flexible (AC)
structure approach system. Depending on surfacing over rigid (PCC) pavement is con-
the thickness of the existing pavement and sidered to be a rigid pavement for structure
base materials to be removed, the minimum approach rehabilitation. The guidelines for
300 mm approach slab thickness (Type 30 rigid pavement apply to all composite pave-
approach system) may have to be increased. ment rehabilitation projects which include
(2) Structure Approach Drainage. Typical structure approach slab replacements.
details for positive drainage of a full-width (5) TraBc Handling. Traffic handling
structure approach system are shown in considerations generally preclude full-width
Figure 610.5A. Cross drains are placed at construction procedures. Structure
the abutment backwall and at the transverse approach rehabilitation is therefore usually
e joint between the existing pavement and the
concrete approach slab. A collectorloutlet
system is placed adjacent to the wingwall at
done under traffic control conditions which
require partial-width construction.
the low side of pavement. The collected District Division of Operations should be
water is carried away from the structure consulted for guidance on lane closures and
approach embankment to a location where it traffic handling.
will not cause erosion.
The approach slab edge details to prevent -
Topic 611 Pavement
entry of water at the barrier rail face (see Structural Section
Figure 610.2C - Type B) apply when the Rehabilitation
wingwalls and/or bridge barrier railing are
not being reconstructed.
611.1 Introduction
(3) Pavement Details. Special pavement details
are necessary when PCC approach slabs Pavement throughout the state is showing
will be replaced in conjunction with the varying degrees of distress and is in need of
crack, seat and AC overlay pavement preventive or corrective maintenance, or
rehabilitation strategy for PCCP. Figure rehabilitation. Corrective or preventative main-
6 10.5B, which is applicable to full-width tenance or rehabilitation may be needed to
slab replacement, illustrates a method of restore ride quality and minimize excessive
transitioning from the typical 105 mrn AC maintenance costs. Rehabilitation may be
overlay thickness to the minimum 45 mm needed to restore ride quality and structural
final AC lift thickness. Care should be integrity.
taken in areas with flat grades to avoid Caltrans is continually researching and
creating a ponding condition at the structure evaluating new rehabilitation materials, methods
abutment. and strategies for pavement maintenance and
rehabilitation. Since this is an area of rapidly
changing technology, the rehabilitation
guidelines presented under Topic 611 are not
July 1,1995
Figure 610.5A
Structure Approach Drainage Details
(Rehabilitation)
Outlets, See Standard
Structure Deck
-----
.-------
--------
\ Cap Ends of 1
Plastic Pipe
PLAN
7Concrete Aproach Slab

lure D&L I Profile Grade
' Structure Abutment Plastic P i p (Slotted)
SECTION A-A
Concrete
r sbuctUre kk7Concrete Aproach Slab

Approach
Slab 7 ,Existing PCCP
-Existing CTB
I
Cross Drain,
Plastk Pipe Plastk Pipe Filter Fabrk
(slottedj
Section C-C
Section B-B
Leaend
--
_. .. Direction of Flow
CTB Cement Treated Base
ortland ement
EoncreteSaement
TPM a'%, permeable

July 1,1995
Figure 610.5B
Structure Approach Pavement Transition Details

(Rehabilitation)
9m 40 m min. Limits for Crack and Seat

PCCP and PRF
0 h
I'
* - 4'
h --
*
h
'J
w
8
Asphalt Concrete
Match Structure Overlay
Deck Elevation
45 m
--
---
Min
PRF
concrete t
Existing CTB
I
I Approach Slab
' structure
Abutment CTB Cement Treated Base
PRF Pavement Reinforcing Fabric
PCCP Portland Cement Concrete Pavement
July 1,1995
intended to rule out other alternatives that may scheduling improvements according to
be appropriate. Project decisions should be Departmental rehabilitation policies and to
based on a multifunctional engineering team promote a more uniform level of pavement
effort which includes a careful review and performance statewide. The PMS reports
analysis of all pertinent factors for each project. are used by the PE, as a starting point, in the
Caltrans has adopted an abbreviated review determination of the appropriate repair strat-
process for pavement rehabilitation projects egy for rehabilitation and capital preventive
which involves a multifunctional team that meets maintenance (CAPM) projects.
in the field or office on short notice to expedite (2) PMS Reports. The PMS uses data gathered
the project approval process and ultimately the every two years in a statewide pavement
project design. The Project Scoping Team condition survey. This survey of the
includes employees with a depth of experience physical condition and ride quality of all
and background which assures that all pertinent through lanes of the California State
factors are considered. Highway System is fully documented.
The Scoping Team reviews are scheduled and The information obtained during the
coordinated by the District. Final project pavement inventory survey is compiled into
approval is by the District Director. See the various user reports. These reports have
Project Development Procedures Manual for been designed to provide a limited array of
details. report formats, thereby minimizing the
611.2 Pavement Management System volume of information furnished and
providing maximum capability and
( I ) General. Caltrans developed and adopted a flexibility for selecting and sorting
Pavement Management System (PMS) in the information. These reports identify where
late 1970's which emphasizes an engineered rehabilitation should be considered, indicate
approach to pavement rehabilitation, and a a potential repair strategy, provide repair
structured systems approach for the system- cost and expected service life, quantify
wide management of existing pavements. rehabilitation costs, support program
The PMS is the primary tool used in funding levels, and aid in determining
determining where repairs are needed and program and project priorities for
how available funds will be apportioned programming improvements.
statewide. It involves the following step- Three basic reports are developed. These are:
by-step processes:
(a) Pavement Condition Inventory
Inventorying pavement conditions. Flexible Pavement
Analyzing the extent and severity of
pavement distress. Rigid Pavement
Identifying potential cost effective re- Structure Approach Ride Rating

pair strategies and potential alternatives (b) Candidate Location Priority List:
for candidate projects.
Reconstruction and Restoration Pro-
Relating the repair strategies to the ap- gram (HA221
propriate Caltrans highway program
structure. (c) Potential Corrective Strategies for All
Triggered Lanes (containing all triggered
Developing a candidate project list for problems and potential repair strategies
each district and statewide, based on for each lane).
"triggering" factors, a "decision tree",
analysis and a priority system. Reconstruction and Restoration Pro-
gram (HAW
The PMS is used by the Programming
Program to assist in programming and Flexible Pavement Maintenance Pro-
gram (HM1 4
July 1,1995
@ Rigid Pavement
Program (HM 1B)
Maintenance In asphalt concrete pavement (ACP), base or
subbase failure may be visually indicated by the
rutting of the AC surface in the wheel paths or
The Project Development Procedures by alligator cracking of the AC. On the other
Manual requires that all Project Scope hand, deep rutting may also indicate a lack of
Summary Reports (PSSRs) for roadway stability in the AC. Meandering cracks and
rehabilitation, reconstruction, and resto- differential settlement of the surface most likely
ration projects include the latest indicates a subsurface problem.
Pavement Management System Inven-
tory Report for the pavement segment There are many variables in materials and
included in the project limits. environment as well as other factors that affect
the ~erformanceof Davement structural sections.
611.3 Pavement Rehabilitation Project hit makes it imp6ssible to develop hard and
Development Procedures fast rules for the rehabilitation of pavements.
Therefore, the PE should rely on the experience,
Special project development procedures which judgment and guidance of engineers in pertinent
include those mentioned in Index 6 11.1, are functional engineering areas who are familiar
followed in the development and design of with the design, construction, materials, and
pavement rehabilitation projects in order to maintenance of pavement in the geographical
reduce the lag time between the recognition of area of the project. Deflection testing of ACP,
pavement deterioration symptoms and con- coring of PCCP and other tests can be used to
struction of the project. These procedures are confirm judgments that are made.
covered in the Project Development Procedures
Manual. The following discussion of pavement failure
types for PCCP and ACP primarily includes
611.4 General Pavement Structural those encountered in California on plain-jointed
Section Failure Types PCCP and on ACP. Brief definitions of these
are also included in Topic 612. The failure type
Engineering judgment, based primarily on terminology shown below is generally the same
experience in pavement design, construction, as that included in the Pavement Management
materials, and maintenance, is required to System Manual of Rating Instructions which is
identify pavement failure types and to determine available in each district through the HA22
the primary source of failure. With experience Program Advisor.
in these areas an observer can generally
determine whether the failure is primarily in the 611.5 PCCP Failure Types
pavement layer, the base andor the subbase, or (I) Faulting. Also called step-faulting, this is a
in the basement soil. Where there is no phenomenon that is common on California's
significant visual distortion in the riding surface, plane-jointed PCCP. This occurs primarily
the failure can generally be assumed to be at transverse joints and at "working trans-
confined to the pavement layer. verse cracks", as a result of slab pumping
In portland cement concrete pavement (PCCP) action that occurs with the passage of each
with basement soil problems, surface distortion heavy truck axle when the structural section
is most commonly manifested in the form of is saturated. Pumping may continue for
uneven tipping of slabs or broken slab segments several weeks after a rainstorm.
and sometimes by differential movement at A badly faulted pavement generally exhibits
joints. Step faulting at weakened plane a history of shoulder distress adjacent to the
transverse joints of uncracked slabs or at both edge of the traveled way, due primarily to
transverse joints and intermediate transverse the pumping of aggregate base fines from
cracks, without uneven distortion, indicates that under the AC shoulder. Faulting, and the
the problem is primarily confined to the accompanying loss of full base support of
structural section. A combination of the above the slab, generally precedes and is
conditions would indicate the problem is both in considered to be a major contributing factor
the structural section and basement soil. to slab cracking and eventual breakup.
July 1.1995
(2) Slab Cracking. Pavement cracks generally where uniform slab support is lacking and
result from heavy wheel loading combined there is vertical movement due to wheel load
with lack of uniform base support. Crack- impact.
ing also results from weak subgrades, (6) Surface Attrition. Surface attrition or
expansive soils and differential settlement. "surface abrasion" is abnormal surface wear
The degrees of cracking are described below. of the concrete pavement, usually resulting
(a) First-stage cracking. Non-intersecting from poor quality surface mortar or coarse
transverse, longitudinal or diagonal aggregate. Surface attrition is especially ac-
cracks in a slab which divide the slab celerated by the action of tire chains and
into two or three large pieces. This does studded tires.
not include corner breaks. (7) Surface Polish. Surface polish is the loss of
(b) Second-stage cracking. Transverse, the original surface texture due to traffic
longitudinal or diagonal cracks which action.
develop in a slab within 0.6 m of
planned or unplanned cracks or joints. 611.6 ACP Failure Types
Second stage cracking divides the slab ( I ) Alligator Cracking. Alligator cracks are a
into smaller pieces than first-stage series of interconnected or interlaced cracks
cracking. The cracks are basically caused by fatigue failure of the AC surface
parallel and do not intersect. under repeated traffic loading. The cracking
(c) Third-stage cracking. Cracking of the initiates at the bottom of the AC pavement
slab into three or more pieces with inter- where strain, which occurs under wheel
connected cracks developing between loads, is excessive and tensile stress is
cracks or joints. highest. These cracks are always load
(3) Settlement. Settlement is a local sag in the associated. Initially, the cracks appear as
pavement that results from differential single longitudinal cracks or a series of
settlement or consolidation, or movement of parallel cracks in the wheel paths. Upon
the underlying earth mass. Sags most further loading, the cracks interconnect
commonly occur above culverts due to the forming many-sided, sharp angled pieces
settlement or densification of backfill or at which develop into a pattern resembling that
grade points between cut and fill sections. of an alligator's hide. Alligator cracking is
Sidehill slippage also contributes to differen- categorized into the three types in the PMS
tial settlement of the pavement and longitu- as outlined below.
dinal cracking. Type A. Initial single or parallel longi-
(4) Blow-Ups. Blow-ups are localized upward tudinal fatigue cracks in the wheel
buckling and shattering of the slabs at paths.
transverse joints or cracks. Any area where
the transverse joint openings become filled Type B. Interconnected fatigue cracks
with incompressible solids or where insuf- in the wheel paths.
ficient joint has been provided is susceptible
to blow-ups. Although blow-ups are not Type C. Other patterns of fatigue
common in California, they occur in freeze- cracks due to a localized condition
thaw areas where the pavement is sanded with minimal base or surface
during the winter season and in areas subject thickness.
to large temperature changes. Type C alligator cracking generally occurs
(5) Joint or Crack Spalling. Spalling is the outside the wheel paths. The cause of the
breakdown or disintegration of slab edges at condition is usually apparent, such as edge
joints or cracks, usually resulting in the loss cracking due to widening of a pavement
of sound concrete and progressive widening with minimal base or surface thickness.
of the joint or crack. It occurs at joints or Other causes of Type C alligator cracking
cracks when incompressible materials are are mud-balls in the base, and pumping and
confmed in the opening. It also occurs deterioration at reflective cracks.
July 1,1995
@ ( 2 ) Block Cracking. Block cracks are large

interconnected polygons, usually with sharp
(b) Medium. One of the following
conditions exists:
corners or angles. These cracks are
generally due to hardening and shrinkage of sealed or unsealed cracks of any
the asphalt andlor reflection cracking from width that are moderately spalled;
CTB. The blocks may range in size from sealed cracks are not spalled or have
approximately 0.1 m2 to 2.5 m2. This type only minor spalling, but the sealant
of distress is not load-associated, although is in a condition so that water can
load can increase the severity of individual enter freely;
cracks. Block cracking normally occurs
over a large portion of the pavement area, nonsealed cracks are not spalled or
but sometimes occurs only in nonmc have only minor spalling, but mean
areas. The three severity levels of block crack width is greater than 6 rnm;
cracking are given below.
(a) Light. Unsealed cracks that are not low severity random cracking exists
spalled (the sides of the crack are near the crack or at the comers of in-
vertical) or cracks with only minor tersecting cracks; or
spalling (cracks with a mean width of the crack causes a significant bump
6 mm or less). Also, sealed cracks
containing sealant that prevents moisture to a vehicle.
from entering, are block cracks of light (c) High. One or more of the following are
severity. present:
(b) Medium. Blocks that contain sealed or cracks are severely spalled,
unsealed cracks that are moderately
e spalled; unsealed cracks that are not
spalled or have only minor spalling but
have a mean width greater than 6 rnm, or
medium or high random cracking
exists near the crack or at the corners
of intersecting cracks; or
sealed cracks that are not spalled or have
only minor spalling but have sealant in the crack causes a severe bump to a
satisfactory condition. vehicle.
(c) High. Blocks that are well-defined by (4) Longitudinal Cracking. Longitudinal cracks
cracks that are severely spalled. are approximately parallel to the pavement
(3) Transverse Cracking. Transverse cracks are centerline. They may be caused by:
approximately at right angles to the poorly constructed paving lane joints,
pavement centerline. They may be caused
by shrinkage or differential thermal stress of shrinkage of the AC surface due to low
the AC surface or hardening of the asphalt, temperatures or hardening of the asphalt,
or may be reflective cracks caused by breaks or
beneath the surface course, i.e. shrinkage
cracks in CTB. The three severity levels of a reflective crack caused by cracks be-
transverse cracking are outlined below. neath the surface course.
(a) Light. Sealed or unsealed cracks that The severity levels for longitudinal cracks
have little or no spalling. If sealed, they are the same as those given for transverse
have a mean width of 6 rnm or less. cracks in Index 611.6(3)
. , above.
Sealed cracks are of any width, but their
sealant material is in satisfactory (5) Rutting. A rut is a surface depression in a
condition to substantially prevent water wheel path which can cause pavement uplift.
from entering. No significant bump Rutting stems from a permanent deformation
occurs when a vehicle crosses the crack. in any of the pavement layers or in the
0 subgrade, usually resulting from consoli-
dation or lateral movement of the layer due
July 1,1995
to trafic loads. Rutting may be caused by weather and then expands out onto the
plastic movement in the AC during hot surface of the pavement. Excess moisture in
weather, or inadequate compaction during a pavement may cause stripping of asphalt
construction. Significant rutting can lead to which may also result in bleeding.
major structural failure of the pavement and Since bleeding is not reversible during cold
hydroplaning potential. Light, medium and weather, asphalt will accumulate on the
high severity rutting levels are described be- surface and cause a reduction in skid resis-
low. tance.
(a) Light. Ruts whose mean depths range
from6mmto 13 mm. 611.7 General Pavement Rehabilitation
@) Medium. Ruts which have average
Strategies
depths ranging from greater than 13 mrn Pavement service life is affected by many fac-
to 25 mm. tors. Each rehabilitation project should,
(c) High. Ruts with average depths that are therefore, be analyzed carefully to develop the
greater than 25 rnm. most appropriate corrective action.
(6)Raveling. Raveling is the wearing away of Factors which should be considered in de-
the pavement surface caused by the termining appropriate corrective action include
dislodging of aggregate particles and binder. the following:
This is generally due to insufficient asphalt Type, degree, extent and cause of
binder in the mix or stripping of asphalt deterioration,
from particles of aggregate. The severity
levels are outlined below. Rate of deterioration,
(a) Fine. The fine aggregate and binder has
worn away, and the surface texture is
moderately rough and pitted.
Comparative lane deterioration,
Base condition and underlying support,
e
(b) Coarse. The coarse aggregate and/or
binder have worn away and the surface Retention or trapping of surface water in
texture is severely rough and pitted. the structural section,
(7) Drip Track Ravel. Drip track ravel is the Shoulder condition,
progressive disintegration of the surface
between wheel paths. This progressive dis- Ride Score,
integration of the surface between the wheel
paths is caused by the dripping of oil and Vertical Controls,
gas from vehicles. These petroleum prod- Traffic loadings and volume,
ucts soften and weaken the bitumen causing
the loss of the aggregate and binder. ~ a v d Pavement Deflection (ACP),
due to the leaching of asphalt binder by gas
and oil, is primarily a condition which Traffic handling alternatives,
occurs at intersections where vehicles must
come to a stop before proceeding. Conservation of materials and energy,
(8) Bleeding. Bleeding, also known as flush- Availability of new materials, and
ing, is the exuding of bitumen onto the
pavement surface which creates a shiny, Cost.
glass-like, reflecting surface. Also,
bleeding may be so extensive that streams of During the service life of a pavement structural
asphalt flow over the pavement's surface. section, preventive maintenance work should be
Bleeding is generally caused by excessive performed at the appropriate time to preserve the
amounts of asphalt cement in the mix and/or pavement structural section and thus postpone
low air void contents. It occurs when or minimize the magnitude of the pavement
asphalt fills the voids of the mix during hot rehabilitation work that eventually will be
July 1,1995
required in the future. Capital preventive Accordingly, rehabilitation strategies should

maintenance (CAPM) strategies are designed to represent the minimal improvement that will
extend the pavement service life for 5 years. extend service life for at least 10 years.
Surface treatments (i.e.: seal coats, etc.) and Following is a description of various pavement
"thin blanket" AC overlays are not CAPM rehabilitation strategies for both PCC and AC
strategies. See the Project Development pavements and criteria for their use.
Procedures Manual for CAPM project
development procedures. Rehabilitation strategies should generally
conform to the following guidelines.
CAPM projects typically include such items as Significant variations from these guidelines
placement of additional surface material, must be documented in the project approval
grinding pavement surfaces, andlor other document (PSSR, PR, etc.). The project
pavement structural section related work approval document should also include the
necessary to preserve the existing roadway. various alternatives studied and reasons why
CAPM projects are not to include upgrading of they were not recommended.
geometric features and appurtenances for safety
purposes and will not degrade the existing 611.8 PCCP Rehabilitation Strategies
geometric design and safety features to below
those which currently exist. All newly Caltrans has experimented with edge drains to
constructed project features are to be in rapidly remove infiltrated surface water and
conformance with current design and safety thereby to inhibit the pumping action that results
standards, policies and practices. CAPM in step faulting. Other corrective or preventive
projects which are consistent with the scope and techniques that have been tried include cement-
intent of the CAPM program do not require an pozzolan grout subsealing to fill voids under
"Exceptions from Mandatory Design Standards slabs, replacement of cracked slabs, lane
Fact Sheet". replacement, slab jacking (primarily at structure
approaches) to raise settled slabs back to a
Reconstruction work, like new construction, is smooth profile, diamond grinding to correct the
generally planned to provide either 10 or 20 profile of step-faulted surfaces, longitudinal
years of future service life (as discussed in grooving to inhibit hydroplaning and reduce wet
Index 603.2); whereas rehabilitation is a weather skidding accidents, thin resin and
correction to extend the service life of an ex- special cement concrete overlays to restore
isting facility for at least 10 years. Recon- surface profile and texture, cracking and seating
struction is designed to current geometric of slabs in conjunction with asphalt concrete
standards whereas rehabilitation generally overlays, joint sealing, crack and joint spall
conforms to existing geometric features with repairs, thick unbonded concrete overlays, thin-
only minimal upgrading, see Index 307.3. bonded concrete overlays, and asphalt concrete
-
On many roadway segments, the outer (truck) overlays.

lanes of multilane facilities have incurred In the past, some of the above rehabilitation
structural damage from a high volume of heavy techniques have been used in a piecemeal
trucks while the median lanes have retained their manner to correct a symptom without getting to
structural adequacy. In these cases, outer lane the root of the problem. For instance, step
reconstruction to restore structural adequacy and faulting at transverse joints has been corrected
ride quality may be more cost effective than a by grinding to restore a smooth surface profile
structural overlay which must be carried across without inhibiting the pumping action that
all adjacent lanes and shoulders. The presence created the faulting. As a result the pumping
of vertical grade controls, median barriers, action continued and faulting, in some cases,
drainage facilities, restrictive structure clearance, built up to its pre-grinding level within 4 years.
etc., can preclude the placement of a structural In other cases, asphalt overlays have been
overlay and thus require lane reconstruction or placed over deteriorated or rough concrete
reconstruction with a grade change. pavement without stabilizing rocking slabs or
providing more positive structural section
drainage. This has resulted in continued
rocking of slabs, continued pumping action, the
July 1.1995
development of reflective cracking through the full depth 6 mm thick polyethylene foam
overlay, and additional step faulting. Thin expansion joint filler along the transverse
overlays utilizing plastic resins and special joints prior to placing the new concrete are
cements are very high in cost and the potential necessary to inhibit spalling along the
benefits primarily are limited to improvements transversejoints.
of profile, texture, and abrasion resistance.
Transverse joint sealing should be specified
Caltrans' cwrent practice, based on experience in freeze-thaw areas, where sanding in the
and experimentation, is to use a single or a winter tends to fill the joints with incom-
combination of several preventive or corrective pressible materials. It is not, however,
techniques which will provide the best overall practical or necessary that this be a
solution to extend the pavement life for 10 years completely watertight joint. The primary
or more. The choice of strategies depends pri- purpose for joint sealing is to keep out the
marily on the pavement condition and apparent incompressiblematerial.
rate of deterioration. The rate of deterioration is
based on experience, field observation, and a When sealing transverse joints is specified
review of progressive biennial PMS condition on rehabilitation projects, the relatively low
surveys. cost rubberized asphalt materials should
generally be utilized. These materials are
( I ) Slab Replacement and Grind This strategy, generally easier to maintain than the thermo-
both restorative and preventive, includes plastic materials which have not performed
several techniques based on research, well in limited usage on PCCP in California.
experience and engineering judgment. Caltrans has experimented with the relatively
Portland cement concrete pavement that has high cost silicones for several years, but it is
deteriorated to an unacceptable ride, but is doubtful that the added cost is warranted on
still structurally sound, benefits from this rehabilitation projects.
strategy. To warrant this strategy, the
pavement must generally have a ride score The slab replacement and grinding
greater than or equal to 45 and third stage combination rehabilitation strategy is
cracking less than or equal to 10%. anticipated to provide a minimum of 10
years additional service without significant
Care should be taken to review the com- pavement maintenance.
parative percentage of slab cracking from
PMS surveys to detennine rate of deteriora- (2) Crack and Seat Slabs, Install Edge Drains,
tion. If the rate of deterioration (slab crack- and Place an AC Overlay with PRF
ing) is increasing rapidly, consideration Interlayer. This strategy is a combination of
should be given to using the strategy dis- recycling, restoration, and preventive tech-
cussed in Index 611.8(2). niques. This strategy is used where
The combined strategy used under these concrete pavement has an unacceptable ride
conditions is to: replace individual slabs and is in an intermediate to advanced stage
which have multiple cracks and/or severe of structural deterioration. Generally, this
crack or joint sg- or depressions; grind means there is extensive third stage cracking
to remove faulting and thereby to restore a (over 10%) of individual concrete slabs and
smooth surface profile and repair spalled it appears to be futile to try to "keep up" by
joints and cracks as necessary. Care should utilizing individual slab replacement and
be taken in grinding not to leave vertical grinding. Slab replacement is not
ridges in excess of 13 mm. appropriate under this strategy, unless there
is complete disintegration of a slab or
The repair of both interior and exterior segment.
PCCP slab corner breaks appears to be a
critical factor in the performance of In this case, the combination strategy used is
rehabilitated PCCP. The repair of small to crack and seat the PCCP slabs, install
PCCP corner breaks should be made using edge drains, and place a 105 mm DGAC
full lane width partial slab replacements at overlay with a pavement reinforcing fabric
least 2 m in length. Full depth sawing of the (PRF) interlayer. This strategy should
slab prior to removal and installation of a consist of first placing a 30 mm leveling
July 1, 1995
course of DGAC, followed by a PRF, a on top of the PCCP or by milling a

30 mm lift of DGAC and a final 45 mm lift transition wedge taper into the PCCP.
of DGAC. If the criteria for OGAC has In utilizing the cracking and seating pro-
been satisfied, place a 30 rnm DGAC cedure, which Caltrans considers to be one
leveling course followed by a PRF, a of the highest forms of recycling, the goal is
45 mm lift of DGAC and a final lift of to break the slabs into nominal 1.2 m x
30 mm of OGAC. 1.8m segments to serve as a stable base for
When an existing PCCP panel is shattered the ove;Ly. During the compaction of the
or badly spalled and the pieces are unstable first lift of the AC overlay, the slab
under traffic, consideration should be given segments are firmly seated onto the
to removing the concrete panel by the "lift underlaying base by vibratory rollers. The
off' method, recompacting the base if cracking, seating, and rolling not only
necessary, and then placing full depth AC or stabilizes the slab segments to minimize any
accelerated set PCC. When accelerated set differential vertical movement but it also
PCC is used, it is.imperative that weakened reduces the magnitude of thermal movement
plane joints be constructed on the paved and strains that are transmitted into the
centerline and transversely at panel quarter overlay and the PRF interlayer. This
points to a depth of 314 the depth of the minimizes the reflective cracking tendency
replacement slab. Formed joints shall be that has been observed on asphalt concrete
constructed by inserting 6 mm hardboard overlays over PCCP.
strips during placement of the PCC or by The installation of edge drains, when
sawing. When these procedures are combined with the PRF interlayer, mini-
followed, it will not be necessary to crack mizes the potential for entry and entrapment
the new slab prior to the seating process. of water and pumping action of the PCCP
a On four-lane divided freeways, both lanes in
each direction are cracked and seated
whereas on facilities with 3 or more lanes in
segments under the AC overlay. The
Pavement Consulting Services Branch in
METS should be consulted on the
each direction, if no significant distress or advisability of installing retrofit or
signs of deterioration exists in the median upgrading the existing edge drains on all
lane(s), they need not be cracked and seated crack, seat and AC overlay pavement
before the overlay and fabric are placed. rehabilitation projects.
The AC overlay includes a reinforcing fabric The cracking, seating, installation of edge
interlayer that extends at least 0.6 m outside drains, and an AC overlay with a PRF in-
the edge of PCCP into the shoulder area. terlayer combination strategy is anticipated
The fabric interlayer retards infiltration of to last a minimum of 10 years without
surface water and reflection cracking. It is requiring significant pavement maintenance.
assumed to be equivalent to 30 rnm of AC in (3) Grooving, Grinding, and Special Thin
its effectiveness to prevent reflective Surface Treatments. In addition to the 3
cracking. This reduction of 30 mm in basic strategy combinations discussed
required thickness of AC can result in a above, other individual concrete pavement
significant savings, especially on multilane rehabilitation strategies are used or
facilities. Where the slab deterioration is considered to solve specific problems.
primarily limited to the outer lane or lanes on These include longitudinal grooving to
multilane facilities, an economic analysis minimize the potential for hydroplaning and
should be made to compare the cost of lane skidding accidents, grinding only, as an
replacement with the cost of overlaying all interim measure (on selected projects) to
lanes and shoulders. improve the ride quality on very rough
Care should be taken to feather the end of pavement pending major rehabilitation or
the AC overlay at the transition back to reconstruction, and the application of very
existing PCCP. This may be done either by thin resin or special cement concrete
the preferred method of feathering the AC overlays to improve the surface profile and
July 1.1995
to restore the surface of pavement that has

been abraded by tire chains and studs.
(6)PCCP Slab Replacement with Existing Edge
Drains. Care must be taken to re vent
@
Grooving has proven to be effective in the clogging of the existing edge drain *system
reduction of hydroplaning and wet weather during rehabilitation projects. PCCP slab
skidding accidents. The grooved surface is replacements can create problems with the
expected to remain effective for at least 10 existing edge drains. In this situation the
years based on experience on California's length of slotted edge drain adjacent to, and
busiest metropolitan freeways. The life of 0.3 m beyond each end of, the PCCP must
grooving is reduced where there is exposure be removed along with the existing treated
to tire chains and studs. The longevity permeable material at the same time the
apparently varies inversely with the volume existing slab@) are removed to provide
and mass of vehicles with chains and di- space for the side forms. After the PCCP
rectly with the durability or abrasion resis- has cured and the forms have been removed,
tance of the concrete. Class 2 aggregate base, if needed, is placed
in the trench previously occupied by the
Recent research on the grinding of PCC treated permeable material and compacted up
pavements indicates that the required surface to the bottom of the existing slotted drain
texture, a coefficient of friction of not less stubs. Unslotted PVC pipe is attached using
than 0.30, will provide adequate skid resis- band couplers to reconnect the edge drain
tance for a relatively long period of time. system and additional Class 2 aggregate
Therefore regrooving of a once grooved base is placed and compacted to within
PCC pavement, subsequent to a grinding 75 mm of the top of the new PCCP slab.
operation, should not be necessary unless The remaining 75 mm is backfilled with
there are extenuating circumstances. dense graded asphalt concrete. This
The thin resin or special cement based procedure was developed because of the
concrete overlays utilizing methacrylates, delay in replacing the filter fabric and treated
magnesium phosphate cement, polymers, permeable material during the short
etc. are still considered to be experimental, construction window available.
and because of high cost their application, is (7) PCCP CAPM Strategies. Capital preventive
limited to unique conditions or problem maintenance strategies (strategies that extend
areas. The greatest potential for their use is pavement service life for five years) for
on structure decks. PCC pavements may involve such types of
(4) Partial or General Reconstruction. When work as: pavement grinding to correct ride
PCCP has deteriorated to the point that some andlor faulting; slab replacement; spall
reconstruction is required, alternatives might repair; and seal random cracks; structure
include outer (truck) lane replacement with approach slab replacement; etc.
minor work on other lanes, thick PCCP (8) Positive Drainage Emphasis. Although all
overlay with PCCP shoulders, recycling, aspects of the rehabilitation strategies are
and other strategies. The decision should be important, the most critical factor addressed
based primarily on economic considerations. by the Caltrans PCCP rehabilitation practice
On large projects, a lifecycle cost is providing positive drainage by installation
comparison must be done to substantiate of edge drains, to arrest the pumping action
project strategy decisions. The Pavement that has been so damaging to truck lanes and
Consulting Services Branch in METS and shoulders. The importance of improving
OPPD should be contacted for assistance. drainage cannot be overemphasized.
(5) Structure Approach Slab (Pavement) Re- 611.9 ACP Rehabilitation Strategies
habilitation. structure approach pavement
improvement is a key element of pavement There are several kinds of problems or failures
rehabilitation, since this area is often the that AC pavements can experience. These
most =cult to maintain in a serviceable failures can occur individually or in
condition. Caltrans design practice is cov- combinations, which is somewhat responsible
ered in Index 610.5. for the broad range treatments that are available
July 1,1995
@ to repair AC. The level of treatment depends on

the type(s) and severity of the failure types
The Maintenance Program is making more
extensive use of pavement repair contracts. The
described in Index 611.6. Some treatments Maintenance Program Manager is the decision
correct only one problem type, while others maker in all matters relating to these contracts.
(like a structural overlay) correct several kinds Approval of a Phase 1 Expenditure Autho-
of problems. rization typically constitutes project concept
approval. See the Project Development
Caltrans created several operations programs to Procedures Manual for details on project
effectively address this broad range of problems initiation and approval procedures. The District
in the life-cycle of AC pavements: Division of Maintenance will determine the
Routine maintenance; project limits, materials to be used, application
rates and special provision requirements. Staff
Major maintenance; from the Maintenance Program in the Corporate
Headquarters and METS are available for
Preventive maintenance; consultation in the event of questions or
Rehabilitation; problems. It is also important to consult with
the District Division of Operations to determine
Reconstruction; if there is a need to include any special trdfic
handling requirements in the special provisions.
New facilities;
( I ) Bituminous Seals. Bituminous seals are
all utilize contracts, plans and specifications to used primarily for both maintenance and re-
some degree to correct the problems. habilitation of ACP.
Some of the treatments that are used in these (a) Fog Seals. A fog seal consists of an ap-
programs are: plication of asphaltic emulsion with
@ Crack filling;
additional water. It is primarily used to
prevent moisture and air from entering
Patching; asphalt concrete pavement and to
recondition a dry or weathered asphalt
Digout and patch; surface. Care should be taken to obtain
Strip patch; assurance that the fog seal will penetrate
into the pavement and to avoid
Heater scarify; application of the fog seal when wet
weather is imminent. A fog seal should
Grinding; not typically be used on a new con-
Milling; struction project.
(b) Rejuvenator Seal. A rejuvenator seal
Sealcoats; consists of an application of a rejuvenat-
Recycle; ing agent to an existing AC pavement.
The pavement surface must be porous,
Overlay; and, allowing the rejuvenating agent to
penetrate the existing surface. Traffic
Remove and replace (reconstruction). action will rework the upper 6 mm to
The cost effective repair of pavement (pavement 10 mm of the pavement surface;
management) is more of an art than science. A rejuvenating the old oxidized asphalt and
great deal of research and experimentation has resealing the fine cracks in the
been done, and is continuing, but there are no pavement. Application of rejuvenator
accepted formula or textbook solutions for many seals should be avoided when wet
of the problem types. The most predictable weather is imminent.
results are obtained from "designed" overlays
and reconstruction.
July 1,1995
(c) Sand Seal. A sand seal consist of an ap- of engineering judgment. The type, size and
plication of emulsified asphalt covered amount of surface cracking, the extent of lo-
with fine aggregate. It is used to seal calized failures, the age and condition of the
against air and water intrusion and im- existing structural section, the thickness and
prove the skid resistance of the performance of previous overlays, the envi-
pavement surface. ronmental factors and the anticipated traffk
loadings all play roles in the decision
(d) Chip Seals. A chip seal generally process.
consists of an application of an asphalt
binder with a cover of screenings. It is Several other factors should be considered
primarily used on asphalt concrete when determining overlay requirements.
pavements to mitigate surface raveling, These factors include:
to provide a skid resistant wearing
surface, to prevent moisture and air from The presence of vertical grade controls
entering the pavement, and to (curbs, gutters, structures, guard rails,
recondition a dry or weathered surface. etc.) which may limit the thickness to
It may also be used on structure decks to less than that needed for a 10-year
provide a skid resistant surface in areas service life extension,
where frost is common, on detours as a
temporary surface, or as a temporary The possibility of reducing the overlay
surface during stage construction where thickness by digging out and repairing
light traffic is predicted. localized failures and/or removing and
replacing the upper portion of the
(e) Slurry Seals. A slurry seal consists of a existing AC prior to the overlay,
mixture of asphaltic emulsion, fine
aggregate, and water. It is used to fill The feasibility of using a pavement
shrinkage cracks, to prevent air and reinforcing fabric interlayer or SAM1
moisture from penetrating the pavement, (Stress-Absorbing Membrane Inter-
and to recondition dry or weathered layer) or rubberized AC overlay to
asphalt concrete pavements. It generally reduce the overlay thickness where
provides a good skid resistant texture. overlay thickness is governed by re-
A slurry seal is sometimes used as a flection cracking, and
surface treatment before applying an
asphalt concrete overlay. An economic comparison of the
overlay and other rehabilitation
(2) AC Overlay. Development of recom- strategies, i.e., recycling.
mendations for AC overlays and other
rehabilitation strategies are the responsibility After all of the above factors have been
of the Pavement Consulting Services Branch considered, a final strategy is developed to
in METS. This involves using deflection economically extend the service life of the
measurements in conjunction with pavement roadway for the specified design period.
condition surveys and pavement cores to (3) Recycling of Asphalt Concrete. Recycling,
determine AC thickness and condition. The where feasible, can be used as an acceptable
procedure will be described in the Caltrans rehabilitation strategy (see Deputy Directive
"Pavement Rehabilitation Manual", see Number DD-17). Equipment has been
Index 601.1. developed to mill existing AC pavements
The overlay requirements are determined by rapidly and effectively to permit recycling
considering the AC thickness needed for old pavement materials.
structural adequacy and for minimizing re- Recycled AC has several uses:
flection cracking. Both factors contribute
greatly to the final performance of the over- AC surface course when blended with
lay. virgin aggregate and rejuvenating
Determining an adequate overlay to mini- agent or paving asphalt;
mize reflection cracking requires a great deal
July 1.1995
AC base course covered by virgin AC lanes, even those that may not be in
surface course; need of rehabilitation.)
The feasibility of AC recycling must be
Class 3 aggregate base; and, addressed in all project approval documents
(PSSR, PR, etc.). The Deflection Study
shoulder backing material. Report conducted by the Pavement
Hot recycling involves removal of all or part Consulting Services Branch in METS will
of the existing AC pavement, hauling this usually make an initial evaluation of re-
reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) to a cycling feasibility and recommend specific
storage location, combining it at high recycling alternative(s) that will satisfy the
temperature with virgin aggregate and a structural needs of the roadway. The
rejuvenating agent or paving asphalt, and Geotechnical Design Report or Materials
placing this recycled mixture with Report must also address recycling and
conventional paving equipment. For provide information as to the recyclability of
purposes of estimating, a recycled mix the pavement in question.
containing 50 percent RAP should be The PE is responsible for a more detailed
assumed. Hot Recycled AC (HRAC) mix evaluation of the recommended alternatives
should be designed using not more than with regard to project-specific conditions.
50% RAP. The recycling option must be compared to
Cold recycling involves milling or pulver- other rehabilitation alternatives on the basis
izing the existing AC and mixing it with a of cost, feasibility, energy consumption,
recycling agent or asphalt emulsion, with or raw material savings, and specific job
without the addition of virgin aggregate, and conditions. Cost comparisons with alterna-
then placing this cold mixture with conven- tive strategies must be made using current
tional paving equipment. Cold Recycled AC unit cost data.
@ (CRAC) pavement is "capped" with a hot (4) Preliminary Work Prior to Rehabilitation.
mixed surface course of at least 45 mrn
DGAC. (a) Seal Cracks. Cracks are generally at-
tributable to the lack of base support,
AC recycling will usually prove cost-effec- volume change in the asphalt mix be-
tive in the following situations: cause of temperature changes and age
where quantities involved are large hardening of the asphaltic concrete mix.
(combining nearby projects should be Cracks should be repaired to prevent the
considered). entrance of moisture.
Cracks may be refded with emulsion,
where reflection cracking control dic- liquid asphalt or, in the case of wider
tates overlay thickness. cracks, by special asphalt combinations
where vertical controls (i.e., structure or heavier bodied asphalt material.
Small cracks such as alligator cracks
clearance, guardrail heights, etc.) may often be repaired by tacking a
restrict overlay thickness. blocked out area and applying chips or
where acceptable quality aggregate is other similar material. A thin skin patch
not readily available. of hot plant mix may also be used for
crack sealing.
where an overlay would be required Slippage cracks are caused by the lack of
on undistressed lanes of multilane a good bond between the pavement sur-
facilities. (Recycling allows the face and the underlying layer. The only
rehabilitation of only one lane or parts way to permanently repair a slippage
of a lane. On the other hand, a crack is to remove the delaminated
0 conventional overlay strategy neces-
sarily involves overlaying all adjacent
portion of the AC, clean and tack the
surface and then to replace it with plant
mixed AC.
July 1,1995
(b) Repair Localized Failures. Generally, (I) Complete Roadbed Closure. Maximum
the existing AC surfacing at severely productivity, quality, and economy result if
failed localized areas (loose or spalled the roadway can be closed completely
pavement) is removed and replaced with during the entire rehabilitation period. This
new AC prior to placing an AC overlay. requires the rerouting of traffic over other
If there is base failure (rutting 2 routes.
13 mm), the base, as well as the-AC, (2) Continuous Lane Closures. Since the
may be removed and replaced with new outside (truck) lane(s) generally suffer@)the
AC prior to placing an AC overlay. In greatest pavement damage, lane replacement
most cases, the depth of the repair can sometimes be accomplished by complete
should not exceed 150 mm. closure of the lane@)during the reconstruc-
When patching is performed, the loose tion stage. Here, temporary restriping and
material is removed, and the area is narrower lanes or added AC median paving
primed with liquid asphalt or an should be considered. The use of temporary
emulsified asphalt. Then, the area is concrete barrier rail may be justified in
patched with premixed material or a special circumstances. Where practicable, a
special mix designed for placing in minimum of 2 m of clearance should be
periods of cold or inclement weather. provided between traffic and paving
operations.
(c) Repair Work Prior to Cold Recycling
AC. Extensive maintenance work in (3) Weekend Closures. Weekend closures
advance of cold recycling an existing AC should be considered in high volume traffic
pavement should be avoided. If the areas, where lane closures may cause severe
selected pavement rehabilitation strategy congestion and result in accidents and delays
is CRAC, the recommendations to the motorist. These closures also impact
provided by the METS Pavement local businesses. When replacing PCCP
Consulting Services Branch in the slabs, fast setting concrete must be specified
deflection study report should be to permit reopening to Monday morning
followed. traffic.
(5)ACP CAPM Strategies. Capital preventive (4) Nighttime Closures. This is the least
maintenance strategies (strategies that extend desirable alternative, but sometimes it is the
pavement service life for five years) for AC only feasible solution. When replacing
pavements may involve such types of work PCCP slabs, fast setting concrete is
as : digout repairs of locally failed areas, generally required and the cost of the work
"thick blanket" (single construction pass) 45 is relatively much higher.
mm to 60 mm DGAC overlays; "thick Additional handling alternatives that may
blanket" (single construction pass) 30 mm to be appropriate include the use of construction
60 mm rubberized AC overlays; placing staging, temporary ramps, detours and signing.
shoulder backing material, etc. Surface The District Division of Operations should be
treatments (seal coasts) and "thin blanket" consulted for guidance on all traffic handling
(24 mm) AC overlays are not capital and safety issues.
vreventive maintenance strate~es.
611.11 Conservation of Materials and
611.10 Traffic Handling and Safety Energy
One of the first considerations in developing a Paving materials such as cement, asphalt, and
pavement rehabilitation project is for the safety rock products are becoming more scarce and
and handling of traffic during rehabilitation expensive, and the production processes for
work, as well as, the safety for state and these materials consume considerable energy.
contractor worker's. Adequate attention must Increasing evidence of the limitation of
be given to traffic handling and safety to obtain nonrenewable resources and increasing
the r e q d quality of work with minimal in- worldwide consumption of most of these re-
creases in project costs. Some trafic handling sources requires optimal ub'lization and careful
alternatives are given below. consideration of alternates such as the
July 1,1995
@ substitution of more plentiful or renewable

resources and the recycling of existing mate-
time to time, stopping and starting at
intervals, and may disappear and reappear.
rials. Ephemeral streams, which are generally
exempt under provisions developed by
( I ) PCC Pavement. The crushing and reuse of Caltrans and DFG, are those that flow only
old PCC pavement as aggregate in new PCC in direct response to rainfall.
or AC pavement does not now appear to be
a cost-effective alternate, primarily because The reuse of AC pavement grindings will
of the availability of good mineral aggregate normally be consistent with the Fish and
in most areas of California. However, if it Game Code and not require a 1601
appears that this may be a feasible option, Agreement when these materials are placed
because of unique project conditions or the where they cannot enter the waters of the
potential lack of readily available materials, State. However, there are no set rules as to
it may be included in a cost comparison of distances and circumstances applicable to the
alternate solutions. placement of asphaltic materials. Placement
decisions must be made on case-by-case
(2) AC Pavement. Recycling of existing AC basis, so that such materials will be placed
must be considered, in all cases, as an al- far enough away from the waters of the
ternative to placing 100% new asphalt State to prevent weather (erosion) or
concrete. This is discussed in more detail in maintenance operations from dislodging the
Index 611.9(3) and in Deputy Directive material into State waters. Site-specific
Number DD- 17. factors (i.e., steep slopes) should be given
(3) Use of Asphalt Concrete Grindings, Chunks special care. Generally, when AC pavement
and Pieces. Section 5650 of the Fish and grindings are being considered for
Game Code states that it is unlawful to placement where there is a potential for
deposit asphalt, other petroleum products, problems, DFG should be notified to assist
or any material deleterious to fish, plant life, in determining whether a 1601 Agreement is
or bird life where they can pass into the appropriate and what mitigation strategies
waters of the State. In addition, Section are available to prevent the materials from
1601 of the Fish and Game Code requires entering the waters of the State. When in
notification to the California Department of doubt, it is recommended that the DFG be
Fish and Game (DFG) prior to construction notified.
of a project that will result in the disposal or If there is the potential for reused AC
deposition of debris, waste or other material materials to reach waters of the State
containing crumbled, flaked, or ground through erosion or other means during
pavement where it can pass into any river, construction, such work would normally
stream, or lake designated by the DFG. require a 1601 Agreement. Depending on
When constructing transportation facilities, the circumstances, the following measures
Caltrans frequently uses asphalt in mixed or should be taken:
combined materials such as asphalt concrete
(AC) pavement. Caltrans also i s e s recycled The reuse of AC pavement grindings as
AC grindings and chunks. There is a fill material and shoulder backing must
potential for these materials to reach the conform to the Caltrans Standard
waters of the State through erosion or Specifications, applicable manuals of
inappropriate placement during construction. instruction, contract provisions and the
The first step is to determine whether there MOU described below.
are waters of the State in proximity to the
project that could be affected by the reuse of AC chunks and pieces in embankments
AC. Waters of the State include: (1) must be placed above the water table and
perennial rivers, streams or lakes that flow covered by at least one foot of material.
or contain water continuously for all or most A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
0 of the year; or (2) intermittent lakes that
contain water from time to time or
dated January 12, 1993, outlines the interim
agreement between the DFG and Caltrans
intermittent rivers or streams that flow from
1m.l.r 1 1DOC
regarding the use of asphaltic materials. complete. Negotiations over the placement
This MOU provides a working agreement to of AC grindings, chunks and pieces are to
facilitate Caltrans' continued use of asphaltic take place at the District level as part of the
materials and avoid potential conflicts with 1601 Agreement process.
the Fish and Game Code by describing
conditions where use of asphalt road
construction material by Caltrans would not
Topic 612 Pavement -
conflict with the Fish and Game Code. Structural Section Definitions
Specific Understandings contained in the The following list of definitions includes a
MOU are: number of terms that are not commonly used in
California. Some are terms which are included
Asphalt Use in Embankments in the "AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Caltrans may use AC chunks and pieces Pavement Structures" and may be used by
in embankments when these materials FHWA, local agencies, consultants, etc. when
are placed where they will not enter the discussing pavement structural sections. Some
waters of the State. will be common terms in pavement design and
research publications that the PE may want to
Use of AC Pavement Grindings as read.
Shoulder Backing Alligator Cracking. Interconnected or interlaced
Caltrans may use AC pavement load associated (fatigue) cracks in asphalt
grindings as shoulder backing when concrete pavement forming a series of small
these materials are placed where they polygons that resemble the typical pattern of
will not enter the waters of the State. an alligator's skin.
Analysis Period. The period of time for which
Streambed Alteration Agreements the economic analysis is to be made;
Caltrans will notify the DFG pursuant to ordinarily will include at least one rehabilita-
Section 1601 of the Fish and Game tion activity. This has been termed
Code when a project involving the use "economic life-cycle period" in the Caltrans
of asphaltic materials or crumbled, procedures, for the purpose of selecting the
flaked, or ground pavement will alter or pavement type based on long-term costs.
result in the deposition of pavement Asphalt Treated Pemeable Base (ATPB). A
material into a river, stream, or lake highly permeable open-graded mixture of
designated by the DFG. When the crushed coarse aggregate and asphalt binder
proposed activity incorporates the placed as the base layer to assure adequate
agreements reached under Section 1601 drainage of the structural section, as well as
of the Fish and Game Code, and is structural support.
consistent with Section 5650 of the Fish
and Game Code and this MOU, the Base. A layer of selected, processed, and/or
DFG will agree to the use of these treated aggregate material of planned
materials. thickness and quality placed immediately be-
There may be circumstances where low the pavement and above the subbase or
a p m e n t between the DFG and Caltrans basement soil to support the pavement.
cannot be reached. Should the two agencies Basement Material. The material in excavation
reach an impasse, the agencies enter into a or embankments underlying the lowest layer
binding arbitration process outlined in of subbase, base, pavement surfacing or
Section 1601 of the Fish and Game Code. other specified layer which is to be placed.
However, keep in mind that this arbitration Basement Soil. See Basement Material.
process does not exempt Caltrans from
complying with the provisions of the Fish Block Cracking. Interconnected cracks on
and Game Code. Also it should be noted flexible pavement, that are not load associ-
that this process is time consuming, ated, which form a series of large polygons
requiring as much as 72 days or more to usually with sharp corners or angles.
July 1,1995
Blow-up. Localized upward buckling or a Dowel. A load transfer device in a rigid slab
shattering of a rigid pavement slab at or near usually consisting of a plain round steel bar.
a transverse joint or crack. These are not currently used in Caltrans
practice. (See Load Transfer Device).
Borrow. Natural soil obtained from sources
outside the roadway prism to make up a Drainage Coeficients. AASHTO Design Guide
deficiency in excavation quantities. factors used to modify layer coefficients in
flexible pavement or stresses in rigid
Cement Treated Pemable Base (CTPB). A pavements as a function of how well the
highly permeable open-graded mixture of pavement structure can handle the adverse
coarse aggregate, portland cement, and effect of water infiltration. These are not
water placed as the base layer to provide used in Caltrans' pavement structural section
adequate drainage of the structural section, design procedures. The positive drainage
as well as structural support. features reauired and used by Caltrans
Chip Seal. A high viscosity asphaltic emulsion obviates the&need.
surface coat which incorporates rolled in Drip Track Ravel. Progressive disintegration of
rock screenings (chips) over an asphalt the surface between wheel paths on asphalt
concrete pavement, as preventive main- concrete pavement, caused by oil and fuel
tenance, to extend the service life. dripping from vehicles. This is most
Cold Recycling. The rehabilitation of asphalt prevalent adjacent to intersections where ve-
concrete pavement without the application of hicles slow and stop.
heat by milling and mixing with new binder Edge Drain System. A drainage system,
and/or rejuvenating agents in place. consisting of a slotted plastic collector pipe
Composite Pavement. A pavement structure or encapsulated in treated permeable material
structural section composed of an asphalt and a filter fabric barrier, with unslotted
0 concrete wearing surface and portland
cement concrete slab; an asphalt concrete
plastic pipe vents, outlets, and cleanouts,
designed'to drain the structural section of
overlay on a PCC slab is also referred to as both rigid and flexible pavements.
a composite pavement. Embankment. A prism of earth that is
Construction Joint. A joint made necessary by a constructed from excavated or borrowed
prolonged interruption in the placing of natural soil and/or rock, extending from
concrete. original ground to the grading plane, and de-
signed to provide a stable support for the
Contraction Joint. See Weakened Plane Joint. pavement structural section.
Dense Graded Asphalt Concrete (DGAC). A Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALfs).
uniformly graded asphalt concrete mixture Summation of equivalent 80 kN single axle
(aggregate and paving asphalt) containing a loads used to convert mixed traffic to design
small percentage of voids, used primarily as traffic for the design period.
a surface layer to provide the structural
strength needed to distribute loads to Expansion Joint. A joint located to provide for
underlying layers of the structural section. expansion of a rigid slab, without damage to
itself, adjacent slabs or structures.
Design Period. The period of time that an
initially constructed or rehabilitated Faulting ( " S t e p - o r ) . Differential vertical
pavement structural section is designed to displacement, primarily at transverse joints,
perform before reaching its terminal of abutting rigid slabs which creates a "step-
serviceability or a condition that requires off' in the pavement surface profile.
major rehabilitation or reconstruction; this is Flexible Pavement. A traffic load carrying
also referred to as the performance period. system that is made up of one or more layers
Because of the many independent variables that are designed to transmit and distribute
e involved, the service life before major
maintenance or rehabilitation is required may
actually be considerably longer or shorter.
that loading to the underlying roadbed rnate-
rial. The highest quality layer is the surface
course, (generally asphalt concrete) which is
July 1.1995
usually underlaid by a lesser quality base, Load Transfer Device. A mechanical means
and in turn a subbase. It is called flexible designed to carry loads across a joint in a
because it can tolerate deflection bending rigid slab. These are not currently used in
under heavy loads. Caltrans practice for transverse joints; the
Fog Seal. A combination of mixing-type aggregate interlock of the PCCP slabs and
asphaltic emulsion and water which is base support is considered to be the load
applied to the surface of asphalt concrete transfer mechanism. For longitudinal joints
pavement to seal the surface, primarily used see Tie Bars.
for pavement maintenance. Longitudinal Cracking. Cracks or breaks in
Grading Plane. The surface of the basement flexible or rigid pavement which are approx-
material upon which the lowest layer of imately parallel to the pavement center line.
subbase, base, pavement surfacing, or other Longitudinal Joint. A joint normally placed
specified layer, is placed. between traffic lanes in rigid pavements to
Hot Recycling. The use of reclaimed asphalt control longitudinal cracking and the joint
concrete pavement which is combined with between the traveled way and the shoulder.
virgin aggregates, asphalt, and sometimes Low-Volume Road. A roadway generally
rejuvenating agents at a central hot-mix plant subjected to low levels of traffic; in the
and placed in the structural section in lieu of AASHTO Design Guide, structural design is
all new materials. based on a range of 80 kN ESAL's from
Joint Seals. Pourable, or extrudable, or 50 000 to 1 006 000 for flexible and rigid
premolded materials that are placed primarily pavements, and from 10 000 to 100 000 for
in transverse and longitudinal joints in or aggregate-surfaced roads.
along the edge of concrete pavement to deter Maintenance. The preservation of the entire
the entry of water and incompressible roadway, including pavement surface and
materials (such as sand that is broadcast in structural section, shoulders, roadsides,
freeze-thaw areas to improve skid resis- structures, and such traffic control devices
tance). as are necessary for its safe and efficient
Layer Coeflcient (a,, a , a,). An AASHTO utilization.
Design Guide term denoting the empirical Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k). Wester-
relationship between structural number (SN) gaard's modulus of subgrade reaction for
and layer thickness which expresses the use, under AASHTO Design Guide
relative ability of a material to function as a methods, in rigid pavement design (the load
structural component of the pavement. This in Pascals (Pa) on a loaded area of the
is not used in Caltrans' pavement structural roadbed soil or subbase divided by the
section design procedures. deflection in millimeters of the roadbed soil
Lean Concrete Base. Mixture of aggregate, or subbase, Palrnrn). This is not used in
portland cement, water, and optional ad- Caltrans' pavement structural section design
mixtures, primarily used as a base for port- procedures.
land cement concrete pavement. Open Graded Asphalt Concrete (OGAC). An
Leveling Course. The layer, generally of AC or open graded mixture of aggregate and a
other treated or processed material, that is relatively high asphalt content which
placed over the rough or undulating surface provides good skid resistance and a high
of an existing pavement, structure deck, or permeability. OGAC is designed to
other surface to improve the surface profile accommodate rapid surface drainage and
or ride quality before placement of subse- minimize the potential of hydroplaning while
quent layers. at the same time providing an effective seal
of the underlying asphalt concrete pavement.
Lime Treatment. The mixing of lime with native
or embankment materials to increase the Overlay. An overlay is a layer, usually asphalt
strength (R-value) of the material which concrete, placed on existing asphalt or
supports the pavement structural section. portland cement concrete pavement to
July 1,1995
restore ride quality, to increase structural used directly by Caltrans for pavement
strength (load carrying capacity), and to evaluation but conversion is made in PMS,
extend the service life. for comparison.
Panel Length. The distance between adjacent Preventive Maintenance. Typically, capital
transverse joints in a traffic lane. outlay work performed to preserve the
existing pavement structural section utilizing
Pavement. The surface layer of the structural strategies that extend pavement service life
section that carries traffic. Except for for 5 years (i.e.: for AC pavements, "thick
special or experimental surface layers, the blanket" overlays; for PCC pavements,
pavement is either portland cement concrete grinding, slab replacement, etc.).
or asphalt concrete. The asphalt concrete
layer may include up to a 30 rnm layer of Prime Coat. The application of a low viscosity
OGAC. liquid bituminous material to an absorbent
surface (preparatory to placing subsequent
Pavement Management System (PMS). A structural section layers or PRF) for the
management system, which was developed purpose of hardening or toughening the
by Caltrans, to assess the condition of surface and promoting adhesion between it
pavement, biennially, on the entire and the superimposed constructed layer or
California State Highway System, and to PRF interlayer.
prioritize and program the rehabilitation of
pavement consistent with available funding. Pumping. The ejection of foundation material,
either wet or dry, through joints or cracks,
Pavement Performance. The trend of ser- or along edges of rigid slabs resulting from
viceability with load applications. vertical movements of the slab under traffic.
Pavement Rehabilitation. Work undertaken to This phenomena is especially pronounced
e extend the service life of an existing facility.

This includes placement of additional
surfacing andlor other work necessary to re-
with saturated structural sections.
Raveling. Progressive disintegration of the
surface downward on asphalt concrete pave-
turn an existing roadway, including ment by the dislodgement of aggregate parti-
shoulders, to a condition of structural or cles and binder. Stripping usually precedes
functional adequacy, for a minimum period raveling.
of 10 years. This might include the partial
or complete removal and replacement of Resilient Modulus. An AASHTO Design Guide
portions of the pavement structural section. term, a measure of the modulus of elasticity
of roadbed soil or other pavement material.
Pavement Reinforcing Fabric (PRF). A This is not used in Caltrans' pavement
nonwoven, bonded-fiber, engineering grade structural section design procedures.
synthetic fabric that is, as used by Caltrans,
placed as an interlayer in asphalt concrete ResurfQcing. A supplemental surface layer or
overlays primarily to minimize surface water replacement layer placed on an existing
infiltration and retard reflection cracking pavement to restore its riding qualities or to
through the overlay, from cracks or joints in increase its structural (load carrying)
the existing pavement. strength.
Pavement Structure. See Structural Section Rigid Pavement. Primarily portland cement
concrete pavement which distributes the
Pavement Surfacing. See Surface Course superimposed axle loads over a relatively
Prepared Roadbed In-place soils compacted or wide area of underlying structural section
stabilized according to provisions of layers and soil because of its rigidity and
applicable specifications. high modulus of elasticity.
Present Serviceability Index (PSI, p). Term Roadbed. The roadbed is that area between the
from the AASmO Design Guide, a number intersection of the upper surface of the
0 derived by formula for estimating the ser-
viceability rating from measurements of cer-
roadway and the side slopes or curb lines.
The roadbed rises in elevation as each incre-
tain physical features of the pavement. Not ment or layer of subbase, base, surfacing or
July 1,1995
pavement is placed. Where the medians are

so wide as to include areas of undisturbed
particular roadway cut or borrow area, or a
suitable material having specified
Q
land, a divided highway is considered as characteristics to be used for a specific
including two separate roadbeds. purpose.
Roadbed Material. Also referred to as basement Serviceability. The ability at time of observation
soil or basement material, the material below of a pavement to serve traffic (autos and
the grading plane in cuts and embankments, trucks) which use the facility.
extending to such depths as affect the Settlement. Localized vertical displacement of
support of the pavement structure or struc- the pavement structural section due to
tural section. slippage or consolidation of the underlying
Rubberized Asphalt. A mixture of paving foundation, often resulting in pavement
asphalt combined with specified percentages cracking, poor ride quality and deterioration.
of granulated reclaimed rubber for use as the Shoulder Backing. A material that is placed
binder in asphalt concrete and in stress ab- adjacent to the outside edge of the shoulder
sorbing membrane interlayers within or surfacing to protect the edge from spalling,
under asphalt concrete overlays. Primary and to provide edge support.
applications where benefits appear to be
significant are for providing more resilient Single Axle h a d . The total load transmitted by
and more durable wearing surface for all wheels whose centers may be included
overlays, to retard reflection cracking and between two parallel transverse vertical
overlays on pavement exposed to wear by planes 1.016 m (40 inches) apart, extending
tire chains. Rubberized asphalt joint sealant across the full width of the vehicle.
is used to keep incompressible materials out Slab Cracking. Rigid pavement cracks
of joints in concrete pavement and retard
surface water infiltration in concrete
pavement.
generally resulting from a combination of
heavy wheel loading, pumping action, and
the resultant loss of uniform base support.
a
Rutting. Longitudinal depressions that develop Slurry Seal. A mixture of mixing-type asphaltic
in the wheel paths of flexible pavement emulsion, fine mineral aggregate and water
under traffic. This permanent and proportioned, mixed and spread primarily
sometimes progressive deformation is most on asphalt concrete pavement for mainte-
often caused by unstable asphalt concrete nance purposes.
pavement or inadequate strength of the
underlying foundation. Rutting may also Spalling. Cracking, breaking, or chipping of a
occur in asphalt and concrete pavements due rigid pavement along joints, edges, or
to chain or studded tire abrasion or raveling. cracks in which small portions of the slab
R-value. Resistance value of treated or are dislodged. Spalling is caused primarily
untreated soil or aggregate as determined by by incompressibles confined in the opening
the stabilometer test (California Test 301). or nonuniform slab support in conjunction
This is a measure of the supporting strength with vertical movement due to wheel load
of the basement soil and subsequent layers impact.
used in the design of pavement structural Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayer (SAMZ).
sections. An interlayer placed within or at the bottom
Seal Coat. A bituminous coating, with or of an asphalt-concrete overlay or layer to
without aggregate, applied to the surface of retard reflective cracking. It does not add to
a pavement for the purpose of the structural strength. Examples of
waterproofing, preserving, or rejuvenating a SAMI's include: a rubberized chip seal
cracked or raveling bituminous surface, or interlayer or pavement reinforcing fabric. It
to provide increased skid resistance or is given an equivalency of 30 rnm AC in an
resistance to abrasion by traffic. AC overlay designed to prevent reflection
cracking.
Selected Material. A suitable native material
obtained from a specified source such as a
July 1,1995
Weakened Plane Joint. Commonly called a

contraction joint, a joint normally placed at
recurrent intervals in a rigid slab to control
transverse cracking.
Weathering. Gradual degradation of asphalt
concrete due to oxidation and hardening,
especially of the surface layer resulting in
transverse cracking and surface raveling.
Wearing Course. See Surface Course.
July 1,1995
Stripping. The loss of the adhesive bond Surface Course. The top layer of AC pavement.
between asphalt cement and aggregate, most It is also sometimes called the "wearing
often caused bv the ~resenceof water in course".
asphalt concrek, which may result in Surface Polish. The loss of the original
raveling, loss of stability and load carrying pavement surface texture due to traffic.
capacity of the asphalt concrete pavement or
treated base. Surface Recycling. In-place heating of the
Structural Number (SN). An index number surface of asphalt concrete pavement
used in the AASHTO Design Guide followed by scarification, remixing, and
methods, which is derived from an analysis compaction, generally to a depth of about
20 rnm. This is considered to be a
of traffic, roadbed soil conditions, and maintenance procedure.
environment which may be converted to
thickness of flexible pavement layers Tack Coat (Paint Binder). The application of
through the use of suitable layer coefficients bituminous material to an existing surface to
related to the type of material being used in provide bond between the superimposed
each layer of the pavement structure. This is construction and the existing surface.
not used in Caltrans' pavement structural Tandem Axe Load. The total load transmitted
section design procedures. to the road by two consecutive axles whose
Structuml Section. The planned, engineering centers may be included between parallel
design of layers of specified materials vertical planes spaced more than 1.016 m
(normally consisting of subbase, base, and (40 inches) and not more than 2.438 m
pavement surface) placed over the basement (96 inches) apart, extending across the full
soil to support the traffic loads anticipated to width of the vehicle.
be accumulated and applied during the Thin Bonded Concrete Overlays (BCO). An
e design period. The structural section is also
commonly called the pavement structural
section.
overlay, of existing concrete pavement
which is designed to improve ride and
structural condition. Generally BCOs are
Structural Section Drainage System. A drainage about 75 rnm thick, consisting of conven-
system used for both asphalt and portland tional low slump portland cement concrete
cement concrete pavements consisting of a or concrete containing polymers, or latex, or
treated permeable base layer and a collector magnesium phosphate, or other additives
system which includes a slotted plastic pipe designed to accommodate placement,
encapsulated in treated permeable material improve bonding, and improve durability.
and a filter fabric barrier with unslotted Bonding is accomplished by epoxy or other
plastic pipe as vents, outlets and cleanouts to types of adhesives. BCOs are still
rapidly drain the pavement structural considered to be experimental. Research by
section. METS is continuing.
Subbase. A layer of aggregate of designed Tie Bars. Load Transfer devices, usually
thickness and specified quality placed on the deformed reinforcing bars placed at
basement soils as the foundation for a base. intervals, that hold rigid pavement slabs in
Subgrade. That portion of the roadbed on adjoining lanes and exterior lane-to-shoulder
which pavement surfacing, base, subbase, joints together and prevent differential
or a layer of any other material is placed. vertical movement.
Sugace Attrition ("Abrasion"). Abnormal Transverse Cracking. Cracks in asphalt
surface abrasion wear of pavement, concrete pavement approximately at right an-
resulting from either a poor quality surface gles to the center line, most often created by
or exposure to abnormal abrasive action thermal forces exceeding the tensile strength
(such a s tire chains and sanding materials) of the asphalt concrete. (Transverse cracks
also occur in PCCP but are more often
0 or both. caused by live load stresses combined with
uneven base support.)
July 1, 1995
(b) Other Fencing--In rural areas, fences on

CHAPTER 700 freeways normally should be either Type
MISCELLANEOUS BW or Type WM on either wood or
metal posts. Wood posts may be more
STANDARDS aesthetic than metal posts, depending on
the surrounding terrain.
Topic 701 - Fences (c) Median Fencing--Type CL- 1.2 fence,
raised 150 mm above the ground,
-
Index 701.1 Policy and Purpose of should be used where median fencing is
required (see Index 70 1.1(2)).
Fences
(I) Policy. The type and location of fences (3) Exceptions to Standard Fence Types.
should be as described herein and in the (a) If walls or fences equal to or better than
Standard Plans and Specifications, except in the standard fence in durability, rnainte-
special situations for which provision is nance requirements, and dimensions
made below. exist along the right of way line, the
(2) Purpose of Fences. standard fence may be omitted or
removed. To avoid a gap in the access
(a) Fences on freeway and expressways are control, standard fences should be
State-owned facilities placed within the securely joined to the existing fence or
right of way to help enforce observance wall at its terminals, if the access control
of the acquired access rights. line extends beyond these points.
(b) Fences on other highways are privately (b) Fences of special design may be
owned facilities along the right of way installed where needed for wild animal
line which primarily serve the abutting
a property owners' needs.
(c) Median fences are constructed to help
control.
(c) While standard fences are generally
equal to or better than those normally
prevent indiscriminate crossings of the constructed by ranchers for the control
median by vehicles or pedestrians. of their stock, construction of a
(3) Approval. The District Director has the different type of fence for this purpose
authority and responsibility for approval of may be appropriate in special cases. The
fence type and location within the policies property owner is required to pay any
stated herein. extra cost incurred unless the more
costly fence is intended to:
701.2 Fences on Freeways and
Expressways a Match that by which the balance of
the property is enclosed.
(I) Policy. Fences shall be provided on
freeways and expressways to a Benefit the public.
control access (except as otherwise
provided under paragraph (3) (e)) . a Be part of the consideration paid for
Freewav fencing or equivalent access the right of way.
control should extend to the limit of the legal (d) In special cases, where improvements
access control on local streets at ramv are scattered, the area is aesthetically
termini. sensitive, and a lower fence would be in
(2) Standard Fence Types. The standard types keeping with the height of adjacent
of freeway fence are: property fence, a Type CL-1.2 fence
(a) Chain Link Fencing--Type CL- 1.8 fence may be substituted for Type CL-1.8
or equivalent access control should be along the right of way in locations where
Type CL- 1.8 would otherwise be used.
0 used along the right of way and in the
outer separation in urban or developed
areas.
July 1,1995
(e) Fencing may be omitted in remote areas

where access control appears
responsibilities subject to a credit for
the value of a standard fence.
@
unnecessary.
(4) Location of Fences. Normally, fences on
(f) In special cases, nonstandard fencing freeways should be placed adjacent to, but
may be considered at freeway ramp on the freeway side of the right of way line.
terminals on local streets when the Fences in the outer separation normally
adjacent property either is, or is should be placed as shown in Figure 307.4
proposed to be, developed in such a way so that the area outside of the fence may be
that the owner feels that standard fencing relinquished to the local agency.
is aesthetically objectionable. If it is
concluded that the objection is valid, a When viewed at a flat angle, chain link
more compatible facility may be substi- fencing restricts sight distance. This fact
tuted, subject to the following controls: should be considered in the location of such
fencing at intersections. To eliminate hand
Preference should be given to maintenance, right-angle jogs should be
retaining the standard fence along the avoided.
ramp to the end of the curb return or
beginning of the taper on the local (5) Locked Gates. Locked gates may be
road. Where this is not reasonable, provided in access control fences in special
there may be substituted a fence or situations. The criterion should be necessity
wall of equal or better durability and and not desirability. Although openings
utility that is at least 1.2 m high controlled by locked gates do not constitute
relative to the grade of freeway right access openings in the usual sense of access
of way line. Walls, ornamental iron control, they must be included in the plans.
fences with closely spaced members, Where locked gates are provided in the
or chain link fences are examples of plans, each gate must be fully justified by
acceptable possibilities. speciiic reasons stated in the "General
Features" section of the PS&E report. In
Along the local road, beyond the end addition, a statement is required as to who
of the curb return or the beginning of will hold the keys to each gate. Locked
the taper, a facility of somewhat gates fall into two categories:
lower standards may be employed, if (a) Locked gates to be used exclusively by
considered appropriate. The mini- highway maintenance forces do not re-
mum allowable height is 0.8 m quire FHWA approval and may be ap-
above the grade at the edge of the proved by the District Director if in-
right of way. In addition to the tegrity of access is assured during con-
fence types suitable for use along the struction in existing access fences,
ramp, split rail fences, wooden maintenance forces keep gates locked
picket fences, and permanent planter when not in actual use by person or
boxes are examples of possibilities. equipment, and one or more of the
The intent is to delineate the access following criteria apply:
control line and discourage access
violations in an effective manner. Circuitous routes would be
eliminated.
Generally, all costs for the removal
of the existing freeway fence and the Parking on the freeway which may
installation and future maintenance expose maintenance workers to
of a nonstandard fence are to be the freeway traffic and parking is
property owner's responsibility available or can be developed near
under the terms of the encroachment the gate.
permit authorizing the substitution.
On new construction, the property Slow moving equipment could be
owner is to assume similar costs and kept off the freeway.
July 1, 1995
Site not accessible to equipment damages. State construction of such fences

from the freeway. should be limited to:
(a) The reconstruction or replacement of ex-
Gates necessary for access to isting fences.
facilities outside the freeway right of
way that cannot be reached from (b) The construction of fences across prop-
local streets or roads. erty that had been previously enclosed
by fences.
(b) Proposals for locked gates to be used by
other public agencies or utility This policy applies to all private as well as
companies must be submitted to the public lands.
Chief, Office of Project Planning and ( 2 ) Types of Fences. Only Type BW and Type
Design for approval. The submittal WM fences on either metal or wood posts
should give all the facts justifying ap- are to be constructed by the State on
proval and comparisons with alternate highways other than freeways and express-
solutions. ways.
Criteria for justification are generally the (3) Location of Fences. Fences on other
same as for gates used exclusively by highways are placed along the right of way
highway maintenance forces except for line inside the abutting property.
parking. Safe and adequate parking is a
necessary part of the solution to access
by other agencies. -
Topic 702 Miscellaneous
Locked gates to be used by non-utility Traffic Items
entities require FHWA approval under
a any of the following circumstances:
The gate is on an Interstate route.
702.1 References
(I) Guardrail and Crash Cushions. See Chapter
7 of the Traffic Manual.
Federal-aid funds participated in the (2) Markers. See Chapter 6 of the Traffic
cost of right of way. Manual.
Federal-aid funds participated or (3) Truck Escape Ramps. See Traffic Bulletin
may participate in the cost of No. 24, 1986.
construction. (4) Mailboxes. See "A Guide for Erecting
When proposals for locked gates Mailboxes on Highways," 1994, published
requiring FHWA approval are included by AASHTO.
in the plans for new construction,
including landscaping projects, FHWA
approval of such gates will be included
-
Topic 703 Special Structures
in FHWA approval of the project PS&E. and Installation
Subsequent installations requiring
FHWA approval will be submitted 703.1 Truck Weighing Facilities
separately to FHWA by the Office of The Traffic Operations Program is responsible
Project Planning and Design after for coordination of design and construction
approval by the Chief, Office of Project activities for truck weighing facilities with the
Planning and Design. California Highway Patrol in Sacramento.
Typical plans showing geometric details of these
701.3 Fences on Other Highways facilities are available from the Traffic
(I) Policy. The State will construct or pay the Operations Program. The District should refer
a cost of fences on private property only as a

right of way consideration to mitigate
maintenance issues on truck weighing facilities
to the District maintenance units.
July 1,1995
See Index 107.1 for additional details on

roadway connections for truck weighing fad-
ities.
Topic 705 -Selection
Materials and Color
703.2 Rockfall Restraining Nets 705.1 Special Treatments and Materials

Rockfall Restraining Nets are protective devices Special materials or treatments, such as painted
designed to control large rockfall events and concrete, vinyl-clad fences, or weathering-type
prevent rock from reaching the traveled way. steel are sometimes proposed for aesthetic
The systems consist of rectangular panels of reasons.
woven wire rope vertically supported by steel
posts and designed with fictional brake The following guidelines are to be used for the
elements capable of absorbing and dissipating selection of these items:
high energies. For additional information on the (a) Concrete should not be painted unless
characteristics and applications for rockfall exceptional circumstances exist, due to
restraining nets, designers should contact the the continuing and expensive
Office of Structural Foundations. maintenance required. Concrete subject
to staining should be textured duhng
Topic 704 - Contrast Treatment construction to minimize the appearance
of the stains, if other methods of
704.1 Policy controlling stain-producing runoff or
dripping cannot be accomplished.
In general, delineation should be composed of
the standard patterns discussed under Chapter 6, (b) Vinyl-clad fences should not be used for
Markings, of the Traffic Manual. aesthetic reasons. The cost of this mate-
rial is considerably higher than that of
Markings include lines and markings applied to galvanized steel. However, the use of
the pavement, raised pavement markers, 0.9 m high black vinyl-clad mesh for
delineators, object markers, and special safety fencing at the top of retaining
pavement treatments. walls is acceptable. In coastal areas
Contrast treatment is designed primarily to where corrosion is a problem, vinyl-clad
provide a black color contrast with an adjacent fences will be acceptable if approved by
white surface. Normally, contrast treatment the District Director.
should be used only in special cases such as the (c) Weathering-type steel fence materials is
following: not to be used unless special
(a) To provide continuity of surface texture circumstances exist, due to the added
for the guidance of drivers through con- cost of this material.
struction areas. (d) Weathering-type steel should not be
(b) To provide added emphasis on an used above or connected to concrete or
existing facility where driver behavior any other material which would be
has demonstrated that standard signs and detrimentally stained by drippings.
markings have proven inadequate.
705.2 Colors for Steel Structures
When contrast treatment is applied, a slurry seal
should be used. Colors for steel bridges and steel sign structures
are limited to aluminum, green, gray, or neutral
See Chapter 6 of the Traffic Manual for addi- tones of brown, tan, or light blue.
tional information on contrast treatment.
Criteria for selection of colors are:
(a) General continuity along any given
route.
My 1,1995
@ (b) Coordination of color schemes with

adjacent Districts for interdistrict routes.
706.3 Irrigation Crossovers for
Highway Construction Projects
(c) Requests from local organizations Irrigation crossovers normally consists of a
oriented toward improvement of conduit with a waterline crossover and sprinkler
aesthetics in their community. control conduit with pull wire. Irrigation
Color selection for steel bridges should be crossovers should be provided under new
mutually satisfactory to the Division of Struc- roadways and ramps when future highway
tures and the District. The Division of planting is anticipated. The District Landscape
Structures will initiate the color selection Architect should be consulted to determine the
process by submitting the proposed color to the need for such crossovers and specifics such as
District for review. The color for steel sign size and location. Attention should also be
structures will be selected by the District. given to extending existing conduits when
widening or modifying roadways and ramps.
-
Topic 706 Roadside The following factors should be considered in
sizing and locating crossovers :
Treatment
(a) A standard irrigation crossover consists
706.1 Vegetation Control of a 200 rnrn diameter nominal (DN)
conduit, with an 80 mm DN water
Vegetation control chemicals may be applied to supply line and a 50 mm DN sprinkler
prevent weed growth through surfaced medians, control conduit with pull wire. Sizes of
traffic islands, and other paved areas. irrigation crossovers and water supply
The Office of Highway Maintenance is re- lines are usually larger when nonpotable
sponsible for specifications for the use of all water is to be used.
such pesticides. Approval is required for any
@ changes from the currently approved Standard
(b) Typically, irrigation crossovers are
spaced 300 m apart where future
Specifications and Standard Special Provisions. highway
- - planting
- - is anticipated.
-
Since vegetation control chemicals may be (c) Undercrossings may be considered
transported by water, they should not be used alternative crossing opportunities.
where they may affect native vegetation, Drainage facilities should not be used for
landscape plantings, agricultural crops, adjacent waterline crossings.
residential, commercial or recreation areas,
streams, or bodies of water. Standard details and special provisions for the
Before specifying vegetation control chemicals, irrigation crossover should be furnished by the
the District Landscape Architect should be District Landscape Architect to the Project
Engineer for highway construction projects.
consulted to determine the possibility of future
planting. 706.4 Water Supply Line (Bridge) and
706.2 To~soil Sprinkler Control Conduit for Bridge
In areas of new construction, where topsoil is of Water supply line and sprinkler control conduit
good quality, it should be stockpiled during with pull wire should be provided in new bridge
construction and respread during the final stages structures.
of construction. Where natural revegetation is The District Landscape Architect should be
desired, the native brush should be crushed or consulted to determine the need for such water
chipped and mixed with the stockpiled soil. supply lines and sprinkler control conduits and
Since to~soil contains beneficial other suecifics such as size and location.
x
mi~roor~anislhs and seed, it is best to stockpile Attention should also be given to modifying,
it in shallow windrows so that oxygen can changing existing or installing new water supply
a penetrate the soil. lines and sprinkler control conduits when
widening or modifying bridge structures.
July 1, 1995
The following factors should be considered in will determine where slopes are to be treated and
sizing and locating water supply lines and the type of treatment to be used.
sprinkler control conduits: Caltrans maintenance, landscape architecture,
(a) Generally, locate on one side of the materials, design, and other interested units will
bridge, the side nearest the water source. furnish input to determine slope treatment
(b) Consider the maximum water demand needed at each site. Local agency input should
and number of irrigation controller be obtained as necessary for urban
stations anticipated to be used. The pipe undercrossings.
for the water supply line should be a All types of slope treatments require adequate
minimum 80 mm diameter nominal (DN) drainage facilities for water from upper
and the conduit for the sprinkler control roadway. Inadequate drainage is a major source
conduit should be a minimum 50 mm of slope erosion.
DN and contain a pull wire.
(c) Ductile iron pipe is recommended for the 707.2 Guidelines for Slope Treatment
water supply line for pipes 100 mm DN (a) Full slope paving has high initial costs
or larger because of its superior strength and low maintenance costs. It may be
and flexible joints. justified where anticipated maintenance
costs will be high due to erosion by
706.5 Water Supply for Future pedestrians, wind, small amounts of
Roadside Rest Areas, Vista Points, or water, or other causes. High landscape
Planting maintenance costs caused by inadequate
In the preparation of a major highway moisture, sunlight, etc., may also justify
use of full slope paving. Elaborate slope
construction project, consideration should be paving designs should be avoided. The
given to the possibility of using the water source District Landscape Architect will provide
needed for construction as part of a future aesthetic input and locations for
permanent water supply system. Provision for waterline crossover conduits.
a permanent water supply should be included in
the major construction project. If this appears to (b) Landscaped slopes have medium initial
be a feasible solution, consider such factors as: costs and maintenance costs vary with
(a) Probability of a future planting, vista the site. Landscaped bridge end slopes
point, or roadside rest project. may be justified when adjacent slopes
are landscaped and when landscaping is
(b) Economy. compatible with adjacent development.
(c) Possible reduction in the flexibility of (c) Bare slopes have minimum initial costs
the highway contractor's operation. and maintenance costs v~ with the site.
The District Landscape Architect should be Bare bridge end slopes miy be justified
consulted. at rural sites and other areas where
anticipated maintenance activity will be
-
Topic 707 Slope Treatment
low.
(d) An analysis of the "life cycle" costs
Under Structures should be made using the method con-
tained in the Structures Value
707.1 Policy Engineering Report, "Bridge End Slope
Bridge end slope may be treated to: Treatment," April 1978.
(a) Protect slopes. (e) Adequate drainage facilities must be pro-
vided to prevent saturation of abutment
(b) Improve aesthetics. foundation materials and damage to
Slopes need to be protected when high slope treatment.
maintenance costs are anticipated. The District
way drainage design should be to perpetuate

CHAPTERS 800 890 - natural drainage, insofar as practical.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
801.3 Drainage Standards
CHAPTER 800 GENERAL - Drainage design criteria should be selected that
are commensurate with the relative importance
ASPECTS of the highway, associated risks, and possible
damage to adjacent property. The objective of
Topic 801 - General drainage design should be to provide optimum
facilities considering function versus cost rather
than to just meet minimum standards.
-
Engineers, and other professional disciplines
This section is not a textbook, and is not a using this guide must recognize that hydrologic
substitute for fundamental engineering knowl- analysis, as practiced by the highway engineer,
edge or experience. has not advanced to the level of precise
The fields of hydrology and the hydraulics of mathematical expression. All hydrologic
highway drainage are rapidly evolving and it is analysis methods, whether deterministic or sta-
the responsibility of the engineer to keep abreast tistical, are based on the information available.
of current design practices. As new practices or A common problem faced by the highway
procedures are adopted by the Department, this design engineer is that there maybe insufficient
section will be updated. flow data, and often no data at all, at the site for
which a stream crossing is to be designed. By
Instructions for the design of highway drainage applying analytical principles and methods it is
features provided are for information and possible to obtaio peak discharge estimates
guidance of Department employees. Drainage which are functionally acceptable for the design
policies, procedures and standards given are of highway drainage structures and other fea-
subject to amendment as conditions warrant and tures.
are neither intended as, nor do they establish,
legal standards. Special situations may call for The design of highway drainage structures and
variations from these requirements, subject to other features must consider the probability of
approval of the Office of Project Planning and flooding and provide protection which is
Design or approval by others as may be commensurate with the importance of the
specifically referenced. highway, the potential for property damage, and
traffic safety. Traditionally, the level of assur-
801.2 Drainage Design Philosophy ance for such protection has been specified in
terms of the peak rate of flow during passage of
Highway drainage design is much more than the a flood or storm of the severity associated with
mere application of the technical principles of the frequency of occurrence, i.e. a 10-year
hydrology and hydraulics. Good drainage storm, the 50-year flood, etc. State-of-the-art
design is a matter of properly balancing methods and procedures associated with the
technical principles and data with the necessary hydrologic analysis required to de-
environment giving due consideration to other termine the severity and probability of occur-
factors such as safety and economics. Such rence of possible rare storms and flood events
design can only be accomplished through the are inherently ambiguous. Therefore, the sug-
liberal use of sound engineering judgment. gested drainage design criteria relating to fre-
Drainage features to remove runoff from the quency of occurrence references in this manual
roadway and to convey surface and stream wa- are provided for guidance only and are not in-
ters originating upstream of the highway to the tended to establish either legal or design stan-
downstream side should be designed to ac- dards which must be strictly adhered to. Rather,
complish these functions without causing ob- they are intended as a starting point of reference
jectionable backwater, excessive velocities or for designing the most cost effective drainage
unduly affecting traffic safety. A goal in high- structures and facilities considering the
July 1,1995
importance of the highway, safety, legal

obligations, ease of maintenance, and aesthetics.
economy of maintenance, safety, legal
obligations, and aesthetics.
a
(m) Checking the structural adequacy of de-
801.4 Objectives of Drainage Design signs bv referral to the Division of
Drainage design seeks to prevent the retention of ~&ctur&sor by use of data furnished by
water by the highway and provide for removal the Division of Structures.
of water from the roadway through a detailed
analysis considering all pertinent factors. 801.5 Economics of Design
Specific steps to be taken generally include: An economic analysis of alternate drainage
designs, where a choice is available, should al-
(a) Estimating the amount and frequency of ways be made. Non-engineering constraints
storm runoff. may severely limit the design alternatives avail-
(b) Determining the natural points of able to the drainage design engineer for a spe-
concentration and discharge, the limiting cific project or location. Generally, however,
elevations of entrance head, and other the design engineer has a wide range of
hydraulic controls. materials and products to choose from in
selecting the most economical design from
(c) Estimating the amount and composition available alternatives for highway drainage
of bedload and its abrasive and bulking structures and other features.
effects.
The following factors should be considered in
(d) Determining the necessity for protection the selection of alternative designs and economic
from floating trash and from debris comparisons:
moving under water.
(a) Initial cost of construction and right of
(e) Determining the requirements for energy way.
dissipation and bank protections.
(b) Evaluation of flood related risks to the
(f) Determining the necessity of providing highway and to adjacent properties
for the passage of fish and recognizing including potential liabilities for damage.
other ecological conditions and
constraints. Water quality and pollution (c) Cost of detours and traffic handling.
control are discussed under Index (d) Service life of the highway and of the
110.2. Aspects of wetlands protection drainage structure.
are covered under Index 110.4.
(e) Cost of providing traffic safety features.
(g) Analyzing the deleterious effects of cor-
rosive soils and waters on structures. (f) Aesthetics.
(h) Comparing and coordinating proposed (g) Costs to traveling public for delays or
design with existing drainage structures extra travel distance due to road
and systems handling the same flows. closures.
(i) Coordinating, with local agencies, pro- (h) Initial cost versus maintenance costs for
posed designs for facilities on roads to cleanout, repair, traffic control and other
be relinquished. pertinent maintenance charges that may
be incurred during the life of the facility.
(j) Providing access for maintenance opera-
tions. (i) Inlet and outlet treatment.
(k) Providing for removal of detrimental 801.6 Use of Drainage References
amounts of subsurface water.
(1) Designing the most efficient drainage fa- No attempt has been made herein to detail basic
cilities consistent with the factors listed hydrologic and hydraulic engineering
techniques.
above, economic considerations, the
importance of the highway, ease and Various sources of information, including
C;
FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars
@ (HEC's); Title 23, Code of Federal Regulations

(CFR), Part 650, Subpart A, AASHTO
(a) The hydraulic design of bridges, bridge
deck drains, and special culverts.
Guidelines; Federal-Aid Policy Guide and (b) The structural adequacy of all drainage
numerous hydrology and hydraulics reports facilities.
and texts have been used to compile this
highway drainage guide. Frequent references (c) The adequacy of pumping plant
are made to these publications. Where there is a characteristics and temporary storage.
conflict in information or procedure, engineers Refer to Topic 839 for further
must look at all pertinent parameters and use discussion on pumping stations.
their best judgment, to determine which (d) Compliance with Federal-Aid Policy
approach is the most consistent with the Guide, Transmittal 1, G 6012.1 and
objectives of Caltrans drainage design principles submittal of preliminary hydraulic data
and which most closely relates to the specific as outlined under Topic 805.
design problem or project.
(e) Geotechnical (soil mechanics and
-
Topic 802 Drainage Design foundation engineering) considerations.
(3) Legal Division. The Legal Division pro-
Responsibilities
vides legal advice and guidance to other Cal-
trans Offices concerning the responsibilities
802.1 Functional Organization of the Department and owners of property
( 1 ) State and Local Project Development along State highways with regard to surface
Program. The Highway Drainage Design water drainage.
*
Coordinators Branch in the Office of Project (4) Districts. The District Director is re-
Planning and Design, State and Local sponsible for:
Project Development Program performs the
following functions under the direction of (a) The hydrology for all drainage features
the Headquarters Hydraulics Engineer: except bridges.
(a) Provide design information, guidance (b) The hydraulic adequacy of all drainage
and standards to the Districts for the features, except bridges and any special
design of surface and subsurface culverts and appurtenances designed by
drainage. the Division of Structures.
(b) Keep informed on the latest data from (c) Consulting with the Division of
research, experimental installations, Structures when it is proposed that an
other public agencies, and industry that existing bridge be replaced with a
might lead to improvement in drainage culvert.
design practices. (d) Bank and shore protection designs, in-
(c) Promote statewide uniformity of design cluding erosion protection measures at
procedures, and the exchange of ends of bridges and other structures de-
information between Districts. signed by the Division of Structures.
(d) Coordinate drainage design practices (e) Assigning one or more engineers in
with other Caltrans Offices. responsible charge of hydrologic study
activities and the hydraulic design of
(e) Review special drainage problems and drainage features.
unusual drainage designs on the basis of
statewide experience. (f) Compliance with Federal-Aid Policy
Guide, Transmittal 1, G 6012.1 for
(f) Act in an advisory capacity to the Dis-
tricts when requested. storm drain systems.
(g) Providing additional staff as necessary
e (2) Engineering Services Center. The
Engineering Services Center is responsible
for:
with the training and background
required to perform the following:
July 1,1995
Accomplish the objectives of Review permits for drainage

drainage design as outlined under facilities to be constructed by other
Index 801.4 agencies or private parties within the
highway right of way.
Prepare drainage plans or review
plans prepared by others. Investigate and prepare responses to
complaints relative to drainage
Study drainage problems involving conditions on or adjacent to the right
cooperative agreements and make of way.
recommendations to the decision
makers. Assignment of the duties described above
will vary between districts. Due to the
Accumulate and analyze hydrologic increasing complexity of hydraulic and
and hydraulic data reflecting the local hydrologic issues it is imperative that the
conditions throughout the District for more complex analyses be performed by
use in design. experienced hydraulic designers. To
provide guidance on those issues where
Review drainage changes proposed district hydraulic units should become
during construction. involved, the following list is provided.
Make investigations and Storm drain design and calculations.
recommendations on drainage
problems arising from the Drainage basins exceeding 1.3 km2.
maintenance of existing State high-
ways. Hydrograph development or routing.
Coordinate drainage design activities

with other District Offices and
Open channel modification
realignment.
or 0
Branches. Retention or detention basins.
Coordinate drainage designs with Backwater analysis.
flood control districts and other
agencies concerned with drainage by High potential for flood damage
representing the District at meetings litigation.
and maintaining an active liaison
with these agencies at all times. Scour analysis or sediment transport
(typically forwarded to DOS).
Furnish data as required on special
problems, bridges, large culverts, Culvert designs greater than 900 mm in
culverts under high fills and diameter.
pumping plants that are to be
designed by the Division of Encroachments on FEMA designated
Structures. floodplains.
Make field inspections of proposed Modifications to inlet or outlet
culvert sites, existing drainage struc- capacities on existing culverts or
tures during storms, and storm drainage inlets (e.g., placement of
damage locations. safety end grates, conversion of side
opening inlets to grated inlets, etc.).
Document condition and file data that
might forestall or defend future law- Unique hydraulic design features (e.g .,
suits. energy dissipater design, pumping
stations, siphons, etc.). a
mentation through design guidelines and stan-

dards.
This list is not all inclusive, and many
additional functions are likely to be Requests for consideration of new materials,
performed by hydraulic units. Although methods, or procedures should be directed to
various constraints may preclude the the Committee Chairman.
hydraulic unit from actively performing the
design or analysis of these items, a thorough 802.3 Joint Bank Protection Committee
review by that unit should be performed, at The Caltrans Joint Bank Protection Committee
a minimum. is composed of representatives from the
(5) Ofice of Materials Engineering and Testing Division of Structures, Project Planning and
Services. METS provides advice and Design, Materials Engineering and Testing
guidance to other Caltrans Offices and Services, Construction Program, and Mainte-
Branches concerning: nance Program. It is chaired by the Division of
Structures representative.
(a) Service life, physical properties, and
structural adequacy of materials used in The Committee performs the following func-
drainage design. tions:
(b) Water quality considerations. (a) Acts as a service and an advisory group
available to Districts and Caltrans
802.2 Culvert Committee Offices and Branches upon written
request for special investigations or
The Caltrans Culvert Committee is composed of study. Requests for investigation of
nine members representing the Offices of rock slope protection, channel or bridge
Project Planning and Design, Structure Design, protection, major channel changes, etc.
Office Engineer, and Materials Engineering and should be directed to the Chairman of
@ Testing Services, along with the Construction
Program and Maintenance Program. The
the Committee.
Committee is chaired by the Headquarters (b) Supplements or modifies bank and shore
Hydraulics Engineer in the Office of Project protection practice publications as war-
Planning and Design. The Committee ranted.
performs the following functions: (c) Investigates, develops, and implements
(a) Investigates new materials and new in- more detailed design criteria for the vari-
stallation methods that may improve the ous types of bank and shore protection.
economic service life of culverts and (d) Observes performances of existing
other drainage facilities. installations during or following severe
(b) Coordinates drainage design practice exposures. The Districts or Caltrans
with other headquarters departments. Offices or Branches are requested to
(c) Follows current research and takes steps inform the Chairman, Joint Bank
to implement successful findings. Protection Committee, or any available
members of the Committee, of damage
(d) Acts as an advisory group to Districts to installations by flood or high seas.
and other Caltrans Offices when re-
quested.
(e) Serves as Caltrans liaison with manufac-
Topic 803 - Drainage Design
Policies
turers, suppliers, contractors and
industry associations. 803.1 Basic Policy
The authority of the Committee is advisory In drainage design, the basic consideration is to
only, and recommendations of the Committee protect the highway against damage from storm
are submitted to the Chief, Office of Project and subsurface waters, taking into account the
Planning and Design for approval and irnple- effect of the proposed improvement on traffic
and property. Unless the State would benefit
July 1,1995
thereby, or the cost is borne by others, no with increasing the capacity or velocity of
improvement in the drainage of areas outside the existing cross drainage.
right of way is to be considered on Caltrans A cooperative agreement should be negoti-
projects. ated when the proposed work includes the
upgrading of an existing storm drain system
803.2 Cooperative Agreements under the jurisdiction of a local or other
The extent of the department's financial public agency.
participation in cooperative drainage im- (2) Proposed Upstream Development. Unless
provement projects must be commensurate with developers of land in the drainage basin up-
the benefits to the Department and the traveling stream of existing State highways incorpo-
public. rate positive stormwater management prac-
( I ) Local Agencies. Caltrans may participate tices, such as detention or retention storage
with Local Agencies, Flood Control Dis- basins within their improvement areas, the
tricts or Drainage Assessment Districts on peak flow from stormwater runoff is nearly
drainage improvement projects. Such always increased. As a practical matter, mi-
projects must be covered by a formal nor increases in peak flow are usually not
agreement prepared and processed in objectionable. However, uncontrolled
accordance with instructions in the Caltrans upstream development or diversions can
Cooperative Agreement Manual. significantly increase the peak flow run-off
causing the passable capacity of the
(2) Federal and State Flood Control Projects. downstream drainage systems, including
The cost of upgrading or modifying existing existing highway culverts, to be exceeded.
State highway facilities to accommodate
Federal andlor State funded flood control When reasonable solutions to potential
projects is normally the responsibility of the drainage problems associated with such in-
agency funding the project. As necessary, creased flows include the up-grading of
Caltrans may enter into agreements con- drainage facilities within the State highway
taining provisions that the cost of right-of-way, cooperative agreements with
betterments to existing highways, including the responsible local agency should be
drainage features, will be paid for by the negotiated. The local agency having permit
Department. The Cooperative Agreement authority has the responsibility for assessing
Manual contains procedures for preparing liabilities and seeking commensurate
interagency agreements. funding for mitigation of run-off impacts
from the developers. The local agency
803.3 Up-Grading Existing Drainage should not allow potentially harmful de-
Facilities velopments to proceed until all issues have
been resolved. If it becomes apparent that
( I ) Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Projects. the District, the local agency and the
The hydraulic adequacy, as well as the developer may not amiably reach agreement,
structural adequacy of existing drainage fa- the matter should be referred to Caltrans Le-
cilities should be evaluated early in the pro- gal Division before there is an impasse in the
ject development process on pavement negotiations.
-
rehabilitation and highway reconstruction
projects. Caltrans financial participation in such
drainage improvements must be based on
Repair or replacement of structurally de- the general rule stated in Index 803.2
ficient drainage structures and up-grading of Cooperative Agreements.
hydraulically inadequate drainage facilities
should, whenever practicable, be included in (3) Hydraulically Inadequate Facilities. Land
the work of the proposed project. A use changes nearly always cause areas to be-
thorough investigation of upstream and come less pervious and drainage basins to
downstream conditions is often required to yield greater volumes and increase peak
reveal what adverse effects there may be stormwater run-off flows. Even
development of a small parcel of land within
July 1,1995
@ a drainage basin causes some increase in

stormwater run-off. Individually the
Be compatible with the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP) of the
increase may be negligible. Collectively Federal ~ m e r g e n Management
c~ Agency
these incrementally small increases over time (FEMA).
may cause the design capacity of an existing
culvert to be exceeded. 804.4 Definitions
The up-grading of this category of hy- The following definitions of terms are made for
draulically inadequate drainage facilities may the purpose of uniform application in the
be partially or fully financed by Caltrans. documentation and preparation of floodplain
Only if the benefit cost (blc) ratio is equal to evaluation reports. Refer to Title 23, CFR, Part
or greater than one is up-grading viable for 650, Section 650.105 for a complete list of
normal Caltrans project funding. When the definitions.
benefits to the Department and the traveling
public do not justify increasing the capacity, ( 1 ) Base Flood. The flood or tide having a 1
up-grading may still be accomplished percent chance of being exceeded in any
cooperatively with the local agency in given year (100-year flood).
accordance with the general rule for ( 2 ) Base Floodplain. The area subject to
participation under Index 803.2 Cooperative flooding by the base flood. Every water-
Agreements. course (river, creek, swale, etc.) is subject
to flooding and theoretically has a base
-
Topic 804 Floodplain floodplain.
Encroachments (3) Encroachment. An action within the limits
of the base floodplain. Any construction ac-
804.1 Purpose tivity (access road, building, fill slopes,
bank or slope protection, etc.) within a base
The purpose of these instructions is to provide floodplain constitutes an encroachment.
unifo'rmrmprocedures
and guidelines for ~altrans
multi-disciplinary evaluation of proposed (4) Location Hydraulic Study. A term from
highway encroachments on floodplains. 23 CFR, Section 650.1 11 referring to
the preliminary investigative study to be
804.2 Authority made of base floodplain encroachments by a
proposed highway action. The extent of
Title 23, CFR, Part 650, Subpart A, prescribes investigation and the discussion content in
FHWA's "...policies and procedures for the the required documentation of the "Location
location and hydraulic design of highway Hydraulic Study" is very site specific and
encroachments on floodplains, ...". need be no more than that which is com-
mensurate with the risk(s) and impact(s)
804.3 Applicability particular to the location under con-
These provisions apply to any Federally ap- sideration. The information developed, doc-
proved highway construction, reconstruction, umented and retained in the project file is to
rehabilitation, repair, or improvement project be the minimum necessary for compliance.
which affects the (100-year) base floodplain.
The only exception is repairs made during or 804.5 Procedures
immediately following a disaster. The premise Floodplain evaluations are essentially an
is that all Federal-aid projects be evaluated and extension of the environmental assessment pro-
that diligent efforts be made to: cess and instructions contained in the Envi-
Avoid significant floodplain encroach- ronmental Handbook and the Project Devel-
ments where practicable. opment Procedures Manual are to be followed.
Early in the planning of a project it is necessary
.. .
a Mrnrrmze the impact of highway actions
that adversely affect the base floodplain.
to first determine:
(a) If a proposed route alternative will en-
croach on a base floodplain or,
July 1,1995
(b) Where proposed construction on and Environmental Planner, to assess and

existing highway alignment encroaches document the risks and environmental
on a base floodplain. impacts associated with the proposed project
is generally all that is necessary to obtain
804.6 Responsibilities enough information for the "Location
Hydraulic Study". Any reasonable
The District Project Engineer is generally the adaptation of the floodplain evaluation report
responsible party for initiating and coordinating summary form, Figure 804.7, may be uti-
the overall multi-disciplinary team activities of lized to document and summarize the
evaluation and documentation of floodplain im- findings of the "Location Hydraulic Study"
pacts. Discussion of specific hydraulic and when the project is expected to be processed
environmental aspects are required by 23 CFR with a categorical exclusion.
650, Subpart A. Preparing the project
floodplain evaluation report and the summary 804.8 Design Standards
for the environmental document or project report
is normally the responsibility of the The design standards for highways encroaching
Environmental Planning Branch. The District on a floodplain are itemized in 23 CFR, Section
Hydraulics Engineer will, as necessary, develop 650.115. One requirement often overlooked is
the hydrological and hydraulic information and the need to asses the costs and risks associated
provide technical assistance for assessing with the overtopping flood for design
impacts of floodplain encroachments. alternatives in those instances where the
overtopping flood exceeds the base flood.
804.7 Preliminary Evaluation of Risks The content of design study information to be
and Impacts retained in the project file are described in 23
Virtually all proposed highway improvements CFR, Section 650.1 17. When in a floodplain,
that are considered as floodplain encroachments plans shall show pertinent hydraulic information
will be designed to have: from the FEMA study.
(a) No significant risks associated with im-
plementation and, Topic 805 - Preliminary Plans
(b) Negligible environmental impacts on the
base floodplain. 805.1 Required FHWA Approval
( I ) Risks. There will always be some risk, the Federal-Aid Policy Guide, Transmittal 1, G
potential for property damage and flooding 6012.1, dated Dec. 9, 1991, requires Federal
that may affect public safety, associated with Highway Administration (FHWA) approval
highway drainage design. In a majority of of preliminary plans for major or unusual
cases, a field review with a NFIP or USGS bridges, structures and drainage features on the
map and the application of good engineering National Highway System.
judgment are all that is needed to determine
if such risks are significant or acceptable. 805.2 Bridge Preliminary Report
(2) Impacts. The assessment of potential A Bridge Preliminary Report will be prepared
impacts on the floodplain environment will by the Division of Structures and submitted to
include: the California FHWA Division Office in Sacra-
mento for approval on major, unusual or mov-
(a) Impacts on natural and beneficial flood- able bridges, and vehicular or drainage tunnels.
plain values.
Major bridges are brid es having a deck area
greater than 11,600 m8.
(b) Support of probable incompatible flood-
plain development.
Except for the more environmentally sen- An unusual bridge involves difficult or
sitive projects, a single visit to the project unique foundation problems, new
site by qualified District personnel, such as foundation types, new or complex designs
the Project Engineer, Hydraulics Engineer,
July 1, 1995
Figure 804.7
Floodplain Evaluation Report Summary

Dist. Co. Rte. K.P.
Project No. Bridge No.
Limits
Floodplain Description
Yes No
1. Is the proposed action a longitudinal
encroachment of the base floodplain?
2. Are the risks associated with the implementation
of the proposed action significant?
3. Will the proposed action support probable
incompatible floodplain development?
a 4. Are there any significant impacts on

natural and beneficial floodplain values?
5. Routine construction procedures are required to minimize
impacts on the floodplain. Are there any special mitigation
measures necessary to minimize impacts or restore and preserve
natural and beneficial floodplain values? If yes, explain.
6. Does the proposed action constitute a significant floodplain
encroachment as defined in 23 CFR, Section 650.105(q).
7. Are Location Hydraulic Studies that document
the above answers on file? If not explain.
PREPARED BY:
Signature - Dist. Hydraulic Engineer Date
Signature - Dist. Environmental Branch Chief Date
Signature - Dist. Project Engineer Date
I CONCUR:
a Signature - FHWA Date

July 1,1995
involving unique design or operational (a) Highway fills which will function as a
features, longer than normal spans or levee and serve the purpose of reducing
bridges for which the design procedures the flooding of adjacent areas.
depart from current acceptable practice. (b) Dams formed by highway fills which
Examples include cable stayed, suspensioni will permanently impound water more
arch, segmental concrete bridges, trusses than 7.6 m in depth or 61 500 m3 in
and other bridges which deviate from volume. See Index 829.9 Dams, for
AASHTO Standard Specifications or Guide legal definition of a dam and regulations
Specifications for Highway Bridges, relative to approval by the California
bridges requiring abnormal dynamic Department of Water Resources.
analysis for seismic design, bridges
designed using a three-dimensional 805.7 Geotechnical
computer analysis, bridges with spans
exceeding 150 m, and bridges which include The District shall submit preliminary plans and
ultra high strength concrete or steel. technical data for major or unusual geotechnical
features to the California FHWA Division
805.3 Pumping Stations Office for approval. Major geotechnical features
include unusually deep cuts or high fills where
The Division of Structures will submit the site geology is potentially unstable, landslide
preliminary plans and hydraulic data for storm corrections, and large retaining walls
water pumping facilities to the California (cantilever, permanent ground anchor, and soil
FHWA Division Office in Sacramento. FHWA reinforcement). An unusual geotechnical feature
approval is required for storm water pumping involves new or complex retaining wall systems
facilities designed to discharge more than or ground improvement systems.
0.56 m3/s.
805.4 Storm Drain Systems
805.8 Data Provided by the District
The following items of supportive information
0
The District will submit preliminary plans and must be provided with requests for FHWA
hydraulic data for unusual storm drain systems approval:
to the California FHWA Division Office in
Sacramento. FHWA approval is required for (a) Preliminary plans and profiles:
storm diain systems that carry more than
5.6 m3/s or have an accumulated surface Approach layouts.
detention storage system of more than 6150 m3. Drainage plans.
805.5 Unusual Hydraulic Structures (b) Hydraulic design studies:
The District will submit preliminary plans and Design Q and frequency.
hydraulic data for unusual hydraulic structures
to the California FHWA Office in Sacramento. Hydraulic grade lines.
FHWA approval is required for hydraulic Inflow - Outflow hydrographs.
structures involving unusual stream stability
countermeasures, an atypical or unique design Capacity of reservoirs or pump
technique or unusual or complex pumping storage systems.
stations or storm drain systems.
Pump capacity.
805.6 Levees and Dams Formed by Stream velocities.
Highway Fills
Water surface profiles.
The District will submit preliminary plans and
other supportive data to the California FHWA Slope protection, toe and top
Division Office in Sacramento for approval of: elevations.
(c) Proposed specifications. @
(d) Estimated cost.
July 1, 1995
8 (e) Foundation report: Aqueduct. (1) A major conduit. (2) The entire
transmission main for a municipal water
Embankment design for fills func- supply which may consist of a succession of
tioning as dams. canals, pipes, tunnels, etc. (3) Any conduit
(f) Subsurface investigations. for water; especially one for a large quantity
of flowing water. (4) A structure for
(g) Coordination with Federal, state and lo- conveying a canal over a river or hollow.
cal agencies.
Aquifer. Water-bearing geologic formations
(h) Other pertinent data. that permit the movement of ground water.
The FHWA requires that three copies of Artesian Waters. Percolating waters confined
supportive information be submitted to the Cal- below impermeable formations with suffi-
ifornia FHWA Division Office with approval re- cient pressure to spring or well up to the
quests. Four copies of supportive information surface.
h e to be furnishid to the diiision of Structures
to prepare the FHWA approval requests for Avulsion. (1) A forcible separation; also, a part
bridges and pumping stations. torn off. (2) The sudden removal of land
from the estate of one man to that of
-
Topic 806 Definitions of
another, as by a sudden change in a river,
the property thus separated continuing in the
Drainage Terms original owner. A sudden shift in location
of channel.
806.1 Introduction Backwater. An unnaturally high stage in stream
These definitions are for use with Sections 800 caused by obstruction or confinement of
through 890 of this manual and the references flow, as by a dam, a bridge, or a levee. Its
cited. They are not necessarily definitions as measure is the excess of unnatural over
established by case or statutory law. natural stage, not the difference in stage
upstream and downstream from its cause.
See Index 874 for an additional listing of
drainage related terms. This separate listing Bank. The lateral boundary of a stream
includes those terms particularly applicable to confining water flow. The bank on the left
Channel and Shore Protection - Erosion side of a channel looking downstream is
Control. called the left bank, etc.
Bank Protection. Revetment, or other armor
806.2 Drainage Terms protecting a bank of a stream from erosion,
Accretion. Outward growth of bank or shore by includes devices used to deflect the forces of
sedimentation. Increase or extension of erosion away from the bank.
boundaries of land by action of natural Base Flood. The flood or tide having a 1
forces. percent chance of being exceeded in any
Action. Any highway construction, recon- given year (100-year flood). The "base
struction, rehabilitation, repair, or improve- flood" is commonly used as the "standard
ment. flood" in Federal flood insurance studies.
(see Regulatory Flood).
Aggressive. Refers to the corrosive properties
of soil and water. Base Floodplain. The area subject to flooding
by the base flood.
Alluvial. Referring to deposits of silts, sands,
gravels and similar detrital material which Bedding. The foundation under a drainage
have been transported by running water. structure.
Alluvium. Stream-borne materials deposited in Bed Load. Sediment that moves by rolling,
and along a channel. sliding, or skipping along the bed and is es-
sentially in contact with the stream bed.
July 1,1995
Braided Stream. A stream in which flow is Concentration. In addition to its general sense,
divided at normal stage by small islands. means the unnatural collection or con-
This type of stream has the aspect of a single vergence of waters so as to discharge in a
large channel with which there are subordi- narrower width, and at greater depth or ve-
nate channels. locity.
Bulking. The increase in volume of flow due to Conduit. Any pipe, arch, box or drain tile
air entrainment, debris, bedload, or through which water is conveyed.
sediment in suspension. ConJluence. A junction of streams.
Camber. An upward adjustment of the profile Contraction. The reduction in cross sectional
of a drainage facility under a heavy loading area of flow.
(usually a high embankment) and poor soil
conditions, so that as the drainage facility Control. A section or reach of an open conduit
settles it approaches the design profile. or stream channel which maintains a stable
Capacity. The effective carrying ability of a relationship between stage and discharge.
drainage structure. Generally measured in Conveyance. A measure of the water carrying
cubic meters per second. capacity of a stream or channel.
Capillarity. The attraction between water and Cradle. A concrete base generally constructed
soil particles which cause water to move in to fit the shape of a structure which is to be
any direction through the soil mass re- forced through earthen material by a jacking
gardless of gravitational forces. operation. The cradle is constructed to line
Capillary Water. Water which clings to soil and grade. Then the pipe rides on the cradle
as it is worked through the given material by
particles by capillary action. It is normally jacking and tunneling methods. Also serves
associated with fine sand, silt, or clay, but as bedding for pipes in trenches in special
not normally with coarse sand and gravel. conditions.
Catch Basin. A drainage structure which Critical Depth. (Depth at which specific energy
collects water. May be either a structure is a minimum) - The depth of water in a
where water enters from the side or through conduit at which under certain other condi-
a grating. tions the maximum flow will occur. These
Check Dam. A small dam generally placed in other conditions are the conduit is on the
steep ditches for the purpose of reducing the critical slope with the water flowing at its
velocity in the ditch. critical velocity and there is an adequate
Cienega. A swamp formed by water rising to supply of water. The depth of water
the surface at a fault. flowing in an open channel or a conduit
partially filled, for which the velocity head
Cleanout. An access opening to a roadway equals one-half the hydraulic mean depth.
drainage system. Usually consists of a Critical Flow. That flow in open channels at
manhole shaft, a special chamber or opening which the energy content of the fluid is at a
into a shallow culvert or drain. minimum. Also, that flow which has a
Coeficient of Runoff. Percentage of gross Froude number of one.
rainfall which appears as runoff. Critical Slope. That slope at which the
Composite Hydrograph. A plot of mean daily maximum flow will occur at the minimum
discharges for a number of years of record velocity. The slope or grade that is exactly
on a single year time base for the purpose of equal to the loss of head per meter resulting
showing the occurrence of high and low from flow at a depth that will give uniform
flows. flow at critical depth; the slope of a conduit
Concentrated Flow. Flowing water that has which will produce critical flow.
been accumulated into a single fairly narrow Critical Velocity. Mean velocity of flow when
stream. flow is at critical depth.
July 1.1995
Culvert. A closed conduit, other than a bridge, Design Flood. The peak discharge (when
which allows water to pass under a appropriate, the volume, stage, or wave
highway. A culvert has a span of less than crest elevation) of the flood associated with
6.1 m, or if multispan, the individual spans the probability of exceedance selected for the
are 3.0 m or less. design of a highway encroachment. By
definition, the highway will not be
Current Meter. An instrument for measuring the inundated by the design flood.
velocity of a current. It is usually operated
by a wheel equipped with vanes or cups Design Frequency. The recurrence interval for
which is rotated by the action of the im- hydrologic events used for design purposes.
pinging current. An indicating or recording As an example, a design frequency of 50
device is provided to indicate the speed of years means a storm of a magnitude that
rotation which is correlated with the velocity would be expected to recur on the average of
of the current. every 50 years. (See Probability of Ex-
ceedance.)
Cutof Wall. A wall at the end of a drainage
structure, the top of which is an integral part Design Storm. That particular storm which
of the drainage structure. This wall is contributes runoff which the drainage
usually buried and its function is to prevent facilities were designed to handle. This
undermining of the drainage structure if the storm is selected for design on the basis of
natural material at the outlet of the structure its probability of exceedance or average
is dug out by the water discharging from the recurrence interval (See Probability of
end of the structure. Cutoff walls are Exceedance.)
sometimes used at the upstream end of a Detention Storage. Surface water moving over
structure when there is a possibility of the land is in detention storage. Surface
erosion at this point. water allowed to temporarily accumulate in
Debris. Any material including floating woody ponds, basins, reservoirs or other types of
materials and other trash, suspended holding facility and which is ultimately re-
sediment, or bed load moved by a flowing turned to a watercourse or other drainage
stream. system as runoff is in detention storage.
Debris Barrier. A deflector placed at the en- (See Retention Storage)
trance of a culvert upstream, which tends to Detrihss. Loose material such as; rock, sand,
deflect heavy floating debris or boulders silt, and organic particles.
away from the culvert entrance during high- Dike. Usually an earthen bank alongside and
velocity flow. parallel with a river or open channel or an
Debris Basin. Any area upstream from a AC dike along the edge of a shoulder. (See
drainage structure utilized for the purpose of Levee)
retaining debris in order to prevent clogging Dike, Finger. Relatively short embankments
of drainage structures downstream. constructed normal to a larger embankment.
Debris Rack. A straight barrier placed across such as an approach fill toWabridge. They
the stream channel which tends to separate purpose is to impede flow and direct it away
light and medium floating debris from from the major embankment.
stream flow and prevent the debris from Dike, Spur. Relatively short embankments
reaching the culvert entrance. constructed at the upstream side of a bridge
Degradation. General and progressive lowering end for the purpose of aligning flow with
of the longitudinal profile of a channel by the waterway opening and to move scour
erosion. away from the bridge abutment.
Design Discharge. The quantity of flow that is Dike, Toe. Embankment constructed to prevent
e expected at a certain point as a result of a

design storm. Usually expressed as a rate
of flow in cubic meters per second.
lateral flow from scouring the comer of the
downstream side of an abutment em-
bankment. Sometimes referred to as
training dikes.
July 1,1995
Dike, Training. Embankments constructed to from mild to steep channel slopes and weirs
provide a transition from the natural stream or vertical spillways.
channel or floodplain, both to and from a Dry Weather Flows. A small amount of water
constricting bridge crossing. which flows almost continually due to lawn
Discharge. A volume of water flowing out of a watering, irrigation or springs.
drainage structure or facility. Measured in Dune. A sand wave of approximately triangular
cubic meters per second. cross section (in a vertical plane in the
Diversion. The change in character, location, direction of flow) formed by moving water
direction, or quantity of flow of a natural or wind, with gentle upstream slope and
drainage course. A deflection of flood water steep downstream slope and deposition on
is not diversion. the downstream slope.
D-Load (Cracking D-Load). A term used in Easement. Right to use the land of others.
expressing the strength of concrete pipe. Eddy Loss. The energy lost (converted into
The cracking D-load represents the test load heat) by swirls, eddies, and impact, as
required to produce a 0.3 mm crack for a distinguished from friction loss.
length of 300 rnm.
Encroachment. Extending beyond the original,
Downdrain. A prefabricated drainage facility or customary limits, such as by occupancy
assembled and installed in the field for the of the river and/or flood plain by earth fill
purpose of transporting water down steep embankment.
slopes.
Endwall. A wall placed at the end of a culvert.
Drainage. (1) The process of removing surplus It may serve three purposes; one, to hold
ground or surface water by artificial means. the embankment away from the pipe and
(2) The system by which the waters of an prevent sloughing into the pipe outlet chan-
area are removed. (3) The area from which nel; two, to provide a wall which will
waters are drained; a drainage basin. prevent erosion of the roadway fill; and
Drainage Area (Drainage Basin) (Basin). That three, to prevent flotation of the pipe.
portion of the earth's surface upon which Energy Dissipator. A structure for the purpose
falling precipitation flows to a given of slowing the flow of water and reducing
location. With respect to a highway, this the erosive forces present in any rapidly
location may be either a culvert, the farthest flowing body of water.
point of a channel, or an inlet to a roadway
drainage system. Energy Grade Line. The line which represents
the total energy gradient along the channel.
Drainage Course. Any path along which water It is established by adding together the
flows when acted upon by gravitational potential energy expressed as the water
forces. surface elevation referenced to a datum and
Drainage Divide. The rim of a drainage basin. the kinetic energy (usually expressed as
A series of high points from which water velocity head) at points along the stream bed
flows in two directions, to the basin and or channel floor.
away from the basin. Energy Head. The elevation of the hydraulic
Drainage Easement (See Easement). grade line at any section plus the velocity
head of the mean velocity of the water in that
Drainage System. Usually a system of un- section.
derground conduits and collector structures
which flow to a single point of discharge. Entrance Head. The head required to cause
flow into a conduit or other structure; it in-
Drawdown. The difference in elevation be- cludes both entrance loss and velocity head.
tween the water surface elevation at a con-
striction in a stream or conduit and the eleva- Entrance Loss. The head lost in eddies and
tion that would exist if the constriction were friction at the inlet to a conduit or structure.
absent. Drawdown also occurs at changes
Equalizer. A drainage structure similar to a hanging from an overhead rod or pinion at

culvert but different in that it is not intended the end of a culvert or drain.
to pass a design flow in a given direction. Flood Frequency. Also referred to as ex-
Instead it is often placed level so as to permit ceedance interval, recurrence interval or re-
passage of water in either direction. It is turn period; the average time interval
used where there is no place for the water to between actual occurrences of a hydrological
go. Its purpose is to maintain the same wa- event of a given or greater magnitude; the
ter surface elevation on both sides of the percent chance of occurrence is the
highway embankment. reciprocal of flood frequency, e.g., a 2
Erosion. The wearing away of a surface by percent chance of occurrence is the
some external force. In the case of drainage reciprocal statement of a 50-year flood.
terminology, this term generally refers to the (See Probability of Exceedance.)
wearing away of the earth's surface by Floodplain. Normally dry land areas subject to
flowing water. It can also refer to the wear periodic temporary inundation by stream
on a structural surface by flowing water and flow or tidal overflow. Land formed by
the material carried therein. deposition of sediment by water; alluvial
Erosion and Scour. The cutting or wearing land.
away by the forces of water of the banks Floodplain Encroachment. An action within the
and bed of a channel in horizontal and limits of the base flood plain.
vertical directions, respectively.
Erosion and Accretion. Loss and gain of land, Flood Plane. The position occupied by the
respectively, by the gradual action of a water surface of a stream during a particular
stream in shifting its channel by cutting one flood. Also, loosely, the elevation of the
bank while it builds on the opposite bank. water surface at various points along the
0 Property is lost by erosion and gained by ac-
cretion but not by avulsion when the shift
stream during a particular flood.
Floodproo$ To design and construct individual
from one channel to another is sudden. buildings, facilities, and their sites to protect
Property is gained by reliction when a lake against structural failure, to keep water out
recedes. or reduce the effects of water entry.
Estuary. That portion of a river channel oc- Flood Stage. The elevation at which overflow
cupied at times or in part by both sea and of the natural banks of a stream begins to
river flow in appreciable quantities. The cause damage in the reach in which the el-
water usually has brackish characteristics. evation is measured.
Evaporation. A process whereby water as a Flood Waters. Former stream waters which
liquid is changed into water vapor, typically have escaped from a watercourse (and its
through heat supplied from the sun. overflow channel) and flow or stand over
Fan. A portion of a cone, but sometimes used adjoining lands. They remain as such until
to emphasize defmition of radial channels. they disappear from the surface by
Also reference to spreading out of water or infiltration, evaporation, or return to a
soils associated with waters leaving a con- natural watercourse. They do not become
fined channel. surface waters by mingling with such
waters, nor stream waters by eroding a
Fetch. The distance across open water through temporary channel.
which wind acts to generate waves.
Flow. A term used to define the movement of
Flap Gate. This is a form of valve that is de- water, silt, sand, etc.; discharge; total quan-
signed so that a minimum force is required tity carried by a stream.
to push it open but when a greater water Flow Line. A term used to describe the line
pressure is present on the outside of the
valve, it remains shut so as to prevent water connecting the low points in a watercourse.
from flowing in the wrong direction.
Construction is simple with a metal cover
July 1, 1995
Flow Regime. The system or order charac- Gradient (Slope). The rate of ascent or descent
teristic of streamflow with respect to expressed as a percent or as a decimal as
velocity, depth, and specific energy. determined by the ratio of the change in ele-
Freeboard. (1) The vertical distance between vation to the length.
the'level of the water surface usually corre- Gradually Varied Flow. In this type of flow,
sponding to the design flow and a point of changes in depth and velocity take place
interest such as a,bridge beam, levee top or slowly over large distances, resistance to
specific location on the roadway grade. (2) flow dominates and acceleration forces are
The distance between the normal operating neglected.
level and the top of the sides of an open con- Ground Water. That water which is present
duit; the crest of a dam, etc., designed to al- under the earth's surface. Ground water is
low for wave action, floating debris, or any that situated below the surface of the land,
other condition or emergency, without over- irrespective of its source and transient
topping the structure. status. Subterranean streams are flows of
Free Outlet. A condition under which water ground waters parallel to and adjoining
discharges with no interference such as a stream waters, and usually determined to be
pipe discharging into open air. integral parts of the visible streams.
Free Water. Water which can move through the Head. Represents an available force equivalent
soil by force of gravity. to a certain depth of water. This is the
motivating force in effecting the movement
French Drain. A trench loosely backfilled with of water. The height of water above any
stones, the largest stones being placed in the point or plane of reference. Used also in
bottom with the size of stones decreasing various compound expressions, such as
towards the top. The interstices between the energy head, entrance head, friction head,
stones serve as a passageway for water. static head, pressure head, lost head, etc.
Froude Number. A dimensionless expression Headcutting. Progressive scouring and de-
of the ratio of inertia forces to gravity grading of a streambed at a relatively rapid
forces, used as an index to characterize the rate in the upstream direction, usually
type of flow in a hydraulic structure in characterized by one or a series of vertical
which gravity is the force producing motion falls.
and inertia is the resisting force. It is equal
to a characteristic flow velocity (mean, Hydraulic Gradient. A line which represents the
surface, or maximum) of the system divided relative force available due to the potential
by the square root of the product of a energy available. This is a combination of
characteristic dimension (as diameter of energy due to the height of the water and the
depth) and the gravity constant (acceleration internal pressure. In any open channel, this
due to gravity) all expressed in consistent line corresponds to the water surface. In a
units. Fr = V / ( ~ ~ ) ~ D closed conduit, if several openings were
placed along the top of the pipe and open
Gaging Station. A location on a stream where tubes inserted, a line connecting the water
measurements of stage or discharge are surface in each of these tubes would repre-
customarily made. The location includes a sent the hydraulic grade line.
reach of channel through which the flow is
uniform, a control downstream from this Hydraulic Jump (or Jump). Transition of flow
reach and usually a small building to house from the rapid to the tranquil state. A varied
the recording instruments. flow phenomenon producing a rise in el-
evation of water surface. A sudden transi-
Grade to Drain. A construction note often tion from supercritical flow to the comple-
inserted on a plan for the purpose of direct- mentary subcritical flow, conserving
ing the Contractor to slope a certain area in a momentum and dissipating energy.
specific direction, so that the surface waters
will flow to a designated location.
0
July 1, 1995
Hydraulic Mean Depth. The area of the flow Invert Paving. Generally applies to metal pipes
cross section divided by the water surface where it is desirable to improve flow char-
width. acteristics or vrevent corrosion at low flows.
Hydraulic Radius. The cross sectional area of a The bottom p'ortion of the pipe is paved with
stream of water divided by the length of that an asphaltic material, concrete, or air-blown
part of its periphery in contact with its mortar.
containing conduit; the ratio of area to Inverted Siphon. A pipe for conducting water
wetted perimeter. beneath a depressed place. A true inverted
Hydrograph. A graph showing stage, flow, siphon is a culvert which has the middle
velocity, or other property of water with re- portion at a lower elevation than either the
spect to time. inlet or the outlet and in which a vacuum is
created at some point in the pipe. A sag
Hydrography. Water Surveys. The art of culvert is similar, but the vacuum is not es-
measuring, recording, and analyzing the sential to its operation.
flow of water; and of measuring and Isohyetal Line. A line drawn on a map or chart
mapping watercourses, shore lines, and joining points that receive the same amount
navigable waters. of precipitation.
Hydrology. The science dealing with the oc- Isohyetal Map. A map containing isohyetal
currence and movement of water upon and lines and showing rainfall intensities.
beneath the land areas of the earth. Overlaps
and includes portions of other sciences such Isovel. Line on a diagram of a channel con-
as meteorology and geology. The particular necting points of equal velocity.
branch of Hydrology that a design engineer Jack (or Jack Straw). Bank protection element
is generally interested in is surface runoff
a which is the result of excessive
precipitation.
consisting of wire or cable strung on three
mutually perpendicular struts connected at
their centers.
Hyetograph. Graphical representation of Jacking Operations. A means of constructing a
rainfall intensity against time. pipeline under a highway without open
Incised Channel. Those channels which have excavation. A cutting edge is placed on the
been cut relatively deep into underlying first section of pipe and the pipe is forced
formations by natural processes. ahead by hydraulic jacks. As the leading
Characteristics include relatively straight edge pushes ahead, the material inside the
alignment and high, steep banks such that pipe is dug out and transported outside the
overflow rarely occurs, if ever. pipe for disposal.
Infiltration. The passage of water through the Jetty. An elongated, artificial obstruction
soil surface into the ground. projecting into a stream or the sea from bank
Inlet Time. The time required for storm runoff or shore to control shoaling and scour by
to flow from the most remote point, in flow deflection of strength of currents and waves.
time, of a drainage area to the point where it Lag. Variously defined as time from beginning
enters a drain or culvert. (or center of mass) of rainfall to peak (or
Inlet Transition. A specially shaped entrance to center of mass) of runoff.
a box or pipe culvert. It is shaped in such a Laminar Flow. That type of flow in which each
manner that in passing from one flow particle moves in a direction parallel to every
condition to another, the minimum tur- other particle and in which the head loss is
bulence or interference with flow is perrnit- approximately proportional to the velocity
ted. (as opposed to turbulent flow).
Inundate. To cover with a flood. Lateral. In a roadway drainage system, a
@ Invert. The bottom of a drainage facility along drainage conduit transporting water from in-
let points to the main drain trunk line.
which the lowest flows would pass.
July 1,1995
Levee. An embankment to prevent inundation.

(See Dike)
Navigable Waters. Those stream waters
lawfullv declared or actuallv used as such.
8
~ a v i ~ i bWaters
le of the ~ t i t eof California
Local Depression. A low area in the pavement are those declared by Statute. Navigable
or in the gutter established for the special Waters of the United States are those
purpose of collecting surface waters on a determined by the Corps of Engineers or the
street and directing these waters into a U.S. Coast Guard to be so used in interstate
drainage inlet. or international commerce. Other streams
Maximum Historical Flood. The maximum have been held navigable by courts under
flood that has been recorded or experienced the common law that navigability in fact is
at any particular highway location. navigability in law.
Mean Annual Flood. The flood discharge with Negative Projecting Conduits. A structure
a recurrence interval of 2.33 years. installed in a trench with the top below the
top of trench, then covered with backfill and
Meander. In connection with streams, a embankment. See Positive Projecting
winding channel usually in an erodible, allu- Conduit
vial valley. A reverse or S-shaped curve or
series of curves formed by erosion of the Nonuniform Flow. A flow in which the ve-
concave bank, especially at the downstream locities vary from point to point along the
end, characterized by curved flow and stream or conduit, due to variations in cross
alternating shoals and bank erosions. section, slope, etc.
Meandering is a stage in the migratory Normal Depth. The depth at which flow is
movement of the channel, as a whole, down steady and hydraulic characteristics are uni-
the valley. form.
Meander Plug (Clay Plug). Deposits of N o m l Water Surface (Natural Water Surface).
cohesive materials in old channel bendways. The free surface associated with flow in
These plugs are sufficiently resistant to ero- natural streams.
sion to serve as essentially semi-permanent
geological controls to advancing channel mi- "n" Value. The roughness coefficient in the
grations. Manning formula for determination of the
Meander Scroll. Evidence of historical meander
discharge coefficient in the Chezy formula,
patterns in the form of lines visible on the in 1 116
inside of meander bends (particularly on V = C(RS) ,where C = (-)R
n
aerial photographs) which resemble a spiral
or convoluted form in ornamental design. Off-Site Drainage. The handling of that water
These lines are concentric and regular forms which originates outside the highway right
in high sinuosity channels and are largely of way.
absent in poorly developed braided On-Site Drainage. The handling of that water
channels. which originates inside the highway right of
Mud Flow. A well-mixed mass of water and way.
alluvium which, because of its high vis- Open Channel. Any conveyance in which water
cosity, and low fluidity as compared with flows with a free surface.
water, moves at a much slower rate, usually
piling up and spreading out like a sheet of Ordinary High Water Mark. The line on the
wet mortar or concrete. shore established by the fluctuation of water
and physically indicated on the bank (1.5
Natural and Beneficial Floodplain Values. years return period)
Includes but are not limited to fish, wildlife,
plants, open space, natural beauty, scientific Oufall. Discharge or point of discharge of a
study, outdoor recreation, agriculture, aqua- culvert or other closed conduit.
culture, forestry, natural moderation of
floods, water quality maintenance, and
groundwater recharge.
July 1,1995
0 Outwash. Debris transported from a restricted

channel to an unrestricted area where it is
trench and then covered with embankment.
See Negative
- Projecting
- Conduit.
deposited to form an alluvial or debris cone Potamology. The hydrology of streams.
or
-- fan.
- - - --
Practicable. Capable of being done within

Overtopping Flood. The flood described by the reasonable natural, social, and economic
probability of exceedance and water surface constraints.
elevation at which flow occurs over the
highway, over the watershed divide, or Precipitation. Rainfall, snow, sleet, fog, hail,
through structure(s) provided for emergency dew and frost.
relief. Prescriptive Rights. The operation of the law
Peak Flow. Maximum momentary stage or whereby rights may be established by long
discharge of a stream in flood. Design exercise of their corresponding powers or
Discharge. extinguished by prolonged failure to
exercise such powers.
Perched Water. Ground water located above the
level of the water table and separated from it Preserve. To avoid modification to the func-
by a zone of impermeable material. tions of the natural floodplain environment
or to maintain it, as closely as practicable, in
Percolating Waters. Waters which have in- its natural state.
filtrated the surface of the land and move
slowly downward and outward through Probability of Exceedance. The statistical
devious channels (aquifers) unrelated to probability, expressed as a percentage, of a
stream waters, until they reach an hydrologic event occurring or being
underground lake or regain and spring from exceeded in any given year. The probability
the land surface at a lower point. (p) of a storm or flood is the reciprocal of
@ Permeability. The property of soils which
permits the passage of any fluid. Permeabil-
the average recurrence interval (N).
Probable Maximum Flood. The flood discharge
ity depends on grain size, void ratio, shape that may be expected from the most severe
and arrangement of pores. combination of critical meteorological and
hydrological conditions that are reasonably
Physiographic Region. A geographic area possible in the region.
whose pattern of landforms differ signifi-
cantly from that of adjacent regions. Pumping Plant. A complete pumping in-
stallation including a storage box, pump or
Piping. The action of water passing through or pumps, standby pumps, connecting pipes,
under an embankment and carrying some of electrical equipment, pumphouse and outlet
the finer material with it to the surface at the chamber.
downstream face.
Rainfall. Point Precipitation: That which
Point of Concentration. That point at which the registers at a single gauge. Area
water flowing from a given drainage area Precipitation: Adjusted point rainfall for area
concentrates. With reference to a highway, size.
this would generally be either a culvert
entrance or some point in a roadway Rainwash. The creep of soil lubricated by rain.
drainage system. Rapidly Varied Flow. In this type of flow,
Poised Stream. A term used by river engineers changes in depth and velocity take place
applying to a stream that over a period of over short distances, acceleration forces
time is neither degrading or aggrading its dominate, and energy loss due to friction is
channel, and is nearly in equilibrium as to minor.
sediment transport and supply. Reach. The length of a channel uniform with
a Positive Projecting Conduit. A structure in-

stalled in shallow trench with the top of the
conduit projecting above the top of the
respect to discharge, depth, area, and slope.
More generally, any length of a river or
drainage course.
July 1,1995
Regime. The system or order characteristic of a Riprap. Protection against erosion consisting of
stream; its behavior with respect to velocity broken concrete, sacked concrete, rock, etc.
and volume, form of and changes in Ripple. (1) The light fretting or ruffling of a
channel, capacity to transport sediment, water caused by a breeze. (2) Undulating
amount of material supplied for transporta- ridges and furrows, or crests and troughs
tion, etc.
Regimen. The characteristic behavior of a
.
formed bv action of the flow.
stream during ordinary cycles of flow. Risk. The consequences associated with the
probability of flooding attributable to an en-
Regulatory Floodway. The open floodplain croachmcnt. It incldes the potential for
area that is reserved in by Federal, State, or property loss and hazard to life during the
local requirements, i.e., unconfined or service life of the highway.
unobstructed either horizontally or Risk Analysis. An economic comparison of
vertically, to provide for the discharge of the design alternatives using expected total costs
base flood so that the cumulative increase in (construction costs plus risk costs) to deter-
water surface elevation is no more than a mine the alternative with the least expected
designated amount (not to exceed 0.3048 m cost to the public. It must include probable
as established by the Federal Emergency flood-related costs during the service life of
Management Agency (FEMA) for the facility for highway operation, mainte-
administering the National Flood Insurance nance, and repair, for highway aggravated
Program (NFIP)). flood damage to other property, and for
Reliction. Pertaining to being left behind. For additional or interrupted highway travel.
example: that area of land is left behind by Riser. In mountainous terrain where much
reliction when the water surface of a lake is debris is encountered, the entrance to a cul-
lowered. vert sometimes becomes easily clogged.
Restore. To reestablish a setting or environment Therefore, a corrugated metal pipe or a
in which the functions of the natural and structure made of timber or concrete with
beneficial floodplain values adversely irn- small perforations, called a riser, is installed
pacted by the highway agency can continue vertically to permit entry of water and
to operate. prohibit the entry of mud and debris. The
Retarding Basin. Either a natural or man made riser may be increased in height as the need
basin with the specific function of delaying occurs.
the flow of water from one point to another. Rounded Inlet. The edges of a culvert entrance
This tends to increase the time that it takes that are rounded for smooth transition which
all the water falling on the extremities of the reduces turbulence and increases capacity.
drainage basin to reach a common point, Runoff. The portion of precipitation that
resulting in a reduced peak flow at that appears as flow in streams. Drainage or
point. flood discharge which leaves an area as
Retention Storage. Water which accumulates surface flow or a pipeline flow, having
and ponds in natural or excavated de- reached a channel or pipeline by either
pressions in the soil surface with no possi- surface or subsurface routes.
bility for escape as runoff. (See Detention Sag Culvert (or Sag Pipe). A pipeline with a
Storage) dip in its grade line crossing over a de-
Retrogression. Reversal of stream grading; i.e., pression or under a highway, railroad,
aggradation after degradation, or vice versa. canal, etc. The term inverted siphon is
Revetment. Bank protection to prevent erosion. common but inappropriate as no siphonic
action is involved. The term "sag pipe" is
Riparian. Pertaining to the banks of a stream. suggested as a substitute.
July 1,1995
Scour. The result of erosive action of running Silt. (1) Water-Borne Sediment. Detritus
water, pnmady in streams, excavating and carried in suspension or deposited by
carrying away material from the bed and flowing water, ranging in diameter from
banks. Wearing away by abrasive action. 0.005 to 0.05 mm. The term is generally
confrned to fine earth, sand, or mud, but is
Scour, General. The removal of material from sometimes both suspended and bedload. (2)
the bed and banks across all or most of the Deposits of Water-Borne Material. As in a
width of a channel, as a result of a flow reservoir, on a delta, or on floodplains.
contraction which causes increased
velocities and bed shear stress. Sinuosity. The ratio of the length of the river
thalweg to the length of the valley proper.
Scour, Local. Removal of material from the
channel bed or banks which is restricted to a Skew. When a drainage structure is not normal
minor part of the width of a channel. This (perpendicular) to the longitudinal axis of
scour occurs around piers and embankments the highway, it is said to be on a skew. The
and is caused by the actions of vortex skew angle is the smallest angle between the
systems induced by the obstruction to the -
perpendicular and the axis of the structure.
-
fiow. Slide. Gravitational movement of an unstable

Scour. Natural. Removal of material from the mass of earth from its natural position.
channel bed or banks which occurs in Slipout. Gravitational movement of an unstable
streams with the migration of bed forms, mass of earth from its constructed position.
shifting of the thalweg and at bends and nat- Applied to embankments and other man-
ural contractions. made earthworks.
Sediment. Fragmentary material that originates Slope. (1) Gradient of a stream. (2) Inclination
from weathering of rocks and is transported
a by, suspended in, or deposited by water.
Sedimentation. Gravitational deposit of
of the face of an embankment, expressed as
the ratio of horizontal to vertical projection;
or (3) The face of an inclined embankment
transported material in flowing or standing or cut slope. In hydraulics it is expressed as
water. percent or in decimal form.
Seismic Wave. A gravity wave caused by an Slough. (1) Pronounced SLU. A side or
earthauake. overflow channel in which water is continu-
ally present. It is stagnant or slack; also a
Sheet Flow. Any flow spread out and not waterway in a tidal marsh. (2) Pronounced
confined; i.e., flow across a flat open field. SLUFF. Slide or slipout of a thin mantle of
Shoaling. Deposition of alluvial material re- earth, especially in a series of small move-
sulting in areas with relatively shallow ments.
depth: Slugflow. Flow in culvert or drainage structure
Significant Encroachment. A highway en- which alternates between full and partly full.
croachment and any direct support of likely Pulsating flow -- mixed water and air.
base floodplain development that would in- Soffit. The bottom of the top -- (1) With ref-
volve one or more of the following erence to a bridge, the low point on the
construction or flood related impacts: underside of the suspended portion of the
A significant potential for interruption or structure. (2) In a culvert, the uppermost
termination of a transportation facility point on the inside of the structure.
which is needed for emergency vehicles Specific Energy. The energy contained in a
or provides a community's only stream of water, expressed in terms of head,
evacuation route. referred to the bed of a stream. It is equal to
the mean depth of water plus the velocity
A significant risk, or head of the mean velocity.
0 A significant adverse impact on natural
and ikneficial floodplain balues.
July 1,1995
Stage. The elevation of a water surface above Stream Response. Changes in the dynamic
its minimum; also above or below an es- equilibrium of a stream by any one, or com-
tablished "low water" plane; hence above or bination of various causes.
below any datum of reference; gage height. Stream Waters. Former surface waters which
Standing Wave. A term which when used to have entered and now flow in a well defined
describe the upper flow regime in alluvial natural watercourse, together with other
channels, means a vertical oscillation of the waters reaching the stream by direct
water surface between fixed nodes without precipitation or rising from springs in bed or
appreciable progression in either an banks of the watercourse. They continue as
upstream or downstream direction. To stream waters as long as they flow in the
maintain the fixed position, the wave must watercourse, including overflow and
have a celerity (velocity) equal to the multiple channels as well as the ordinary or
approach velocity in the channel, but in the low-water channel.
opposite direction. Strutting. Elongation of the vertical axis of pipe
Steady Flow. A flow in which the flow rate or prior to installing in a trench. After the
quantity of fluid passing a given point per backfill has been placed around the pipe and
unit of time remains constant. compacted, the wires or rods holding the
pipe in its distorted shape are removed.
Storage. Detention, or retention of water for Greater side support from the earth is devel-
future flow, naturally in channel and oped when the pipe tends to return to its
marginal soils or artificially in reservoirs. original shape. Generally used on pipes
Storage Basin. Space for detention or retention which because of size or thinness of the
of water for future flow, naturally in channel metal would tend to deform during con-
and marginal soils, or artificially in struction operations. Arches are strutted
reservoirs. diagonally per standard or special plan.
Storm. A disturbance of the ordinary, average Subcritical Flow. In this state, gravity forces
conditions of the atmosphere which, unless are dominant, so that the flow has a low
specifically qualified, may include any or all velocity and is often described as tranquil
meteorological disturbances, such as wind, and streaming. Also, that flow which has a
rain, snow, hail, or thunder. Froude number less than one.
Storm Drain. That portion of a drainage system Subdrain. A conduit for collecting and dis-
expressly for collecting and conveying posing of underground water. It generally
former surface water in an enclosed conduit. consists of a pipe, with perforations in the
Often referred to as a "storm sewer", storm bottom through- which water can enter.
drains include inlet structures, conduit, junc- Sump. In drainage, any low area which does
tions, manholes, outfalls and other appurte- not permit the escape of water by gravity
nances. flow.
Storm Water Management. The recognition of Supercritical Flow. In this state, inertia forces
adverse drainage resulting from altered are dominant, so that flow has a high
runoff and the solutions resulting from the velocity and is usually described as rapid,
cooperative efforts of public agencies and shooting and torrential. Also, that flow
the private sector to mitigate, abate, or which has a Froude number greater than
reverse those adverse results. one.
Stream Power. An expression used in pre- Support Base Floodplain Development. To
dicting bed forms and hence bed load trans- encourage, allow, serve, or otherwise
port in alluvial channels. It is the product of facilitate additional base floodplain de-
the mean velocity, the specific weight of the velopment. Direct support results from an
water-sediment mixture, the normal depth of encroachment, while indirect support results
flow and the slope. from an action out of the base floodplain. @
July 1, 1995
@ Surface Runofi The movement of water on Tsunami. A gravity wave caused by an un-
earth's surface, whether flow is over surface derwater seismic disturbance (such as
of ground or in channels. sudden faulting, landsliding or volcanic
activity).
Suflace Waters. Surface waters are those which
have been precipitated on the land from the Turbulence. A state of flow wherein the water*
sky or forced to the surface in springs, and is agitated by cross-currents and eddies, as
which have then spread over the surface of opposed to a condition of flow that is quiet
the ground without being collected into a and laminar.
definite body or channel. .They appear as Turbulent Flow. That type of flow in which
puddles, sheet or overland flow, and rills, any particle may move in any direction with
and continue to be surface waters until they respect to any other particle, and in which
disappear from the surface by infiltration or the head loss is approximately proportional
evaporation, or until by overland or vagrant to the square of the velocity.
flow they reach well-defined watercourses
or standing bodies of water like lakes or Undercut. Erosion of the low part of a steep
seas. bank so as to compromise stability of the
Suspended Load. Sediment that is supported by upper Part.
the upward components of turbulent Underjlow. The downstream flow of water
currents in a stream and that stay in sus- through the permeable deposits that underlie
pension for appreciable amount of time. a stream. (1) Movement of water through a
pervious subsurface stratum, the flow of
Swale. A shallow, gentle depression in the percolating water; or water under ice, or
earth's surface. This tends to collect the wa- under a structure. (2) The rate of flow or
ters to some extent and is considered in a discharge of subsurface water.
a sense as a drainage course, although waters
in a swale are not considered stream waters.
Tapered Inlet. A transition to direct the flow of
Unsteady Flow. A flow in which the velocity
changes with respect to space and time.
water into a channel or culvert. A smooth Velocity Head. A term used in hydraulics to
transition to increase hydraulic efficiency of represent the kinetic energy of flowing wa-
an inlet structure. ter. This "head" is represented by a column
Thalweg. The line following the lowest part of
of standing water equivalent in potential
a valley, whether under water or not. energy to the kinetic energy of the moving
Usually the line following the deepest part water calculated as (V212g) where the "V"
of the bed or channel of a river. represents the velocity in meters per second
and "g" represents the potential acceleration
Time of Concentration. The time required for due to gravity, in meters per second per
storm runoff to flow from the most remote second.
point, in flow time, of a drainage area to the
point under consideration. It is usually Watercourse. A definite channel with bed and
associated with the design storm. banks within which water flows, either
continuously or in season. A watercourse is
Trash Rack. A grid or screen across a stream continuous in the direction of flow and may
designed to catch floating debris. extend laterally beyond the definite banks to
Trunk (or Trunk Line). In a roadway drainage include overflow channels contiguous to the
system, the main conduit for transporting ordinary channel. The term does not include
the storm waters. This main line is artificial channels such as canals and drains,
generally quite deep in the ground so that except natural channels trained or restrained
laterals coming from fairly long distances by the works of man. Neither does it
can drain by gravity into the trunk line. include depressions or swales through
which surface or errant waters pass.
July 1,1995
Watershed. The area drained by a stream or ( I ) Hydraulic Engineering Circulars (HEC).

.
stream svstem.
HEC Title Date FHWA #
Water Table. The surface of the groundwater No. NTIS #
below which the void spaces are completely
saturated. 1 Selected 1983 EPD-86-104
Bibliography of PB86-179256lAS
Waterway. That portion of a watercourse which Hydraulic and
is actually occupied by water. Hydrologic Subjects
Weephole. A hole in a wall, invert, apron, 9 Debris-Control 1971 EPD-86- 106
lining, or other solid structure to relieve the Structures PB86-179801lAS
pressure of groundwater.
10 Capacity Charts for 1972 EPD-86-107
Weir. A low overflow dam or sill for the Hydraulic
PB86-185691lAS
measuring, diverting, or checking flow. Design of Highway
Culverts
Topic 807 - Selected Drainage 11 Design of Riprap 1989 IP-89-016
References Revetment ~ ~ 81797931~s
6 -
12 Drainage of 1984 TS-84-202
807.1 Introduction Highway Pavements
PB84-2 15003lAS
Hydraulic and drainage related reference (GPO 050-001-
publications listed are grouped as to source. 00280-9)
14 Hydraulic Design of 1983 EPD-86- 110
807.2 Federal Highway Administration Energy Dissipators PB86- 180205lAS
Hydraulic Publications for Culverts and
Copies of publications identified with an NTIS Channels
or GPO number may be ordered as follows: 15 Design of Roadway 1988 IP-87-7
Channels with PB89- 122584lAS
NTIS - Send a check to: Flexible Linings
16 Addendum to 1980 EPD-86-116
National Technical Information Service Highways in the PB86-17885UAS
5285 Port Royal Road River Environment
Springfield, VA 22161
(703) 487-4650 17 The Design of 1981 EPD-86-112
Encroachments on PB86-182110lAS
GPO - Send a check to: Flood Plains Using
Risk Analysis
Superintendent of Documents 18 Evaluating Scour at 1993 IP-90-017
Government Printing Office Bridges PB91-198739
Washington, D.C. 20402
19 Hydrology 1984 IP-84-15
20 Stream Stability at 1991 IP-90-014

Highway Structures PB91-198788
21 Bridge Deck 1993 SA-92-010
Drainage Systems
July 1,1995
(2) Hydraulic Design Series (HDS). o Guide for Selecting 1984 TS-84-204
Manning's ~ o u ~ h n e s s PB84-242585
HDS FHWA # Coefficient for Natural
No. Title Date NTIS # Channels and Flood
1 Hydraulics of Bridge 1978 EPD-86-101 Plains
Waterways PB86- 181708lAS o Culvert Inspection 1986 IP-86-2
3 Design Charts for 1961 EPD-86-102 Manual PB87-151809
Open-Channel Flow PB86- 179249lAS o Use of Riprap for Bank 1986 TS-86-211
4 Design of Roadside 1965 EPD-86-103 Protection PB86-217197
Drainage Channels PB86- 180288lAS
5 Hydraulic Design of 1985 IP-85-15
Highway Culverts PB86- 1969611AS (4) Research Publications.
(GPO 050-00 1-
00298- 1) Title Date FHWA #
NTIS #
o Approximate Method
(3) Implementation Publications. for Computing
Backwater Profiles in
Title Date FHWA # Corrugated Metal Pipes
NTIS # o Countermeasuresfor
o Highways in the River Hydraulic Problems at
Environment Bridges
o Design of Urban - Vol 1, Analysis and
@ Highway Drainage Assessment
o Highways and Wetlands - Vol2, Case Histories
for Sites 1-283
- Vol 1, Interim
Procedural Guidelines o Constituents of
Highway Runoff
- Vol2, Impact
Assessment - Vol 1, State-of-the-art
Report
- Vol3, Annotated
Bibliography - Vol2, F'rocedure
Manual for Monitoring
o Hydraulic Flow
Resistance Factors for - Vol3, Predictive
Cormgated Metal mures
Conduits - Vol4, Characteristics
o Underground Disposal of of Highway Runoff
Storm Water Runoff, - Vol5, Data Storage
Design Guidelines Prg .
Manual
- Vol6, Executive
o Manual for Highway Summary
Stormwater Pumping
0 Streambank
Stations,Vol 1 & 2
Stabilization Measures
(Appendices) for Highway Stream
o Structural Design Crossings, Executive
Manual for Improved Summary
Inlets and Culverts
0 o Streambank
Stabilization Measures
for Highway Engineers
July 1,1995
o Design of Spur-Type 1985 RD-84-101 807.3 American Association of State

Streambank PB86- 186830lAS Highway and Transportation Officials
Stabilization Structures (AASHTO)
o Retention, Detention, 1988 RD-87-056 (1) Highway Drainage Guidelines
and Overland Flow for PB89- 13329UAS The Drainage Guidelines is a collection of the
Pollutant Removal guides previously published as individual
o Minimizing 1990 RD-88-181 volumes. These are:
Embankment Damages PB90-266107
During Overtopping
I - Hydraulic Considerations in Highway
Planning and Location
o Cost-Effective 1990 RD-88-126
Roadway Drainage PB90- 104497 I1 - Hydrology
Design using 111 - Erosion and Sediment Control in
Highway Construction
IV - Hydraulic Design of Culverts
(5) HYDRAIN - Integrated Dminage Design V - The Legal Aspects of Highway
Computer System Drainage
The pool-funded project to develop the VI - Hydraulic Analysis and Design of
HYDRAIN computer system has essentially Open Channels
been completed (only metric conversion VII - Hydraulic Analysis for the Location
remains) with the release of version 5.0 in and Design of Bridges
1994. AH seven volumes listed below are
contained in report No. FHWA-RD-92-06 1. VIII - Hydraulic Aspects in Restoration and
Upgrading of Highways
IX - Storm Drain Systems
Volume Title X - Evaluating Highway Effects on
No. Surface Water Environments
I HYDRAIN - System Shell
XI - Highways along Coastal Zones and
I1 HYDRO - Hydrology Lakeshores
111 HYDRA Storm Drains
The current edition may be purchased through
IV HYCLV - Culvert Design & Analysis AASHTO, 444 North Capitol St., N.W., Suite
V WSPRO - Step Backwater & Bridge 225, Washington D.C. 20001.
Hydraulics
VI HY8 - Culvert Analysis
(2) AASHTO Model Drainage Manual
VII HYCHL - Channel Stability The Model Drainage Manual (MDM) is a
comprehensive document covering a wide
variety of transportation related hydraulic design
issues. Developed for use by Federal, State,
and local agencies, the MDM is a practice
oriented document that allows the user agency to
adopt the recommended values shown in the
manual, or insert their own specific design
policies and procedures.
807.4 California Department of 807.7 California Department of Water

Transportation Resources and Caltrans
The following publications are available from Rainfall Intensity - Duration - Frequency
the Caltrans Publications Unit, 1900 Royal Computer Program (Available through
Oaks Dr., Sacramento, CA 95815. Information Caltrans).
on ordering and price can be checked by calling
(9 16) 445-3520. 807.8 University of California -
Institute of Transportation and Traffic
Bridge Design Practice Manual Engineering (ITTE)
Manual of Test - Volumes l,2, and 3 Street and Highway Drainage - Course
Standard Plans Notes, Volumes 1 and 2.
Standard Specifications 807.9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

The following reports have been published by Publications and computer programs, too
METS, 5900 Folsom Blvd., P.O. Box 19128, numerous to list, are available from the Water
Sacramento, CA 958 19. Information on Resources Support Center. A publication cat-
availability and price can be checked by calling alog may be obtained by contacting the Hy-
(916) 227-71 14. drologic Engineering Center of the Corp, 609
Second St., Davis, CA 95616.
Infiltration Drainage of Highway Surface
Water, 1980, Report No. FHWAJCAITL-
80104.
Evaluation of Brush Layering, 1985.
CULVERT3.EXE, (4- 16-94) Computer
Program to calculate maintenance-fiee
service life using California Culvert Criteria.
807.5 U.S. Department of Interior -
Geological Survey (USGS)
Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in Cal-
ifornia - Water Resources Investigation 77-
21.
Water Resources Data for California, Part 1,
Volumes 1 and 2.
Rock Riprap Design for Protection of
Stream Channels Near Highway Structures
(1987) Volumes 1 and 2 (1987).
807.6 U.S. Department of Agriculture -
Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
Engineering Design Standards.
July 1,1995
hydrologic studies and research available to the

CHAPTER 810 highway design engineer requiring more
HYDROLOGY thorough information on hydrologic analysis.
811.2 Objectives of Hydrologic
Topic 811 - General Analysis
Regardless of the size or cost of the drainage
-
Index 811.1 Introduction feature the most important step prior to
Hydrology is often defined as: "A science hydraulic &sign is estimating the discharge (rate
dealing with the properties, distribution, and of runoff) or volume of runoff that the drainage
circulation of water on the surface of the land, in facility will be required to convey or control.
the soil and underlying rocks, and in the While some hydrologic analysis is necessary in
atmosphere." This is a very broad definition establishing the quantity of surface water that
encompassing many disciplines relating to must be considered in the design of all highway
water. The highway engineer is principally drainage facilities, the extent of such studies are
concerned with surface hydrology and con- to be commensurate with the importance of the
trolling surface runoff. Controlling runoff highway, the potential for damage to the
includes the hydraulic design of drainage fea- highway, loss of property, and hazard to life
tures for both cross highway drainage (Chapter associated with the facilities.
820) and removal of runoff from the roadway
(Chapter 830). The choice of analytical method must be a
conscious decision made as each problem
The runoff of water over land has long been arises. To make an informed decision, the
studied and some rather sophisticated theories highway engineer must determine:
and methods have been proposed and developed
for estimating flood flows. Most attempts to What level of hydrologic analysis is
describe the process have been only partially justified.
successful at best. This is due to the complexity
of the process and interactive factors. The What data are available or must be col-
random nature of rainfall, snowmelt, and other lected.
sources of water further complicate the process.
What methods of analysis are available
It should be understood that there are no exact including the relative strengths and
methods for hydrologic analysis. Different weaknesses in terms of cost and
methods that are commonly used may produce accuracy.
significantly different results for a specific site
and particular situation. Cross drainage design, Chapter 820, normally
requires more extensive hydrologic analysis
Although hydrology is not an exact science, it is than is necessary for roadway drainage design,
possible to obtain solutions which are Chapter 830. The well known and relatively
functionally acceptable to form the basis for simple "Rational Method" (see Index 819.2) is
design of highway drainage facilities. generally adequate for estimating the rate or
More complete information on the principles and volume of runoff for the design of on-site
engineering techniques pertaining to hydrology roadway drainage facilities and removal of
for transportation and highway engineers may runoff from highway pavements.
be found in FHWA Hydraulic Engineering
Circular (HEC) No. 19, Hydrology. Key 811.3 Peak Discharge
aspects of hydrologic information and a general Peak discharge is the maximum rate of flow of
overview of hydrology relevant to highway water passing a given point during or after a
engineering are more fully discussed in the rainfall event. Peak discharge, often called peak
AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines and flow, occurs at the momentary "peak" of the
@ the AASWO Model Drainage Manual. Both of
these publications cite appropriate and rec-
stream's flood hydrograph. (See Index 816.5,
Flood Hydrograph.)
ommended references on specific aspects of
July 1,1995
Design discharge, expressed as the quantity (Q)

of flow in cubic meters per second (m3/s), is the
Topic 812 Basin -
peak discharge that a highway drainage structure
Characteristics
is sized to handle. Peak discharge is different
for every storm and it is the highway engineer's 812.1 Size
responsibility to size drainage facilities and The size (area) of a drainage basin is the most
structures for the magnitude of the design storm important watershed characteristic affecting
and flood severity. The magnitude of peak runoff. Determining the size of the drainage
discharge varies with the severity of flood area that contributes to flow at the site of the
events which is based on probability of drainage structure is a basic step in a hydrologic
exceedance (see Index 8 11.4). The selection of analysis regardless of the method used to
design storm frequency and flood probability evaluate flood flows. The drainage area,
are more fully discussed under Topic 818, expressed in hectares or square kilometers, is
Flood Probability and Frequency. frequently determined from field surveys,
topographic maps, or aerial photographs.
811.4 Flood Severity
Flood severity is usually stated in terms of: 812.2 Shape
The shape, or outline formed by the basin
Probability of Exceedance, or boundaries, affects the rate at which water is
Frequency of Recurrence. supplied to the main stream as it proceeds along
its course from the runoff source to the site of
Modern concepts tend to define a flood in terms the drainage structure. Long narrow watersheds
of probability. Probability of exceedance, the generally give lower peak discharges than do
statistical odds or chance of a flood of given fan or pear shaped basins.
magnitude being exceeded in any year, is
generally expressed as a percentage. Frequency 812.3 Slope
of recurrence is expressed in years, on the The slope of a drainage basin is one of the major
average, that a flood of given magnitude would factors affecting the time of overland flow and
be predicted. Refer to Topic 818 for further
discussion of flood probability and frequency. concentration of rainfall (see Index 8 16.6, Time
of Concentration). Steep slopes tend to result in
811.5 Factors Affecting Runoff shorter response time and increase the discharge
while flat slopes tend to result in longer
The highway engineer should become familiar response time and reduce the discharge.
with the many factors or characteristics that
affect runoff before making a hydrologic 812.4 Land Use
analysis. The effects of many of the factors
known to influence surface runoff only exist in Changes in land use nearly always cause
empirical form. Extensive field data, increases in surface water runoff. Of all the
empirically determined coefficients, sound land use changes, urbanization is the most
judgment, and experience are required for a dominant factor affecting the hydrology of an
quantitative analysis of these factors. Relating area.
flood flows to these causative factors has not yet Land use studies may be necessary to define
advanced to a level of precise mathematical present and future conditions with regard to
expression. urbanization or other changes expected to take
Some of the more significant factors which place within the drainage basin.
affect the hydraulic character of surface water Valuable information concerning land use trends
runoff are categorized and briefly discussed in is available from many sources such as:
Topics 812 through 814. It is important to
recognize that the factors discussed may exist State, regional or municipal planning or-
concurrently within a watershed and their ganizations.
combined effects are very difficult to quantify.
U.S. Geological Survey.
-
July 1, 1995
U.S. Department of Agriculture (Water discharges have resulted than would occur had
Branch Natural Resource Economic the storage not been added.
Division.) The effect of flood-control reservoirs should be
Within each District there are various or- considered in evaluating downstream
ganizations that collect, publish or record land conditions, flood peaks, and river stages for
use information. The District Hydraulics design of highway structures. The controlling
Engineer should be familiar with these public agency or the owner should be contacted
organizations and the types of information they for helpful information on determining the
have available. effects, if any, on downstream highway
drainage structures.
A criterion of good drainage design is that future
development and land use changes which can It is not uncommon for flood control projects to
reasonably be anticipated to occur during the be authorized but never constructed because
design life of the drainage facility be considered funds are not appropriated. Therefore a flood
in the hydraulic analysis and estimation of control project should exist or be under
design discharge. construction if its effects on a drainage system
are to be considered.
812.5 Soil and Geology
812.7 Elevation
The type of surface soil which is characteristic
of an area is an important consideration for any The mean elevation of a drainage basin and
hydrologic analysis and is a basic input to the significant variations in elevation within a
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method. Rock drainage basin may be important characteristics
formations underlying the surface soil and other affecting run-off particularly with respect to
geophysical characteristics such as volcanic, precipitation falling as snow. Elevation is a
glacial, and river deposits can have a significant basic input to some of the USGS Regional
effect on run-off. Regression Equations (see Index 819.2).
The major source of soil information is the Soil 812.8 Orientation
Conservation Service (SCS) of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture. The address and The amount of runoff can be affected by the
telephone number of the SCS office in Cali- orientation of the basin. Where the general
fornia is: slope of the drainage basin is to the south it will
receive more exposure to the heat of the sun
2121 Second Street, than will a slope to the north. Such orientation
Building C affects transpiration, evaporation, and
Davis, CA 95616-5475 infiltration losses. Snowpack and the rate at
(9 16) 757-8200 which snow melts will also be affected. A
basin's orientation with respect to the direction
812.6 Storage of storm movement can affect a flood peak.
Interception and depression storage are Storms moving upstream produce lower peaks
generally not important considerations in than storms tending to move in the general
highway drainage design and may be ignored in direction of stream flow.
most hydrologic analysis. Interception storage
is rainfall intercepted by vegetation and never
becomes run-off. Depression storage is rainfall
-
Topic 813 Channel and
lost in filling small depressions in the ground Floodplain
surface, storage in transit (overland or channel Characteristics
flow), and storage in ponds, lakes or swamps.
Detention storage can have a significant effect in 813.1 General
reducing the peak rate of discharge, but this is Streams are formed by the gathering together of
not always the case. There have been ran surface waters into channels that are usually
instances where artificial storage radically well defined. The natural or altered condition of
redistributes the discharges and higher peak the channels can materially affect the volume
July 1.1995
and rate of runoff and is a significant 813.4 Hydraulic Roughness

consideration in the hydrological analysis for Hydraulic roughness represents the resistance to
cross drainage design. flows in natural channels and flood~lains. It
A useful reference relative to problems as- affects both the time response of idrainage
sociated with transverse and longitudinal channel and channel storage characteristics. The
highway encroachments upon river channels lower the roughness, the higher the peak
and floodplains is the FHWA Training and discharge and the shorter the time of the
Design Manual, "Highways in the River Envi- resulting hydrograph. The total volume of
ronment - Hydraulic and Environmental Design runoff however is virtually independent of
Considerations" hydraulic roughness.
Streamflow is frequently indirectly computed by
813.2 Length and Slope using Manning's equation, see Index 864.3.
The longer the channel the more time it takes for Procedures for selecting an appropriate
water to flow from the beginning of the channel coefficient of hydraulic roughness, Manning's
to the site under consideration. Channel length "nu,may be found in the FHWA report, "Guide
and effective channel slope are important for Selecting Manning's Roughness Coefficient
parameters in determining the response time of a for Natural Channels and Flood Plains".
watershed to precipitation events of given
frequency. 813.5 Natural and Man-made
Constrictions
In the case of a wide floodplain with a
meandering main channel the effective channel Natural constrictions, such as gravel bars, rock
length will be reduced during flood stages when outcrops and debris jams as well as artificial
the banks are overtopped and flow tends more constrictions such as diversion and storage
toward a straight line. dams, grade-control structures, and other water-
use facilities may control or regulate flow.
813.3 Cross Section Their effect on the flood peak may be an
important consideration in the hydrologic
Flood peaks may be estimated by using data analysis.
from stream gaging stations and natural channel
cross section information. 813.6 Channel Modifications
Although channel storage is usually ignored in Channel improvements such as channel-
the hydrologic analysis for the design of straightening, flood control levees, dredging,
highway drainage structures, channel cross bank clearing and removal of obstructions tend
section may significantly affect discharge, to reduce natural attenuation and increase
particularly in wide floodplains with heavy downstream flood peaks.
vegetation.
If channel storage is considered to be a -
813.7 Aggradation Degradation
significant factor,-the assistance of an expert in Aggradation, deposited sediments, may lessen
combining the analysis of basin hydrology and channel capacity and increase flood heights
stream hydraulics should be sought. The U .S . causing overflow at a lower discharge.
Army Corps of Engineers has developed Degradation, the lowering of the bed of a stream
computer programs, HEC- 1, Flood Hydrograph or channel, may increase channel capacity and
Package and HEC-2, Water Surface Profiles, result in a higher peak discharge.
for this type of analysis. An enhanced version
of the HEC-2 computer program, called The validity of hydrologic analysis using
WSPRO, Step Backwater and Bridge observed historical highwater marks may be
Hydraulics, is also available for solving affected by aggradation or degradation of the
complex water surface profile problems. streambed. The effects of aggradabn and
degradation are important considerations in
selecting an effective drainage system design to
protect highways and adjacent properties from
damage. For more information refer to the
July 1,1995
FHWA report entitled, "Stream Channel Frequency (statistical probability of how

Degradation and Aggradation: Analysis of often rainfall will occur)
Impact to Highway Crossings".
813.8 Debris Time Distribution (intensity hyetograph)
The quantity and size of solid matter carried by a Storm Type (orographic, convective or
stream may affect the hydrologic analysis of a cyclonic)
drainage basin. Bulking due to mud, suspended
sediment and other debris transported by storm Storm Size (localized or broad areal ex-
runoff may significantly increase the volume of tent)
flow, affect flow characteristics, and can be a
major consideration in the hydraulic design of Storm Movement (direction of storm)
drainage structures. Debris control structures
and design considerations are discussed in 814.3 Snow
Topic 822, Debris Control. Much of the precipitation that falls in the
mountainous areas of the state falls as frozen
-
Topic 814 Meteorological water in the form of snow, hail, and sleet.
Since frozen precipitation cannot become part of
Characteristics the runoff until melting occurs it is stored as
snowpack until thawed by warmer weather.
814.1 General
Rain upon an accumulation of snow can cause a
Meteorology is the science dealing with the much higher peak discharge than would occur
earth's atmosphere, especially the weather. As from rainfall alone. The parameters of snow
applied to hydrology for the highway designer which may need to be considered in quantifying
the following elements of meteorological peak flood runoff are:
@ phenomena are considered the more important
factors affecting runoff and flood predictions. Mean annual snowfall
814.2 Rainfall Water content of snowpack
Rainfall is the most common factor used to Snowmelt rate
predict design discharge. Unfortunately, due to
the many interactive factors involved, the
relationship between rainfall and runoff is not all
that well defined. Intuitively, engineers know Evaporation and transpiration are two natural
and studies confirm, that runoff increases in processes by which water reaching the earth's
proportion to the rainfall on a drainage basin. surface is returned to the atmosphere as vapor.
Highway design engineers are cautioned about The losses due to both phenomena are important
assuming that a given frequency storm always to long term hydrology and water balance in the
produces a flood of the same frequency. There watershed and are usually ignored in the
are analytical techniques for ungaged hydrologic analysis for the design of highway
watersheds that are based on this assumption. drainage facilities.
A statistical analysis of extensive past rainfall
records should be made before such a 814.5 Tides and Waves
correlation is accepted. The combined effect of upland runoff and tidal
Rainfall event characteristics which are action is a primary consideration in the design of
important to highway drainage design are: highway drainage structures and shore
protection facilities along the coastlines, on
Intensity (rate of rainfall) estuaries, and in river delta systems.
Duration (time rainfall lasts) The time and height of high and low water
caused by the gravitational attraction of the sun
and moon upon the earth's oceans are precisely
predictable. Information on gravitational tides
July 1,1995
and tidal bench marks for the California hydrologic analysis to be used for the final
Coastline is available from: design of highway drainage structures. If data
needs can be clearly identified, data collection
State Lands Commission and compilation efforts can be tailored to the
NOS Marine Boundary Program importance of the project.
1807 13th Street
Sacramento, CA 958 14 Data needs vary with the methods of hydrologic
One of the most devastating forces affecting the analysis. Highway engineers should remember
coastline occurs when an astronomical high tide that there is no single method applicable to all
and a storm of hurricane proportion arrive on design problems. They should make use of
the land at the same time. This is also true of whatever hydrologic data that has been
the effect of a tsunami. A tsunami is a wave developed by others whenever it is available and
caused by an earthquake at sea. If shore applicable to their needs.
protection were designed to withstand the forces Frequently there is little or no data available in
of a tsunami, it would be extremely costly to the right form for the project location. For a
construct. Since it would be so costly and the few locations in the State, so much data has
probability of occurrence is so slight, such a been compiled that it is difficult to manage,
design may not be justified. store, and retrieve the information that is
Wind-waves directly affect coastal structures applicable to the project site.
and cause dynamic changes in coastal
morphology. The U.S. Corps of Engineers 815.2 Categories
collects and publishes data which may be used For most highway drainage design purposes
to predict size of Pacific Coast wind-waves. there are three primary categories of hydrologic
Information pertaining to the California coastline data:
from the Mexican border north to Cape San
Martin can be obtained from: ( I ) Sugace Water Runoff. This includes daily
and annual averages, peak discharges,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers instantaneous values, and highwater marks.
Los Angeles District
P.O. Box 27 11 ( 2 ) Precipitation. Includes rainfall, snowfall,
Los Angeles, CA 90053 hail, and sleet.
(2 13) 688-5400 (3) Drainage Basin Characteristics. Adequate
For information from Cape San Martin to the information may not be readily available but
Oregon border from: can generally be estimated or measured from
maps, field reviews or surveys. See Topic
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 812 for a discussion of basin characteristics.
San Francisco District
21 1 Main Street Other special purpose categories of hydrologic
San Francisco, CA 94 105 data which may be important to specific
(415) 556-3582 problems associated with a highway project are:
Wind-waves are also generated on large inland Sediment and debris transport
bodies of water and their effect should be
considered in the design of shoreline highway Snowpack variations
facilities.
Groundwater levels and quantity
Topic 815 - Hydrologic Data Water quality
815.1 General 815.3 Sources

The purpose for which a hydrologic study is to Hydrologic data necessary for the design of
cross drainage (stream crossings) are usually
be made will determine the type and amount of
hydrologic data needed. The accuracy
necessarv for ~reliminarvstudies is usuallv not
obtained from a combination of sources.
a
as critic'al asAthe deskable accuracy bf a
July 1,1995
( I ) Field Investigations. A great deal of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

essential information can only be obtained
by visiting the site. Except for extremely Federal Emergency Management Agency
simple designs or the most preliminary (FEMA)
analysis, a field survey or site investigation
should always be made. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
To optimize the amount and quality of the The USGS is the primary federal agency
hydrologic data collected the field survey charged with collecting and maintaining wa-
should be well planned and conducted by an ter related data. The National Water Data
engineer with general knowledge of Exchange (NAWDEX) is maintained by the
drainage design. Data collected are to be USGS. The main objective of NAWDEX is
documented. When there is reason to to assist users in the identification, location,
believe that a potential for significant risks and acquisition of water data that is currently
or impacts associated with the design of available nationwide from the many
drainage facilities may exist, a written report organizations collecting hydrologic
with maps and photographs may be information. A network of Assistance
necessary. (See Topic 804 for Floodplain Centers has been set up to access the
Encroachments.) Appended to HEC- 19 is a NAWDEX files.
checklist for drainage studies and reports Stream-gaging station data and other water
which may be a useful guide in the conduct related information collected by the USGS is
of hydrologic studies. Typical data collected published in Water Supply Papers. These
in a field survey are: data are also available from the USGS main-
tained Water Data Storage and Retrieval
Highwater marks System (WATSTORE). To access
e Performance and condition of existing

drainage structures
WATSTORE and information on the
acquisition of other data contact:
U.S. Geological Survey
Stream alignment California Division Office
Stream stability and scour potential Federal Building
2800 Cottage Way, Room W-2235
Land use and potential development Sacramento, CA 95825
Location and nature of physical and cul- (3) State Agencies. The primary state agency
turd features collecting stream-gaging and precipitation
(rain-gage and snowfall) data is the Cali-
* Vegetative cover fornia De~artrnent of Water Resources
Upstream constraints on headwater (DWR). 1976, with the cooperation of
elevation Caltrans and FHWA, DWR prepared and
published Bulletin No. 195, Rainfall
Downstream constraints -halysis for Drainage Design. The bulletin
is comprised of three separately bound
Debris potential volumes:
( 2 ) Federal Agencies. The following agencies
collect and disseminate stream flow data: Volume I. Short-Duration Precipitation
Frequency Data
Geological Survey (USGS) Volume 11. Long-Duration Precipitation
Corps of Engineers (COE) Data
Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) Volume 111. Intensity-Duration-Fre-
quency Curves
Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
Under an agreement with Caltrans, DWR
Forest Service (USFS) continually collects, analyzes and maintains
July 1, 1995
statewide rain gage records. Caltrans 815.5 Rainfall

periodically accesses DWR's computer file Rainfall data are collected by recording and non-
of short duration precipitation data to recording rain gages. Rainfall collected by
produce updated intensity-duration- vertical cylindrical rain gages of about 200 rnrn
frequency (IDF) curves and related in diameter is designated as "point rainfall".
information.
Regardless of the care and precision used,
(4) Local Agencies. Entities such as cities, rainfall measurements from rain gages have
counties, flood control districts, or local im- inherent and unavoidable shortcomings. Snow
provement districts study local drainage con- and wind problems frequently interrupt rainfall
ditions and are often a valuable source of records. Extreme rainfall data from recording
hydrologic data. rain gage charts are generally underestimated.
(5) Private Sector. Water using industries or Rain gage measurements are seldom used
utilities, railroads and local consultants directly by highway engineers. The statistical
frequently have pertinent hydrologic records analysis which must be done with precipitation
and studies available. measurements is nearly always performed by
qualified hydrologists and meteorologists such
815.4 Stream Flow as those employed by the Department of Water
Once surface runoff water enters into a stream, Resources (DWR). The intensity-duration-
it becomes "stream flow". Stream flow is the frequency (DX) tables and curves are the
only portion of the hydrologic cycle in which products of rainfall measurement analyses
water is so confined as to make possible which have direct application to highway
reasonably accurate measurements of the drainage design.
discharges or volumes involved. AU other
measurements in the hydrologic cycle are, at 815.6 Adequacy of Data
best, only inadequate samples of the whole. All hydrologic data that has been collected must
The two most common types of stream flow be evaluated and compiled into a usable format.
data are: Experience, knowledge and judgment are an
important part of data evaluation. It must be
Gaging Stations - data generally based ascertained whether the data contains
on recording gage station observations inconsistencies or other unexplained anomalies
with detailed information about the which might lead to erroneous calculations and
stream channel cross section. Current conclusions that could result in the over design
meter measurements of transverse or under design of drainage structures.
channel velocities are made to more
accurately reflect stream flow rates.
Topic 816 - Runoff
Historic - data based on observed high
water mark and indirect stream flow 816.1 General
measurements.
The process of surface runoff begins when
Stream flow data are usually available as mean precipitation exceeds the requirements of:
daily flow or peak daily flow. Daily flow is a
measurement of the rate of flow in cubic meters Vegetal interception.
per second (m3/s) for the 24-hour period from
midnight to midnight. Infiltration into the soil.
"Paleoflood" (ancient flood) data has been Filling surface depressions (puddles,
found useful in extending stream gaging station swamps and ponds). As rain continues
records. (See Topic 817 for further discussion to fall, surface waters flow down slope
on measuring stream flow) toward an established channel or stream.
July 1,1995
816.2 Overland Flow Figure 816.5

Overland flow is surface waters which travel
over the ground as sheet flow, in rivulets and in Typical Flood Hydrograph
small channels to a watercourse.
816.3 Subsurface Flow
Waters which move laterally through the upper
soil surface to streams are called "interflow" or
"subsurface flow". For the purpose of highway
drainage hydrology, where peak design
discharge (flood peaks) are the primary interest,
subsurface flows are considered to be
insignificant. Subsurface flows travel slower
than overland flow.
While groundwater and subsurface water may
be ignored for runoff estimates, their detrimental
effect upon highway structural section stability
cannot be overstated. See Chapter 840,
Subsurface Drainage.
816.4 Detention and Retention
Water which accumulates and ponds in low 816.6 Time of Concentration
points or depressions in the soil sbrface with no Time of concentration is defined as the time
possibility for escape as runoff is in retention
@ storage. Where water is moving over the land it
required for storm runoff to travel from the most
remote point of the drainage basin to the point of
is in detention storage. Detained water, as interest.
opposed to retained water, contributes to runoff.
An assumption made in some of the hydrologic
816.5 Flood Hydrograph and Flood methods for estimating peak discharge, such as
Volume the Rational and SCS Methods (Index 819.2), is
that maximum flow results when rainfall of
In response to a rainstorm the quantity of water uniform intensity falls over the entire watershed
flowing in a stream increases. The water level area and the duration of that rainfall is equal to
rises and may continue to do so after rainfall the time of concentration. Time of concentration
ceases. The response of an affected stream, (Tc) is the cumulative sum of three flow times,
during and after a storm event, can be pictured including:
by plotting discharge against time to produce a
flood hydrograph. The principal elements of a Overland
typical flood hydrograph are shown in Figure
816.5 Channel (swale, ditch or stream)
Flood volume is the area under the flood Culvert or Storm Drain
hydrograph. Although flood volume is not
normally a consideration in the design of ( I ) Overlund Flow. Figure 8 16.6A gives a
highway drainage facilities, it is occasionally direct approximation of overland travel time
used in the hydrologic analysis for other design for use with the Rational Method. Figure
parameters. 816.6B (SCS Handbook) gives some
Information on flood hydrographs and methods approximate average velocities from which
to estimate the hydrograph may be found in the time of concentration can be estimated
Chapters 6 and 7 of HEC 19, Hydrology. for use with either the SCS Method or the
@ Rational Method of estimating peak
discharge.
July 1,1995
Figure 816.6A
Overland Time of
Concentration Curves
Where:
C = Runoff Coefficient
L = Overland Travel
Distance in meters
S = Slope in m/m
*
To = Time in minutes
July 1,1995
Figure 816.68
Velocities for Upland Method of

Estimating Time of Concentration
VELOCITY, V(m/s)
July 1,1995
Several equations for overland flow have (3) Culvert or Storm Drain Flow. Flow ve-
been developed, two of which are : locities in a short culvert are generally higher
(a) Kinematic Wave Equation: than they would be in the same length of
natural channel and comparable to those in a
lined channel. In most cases, including
short runs of culvert in the channel, flow
time calculation will not materially affect the
overall time of concentration (T,). When it
is appropriate to separate flow time
(b) Overland Equation: calculations, such as for urban storm drains,
Manning's equation may be used to obtain
flow velocities within pipes.
(4) Combined Overland and Channel Flow. A
rough approximation of the overall time of
concentration for a pear shaped drainage
to = Overland flow travel time in basin may be made by applying the Kirpich
minutes. equation:
L = Length of overland flow path in
meters.
S = Slope of overland flow in d m . Tc = Time of concentration in minutes.
n = Manning's roughness coefficient.
L = Horizontally projected length of
i = Design storm rainfall intensity in watershed in meters.
rnmlh.
S = H/L where H = difference in
C = Runoff coefficient. elevation between most remote
point and outlet in meters.
0
(2) Channel Flow. When the channel char- For small simple watersheds, such as those
acteristics and geometry are known the pre- normally associated with roadway drainage,
ferred method of estimating channel flow Chapter 830, it is recommended that a mini-
time is to divide the channel length by the mum time of concentration of 10 minutes be
channel velocity obtained by using the Man- used for moderate slopes, 1:10 or flatter. A
ning equation, assuming bankfull minimum of 5 minutes may be used for
conditions. See Index 864.3, Open Channel steeper slopes which do not afford surface
Equations for further discussion of storage.
Manning's equation.
Appropriate values for "n", the coefficient of
roughness in the Manning equation, may be
Topic 817 - Flood Magnitude
found in most hydrology or hydraulics text 817.1 General
and reference books. Table 864.3A gives
some "n" values for lined and unlined chan- The determination of flood magnitude from
nels, gutters, and medians. Procedures for either measurements made during a flood or
selecting an appropriate hydraulic roughness after peak flow has subsided requires
coefficient may be found in the FHWA re- knowledge of open-channel hydraulics and
port, "Guide for Selecting Manning's flood water behavior. There are USGS Pub-
Roughness Coefficient for Natural Channels lications and other technical references available
and Flood Plains". Generally, the channel which outline the procedures for measuring
roughness factor will be much lower than flood flow. However, it is only through
the values for overland flow with similar experience that accurate measurements can be
surface appearance. obtained andlor correctly interpreted.
July 1,1995
817.2 Measurements There are certain other terminologies which are

frequently used and understood by highway
(I) Direct. Direct flood flow measurements are engineers but which might have a slight
those made during flood stage. The area variation in meaning to other engineering
and average velocity can be approximated branches. For convenience and example, the
and the estimated discharge can be cal- following definition of terms have been
culated, from measurements of flow depth excerpted from Topic 806, Definition of
and velocity made simultaneously at a Drainage Terms.
number of points in a cross section.
(1) Base Flood. "The flood or tide having a 1
Discharges calculated from continuous percent chance of being exceeded in any
records of stage gaging stations are the pri- given year". The "base flood" is commonly
mary basis for estimating the recurrence in- used as the standard flood in Federal insur-
terval or frequency of floods. ance studies and has been adopted by many
(2) Indirect. Indirect flood flow measurements agencies for flood hazard analysis to comply
are those made after the flood subsides. with regulatory requirements. See Topic
From channel geometry measurements and 804, Floodplain Encroachments.
high water marks the magnitude of a flood (2) Overtopping Flood. "The flood described
can be calculated using basic open channel by the probability of exceedance and water
hydraulic equations given in Chapter 860. surface elevation at which flow occurs over
This method of determining flood the highway, over the watershed divide, or
discharges for given events is a valuable tool through structure(s) provided for emergency
to the highway engineer possessing a relief'. The "overtopping flood" is of
thorough knowledge and understanding of particular interest to highway drainage engi-
the techniques involved. neers because it may be the threshold where
the relatively low of the highway acts
@ -
Topic 818 Flood Probability as a flood relief mechanism for the purpose
of minimizing upstream backwater damages.
And Frequency
(3) Design Flood. "The peak discharge (when
818.1 General appropriate, the volume, stage, or wave
crest elevation) of the flood associated with
The estimation of peak discharges of various the probability of exceedance selected for the
recurrence intervals is the most common and design of a highway encroachment". Except
important problem encountered in highway for the rare situation where the risks associ-
engineering hydrology. Since the hydrology for ated with a low water crossing are
the sizing of highway drainage facilities is acceptable, the highway will not be
concerned with future events, the time and inundated by the "design flood".
magnitude of which cannot be precisely
forecast, the highway engineer must resort to (4) Maximum Historical Flood. "The maximum
probability statistics to define the design dis- flood that has been recorded or experienced
charge. at any particular highway location". This
Modem hydrologists tend to define floods in information is very desirable and where
terms of probability, as expressed in percentage available is an indication that the flood of
rather than in terms of return period (recurrence this magnitude may be repeated at the project
interval). Return period, the "N-year flood", site. Hydrologic analysis may suggest that
and probability (p) are reciprocals, that is, p = the probability for recurrence of the
11N. Therefore, a flood having a 50-year return "maximum historical flood" is very small,
frequency is now commonly expressed as less than 1%. Nevertheless consideration
should be given to sizing drainage structures
a flood with the probability of recurrence of to convey the "maximum historical flood".
0.02 (2% chance of being exceeded) in any
0 given year.
810-14 HIGHWAY DE:SIGN MANUAL
July 1,1995
(5) Probable Maximum Flood. "The flood highway locations. Because of existing
discharge that may be expected from the constraints, the freedom to select a prescribed
most severe combination of critical design flood frequency may not exist for pro-
meteorological and hydrological conditions jects involving replacement of existing facilities.
that are reasonably possible in the region". Caltrans policy relative to up-grading of existing
The "probable maximum flood is generally drainage facilities may be found in Index 803.3.
not applicable to highway projects. The Although the procedures and methodology
possibility of a flood of such rare presented in HEC 17, Design of Encroachments
magnitude, as used by the Corps of on Flood Plains Using Risk Analysis, are not
Engineers, is applicable to projects such as fully endorsed by Caltrans, the circular is an
major dams, when consideration is to be available source of information on the theory of
given to virtually complete security from "least total expected cost (LTEC) design".
potential floods. Highway engineers are cautioned about
818.2 Establishing Design Flood applying LTEC methodology and procedures to
Frequency ordinary drainage design problems. The
Headquarters Hydraulics Engineer in the Office
There are two recognized alternatives to of Project Planning and Design should be
establishing an appropriate highway drainage consulted before committing to design by the
design frequency. That is, by policy or by LTEC method since its use can only be justified
economic analysis. Both alternatives have merit and recommended under extra-ordinary
and may be applied exclusively or jointly circumstances.
depending upon general conditions or specific
constraints.
Application of traditional predetermined design
Topic 819 -Estimating Design
Discharge
flood frequencies implies that an acceptable level
of risk was considered in establishing the design 819.1 Introduction
standard. Modern design concepts, on the other
hand, recommend that a range of peak flows be Before highway drainage facilities can be
considered and that the design flood be es- hydraulically designed, the quantity of run-off
tablished which best satisfies the specific site (design Q) that they may reasonably be expected
conditions and associated risks. A preliminary to convey must be established. The estimation
evaluation of the inherent flood-related risks to of peak discharge for various recmnce
upstream and downstream properties, the intervals is therefore the most important, and
highway facility, and to the traveling public often the most difficult, task facing the highway
should be made. This evaluation will indicate engineer.
whether a predetermined design flood frequency
is applicable or additional study is warranted. 819.2 Empirical Methods
Highway classification is one of the most Because the movement of water is so complex,
important factors, but not the sole factor, in numerous empirical methods have been used in
establishing an appropriate design flood fre- hydrology. Empirical methods in hydrology
quency. Due consideration should be given to have great usefulness to the highway engineer.
all the other factors listed under Index 801.5. If When correctly applied by engineers
the analysis is correct, the highway drainage knowledgeable in the method being used and its
system will occasionally be overtaxed. The idiosyncrasies, peak discharge estimates can be
alternative of accommodating the worst possible obtained which are functionally acceptable for
event that could happen is usually so costly that the design of highway drainage structures and
it may not be justified. other features. Some of the more commonly
Highway engineers should understand that the used empirical methods for estimating runoff are
option to select a predetermined design flood as follows.
frequency is generally only applicable to new
0 (1) Rational Merhodr. Undoubtedly, the most

popular and most often misused empirical
are acceptable to form the basis for design of
highway drainage facilities.
hydrology method is the Rational Formula: It is clearly evident upon examination of the
Q = 0.28 CiA assumptions and parameters which form the
Q = Design discharge in cubic meters basis of the equation that much care and
per second. judgment must be applied with the use of
Rational Methods to obtain reasonable
C = Coefficient of runoff. results.
I = Average rainfall intensity in The runoff coefficient "C" in the
millimeters per hour for the selected equation represents the percent of
frequency and for a duration equal water which will run off the ground
to the time of concentration. surface during the storm. The
A = Drainage area in square kilometers. remaining amount of precipitation is
lost to infiltration, transpiration,
Rational methods are simple to use, and it is evaporation and depression storage.
this simplicity that has made them so
popular among highway drainage design Values of "C" may be determined for un-
engineers. Design discharge, as computed developed areas from Figure 819.2A by
by these methods, have the same probability considering the four characteristics of: relief,
of occurrence (design frequency) as the soil infiltration, vegetal cover, and surface
frequency of the rainfall used. Refer to storage.
Topic 818 for further information on flood Some typical values of "C" for developed
probability and frequency of recurrence. areas are given in Table 819.2B. Should the
e An assumption that limits applicability is that

the rainfall is of equal intensity over the
entire watershed. Because of this, Rational
basin contain varying amounts of different
cover, a weighted runoff coefficient for the
entire basin can be determined as:
Methods should be used only for estimating
runoff from small simple watershed areas,
preferably no larger than 1.3 km2 (130 ha).
Even where the watershed area is relatively
small but complicated by a mainstream fed
by one or more significant tributaries,
Rational Methods should be applied * To properly satis@ the assumption that
separately to each tributary stream and the the entire drainage area contributes to the
tributary flows then routed down the main flow; the rainfall intensity, (i) in the
channel. Flow routing can best be accom- equation expressed in millimeters per
plished through the use of hydrographs dis- hour, requires that the storm duration
cussed under Index 816.5. Since Rational and the time of concentration (tc) be
Methods give results that are in terms of in- equal. Therefore, the first step in
stantaneous peak discharge and provide little estimating (i) is to estimate (tc).
information relative to runoff rate with re- Methods for determining time of concen-
spect to time, synthetic hydrographs should tration are discussed under Index 8 16.6.
be developed for routing significant tributary
inflows. Several relatively simple methods Once the time of concentration, (tc), is
have been established for developing hydro- estimated, the rainfall intensity, (i),
graphs, such as transposing a hydrograph corresponding to a storm of equal
from another hydrologically homogeneous duration, may be obtained from available
watershed. The stream hydraulic method, sources such as intensity-duration-
and upland method are described in HEC- frequency (IDF) curves. See Index
19. These, and other methods, are adequate 815.3(3) for further information on IDF
for use with Rational Methods for estimating curves.
peak discharge and will provide results that
July 1,1995
Figure 819.2A
Runoff Coefficients for Undeveloped Areas
Watershed Types
- -- -- --
Extreme High Normal Low
Relief .28 -.35 .20 -.28 .14 -.20 .08 -.I4

Steep, rugged terrain Hilly, with average Rolling, with average Relatively flat land,
with average slopes slopes of 10 to 30% slopes of 5 to 10% with average slopes
above 30% of 0 to 5%
.
Soil .12 -.I6 .08 -.I2 .06 -.08 .04 -.06
Infiltration
No effective soil Slow to take up Normal; well drained High; deep sand or
cover, either rock or water, clay or light or medium other soil that takes
thin soil mantle of shallow loam soils of textured soils, sandy up water readily,
negligible low infiltration loarns, silt and silt very light well
infiltration capacity capacity, imperfectly loams drained soils
or poorly drained
Vegetal .12 -.I6 .08 -.I2 .06 -.08 .04 -.06
Cover
No effective plant Poor to fair; clean Fair to good; about Good to excellent;
cover, bare or very cultivation crops, or 50% of area in good about 90% of
sparse cover poor natural cover, grassland or wood- drainage area in
less than 20% of land, not more than good grassland,
drainage area over 50% of area in woodland or
good cover cultivated crops equivalent cover
Surface .10 -.I2 .08 -.lo .06 -.08 .04 -.06
Storage
Negligible surface Low; well defined Normal; High; surface stor-
depression few and system of small considerable surface age, high; drainage
shallow; drainageways; no depression storage; system not sharply
drainageways steep ponds or marshes lakes and pond defined; large flood
and small, no marshes plain storage or large
marshes number of ponds or
marshes
Given An undeveloped watershed consisting of; Solution:
1) rolling terrain with average slopes of 5%, Relief 0.14
2) clay type soils, Soil Infiltration 0.08
3) good grassland area, and Vegetal Cover 0.04
4) normal surface depressions. Surface Storage -
0.06
C= 0.32
1
Find The runoff coefficient, C, for the above watershed.
.
July 1, 1995
smaller effect on the total runoff volume.

Table 819.28 The adjustment of the rational method for
use with major storms can be made
Runoff Coefficients for by multiplying-the coefficient by a frequency
factor, C(f). Values of C(f) are given
Developed Areas below. Under no circumstances should the
product of C(f) times C exceed 1.O.
Type of Drainage Area Runoff
Coefficient Frequency (yrs) c(f"
25 1.1
Business:
Downtown areas 0.70 - 0.95 50 1.2
Neighborhood areas 0.50 - 0.70 100 1.25
Residential: (2) Regional Analysis Methods. Regional
Single-family areas 0.30 - 0.50 analysis methods utilize records for streams
Multi-units, detached 0.40 - 0.60 or drainage areas in the vicinity of the stream
under consideration which would have
Multi-units, attached 0.60 - 0.75 similar characteristics to develop peak
Suburban 0.25 - 0.40 discharge estimates. These methods provide
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50 - 0.70 techniques for estimating annual peak stream
Industrial: discharge at any site, gaged or ungaged, for
probability of recurrence from 50% (2
Light areas 0.50 - 0.80 years) to 1% (100 years). Application of
Heavy areas 0.60 - 0.90 these methods is convenient, but the
Parks, cemeteries: 0.10 - 0.25 procedure is subject to some limitations.
@ Playgrounds: 0.20 - 0.40 Regional Flood - Frequency equations
Railroad yard areas: 0.20 - 0.40 developed by the U.S. Geological Survey
Unimproved areas: 0.10 - 0.30 for use in California are given in Figure
819.2C. These equations are based on
Lawns: regional regression analysis of data from
Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05 - 0.10 705 gaging stations. Nomographs and
Sandy soil, average, 2-7% 0.10 - 0.15 complete information on use and
Sandy soil, steep, 7% 0.15 - 0.20 development of this method may be found in
Heavy soil, flat, 2% 0.13 - 0.17
"Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in
California" published in June, 1977 by the
Heavy soil, average, 2-7% 0.18 - 0.25 U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological
Heavy soil, steep, 7% 0.25 - 0.35 Survey.
Streets: The Regional Flood-Frequency equations
Asphaltic 0.70 - 0.95 are applicable only to sites within the flood-
Concrete 0.80 - 0.95 frequency regions for which they were de-
Brick 0.70 - 0.85 rived and on streams with virtually natural
flows. For example, the equations are not
Drives and walks 0.75 - 0.85 generally applicable to small basins on the
Roofs: 0.75 - 0.95 floor of the Sacramento and San Joaquin
Valleys as the annual peak data which are
The runoff coefficients given in Figure the basis for the regression analysis were
819.2A and Table 819.2B are applicable for obtained principally in the adjacent mountain
storms of up to 5 or 10 year frequencies. and foothill areas. Likewise, the equations
Less frequent, higher intensity storms are not directly applicable to streams in
usually require modification of the urban areas affected substantially by urban
coefficient because infiltration, detention, development. In urban areas the equations
and other losses have a proportionally
July 1.1995
Figure 819.2C
Regional Flood-Frequency Equations
NORTH COAST REGIOM NORTHEASTREGION3 SOUTH LAHONTANCOLORADODESERTREGION3
a =3.52 ~0.90 P0.89 H-0.87 42 =22 AnAO Q2 =7.3
=5.04 ~ 0 . 8 9 p0.91 H-0.35 Q5 =46 ~0.45 Q, =53.0 A'."
Q,
=6.2 1 ~ 0 . a p0.93 ~-0.27 Ql0 =61 ~0.49 Q,, =I50 A'."
Qln =7.64 ~0.87 p0.94 ~-0.17 ~0."
425 Q25 =84 Q,, =410.0 An")
=8.57 ~0.m p0.96 H-0.08 QS0 =I03 An'" Q, =700.0 A"'
Q50 ~0.59 Qloo=1080.0
Qlw =9.23 AQ8' p0.97 QIw =I25
SIERRA REGION CENTRALCOAST REGION SOUTH COASTREGION
=0.24 ~0.88 pl.58 H-0.80 Q2 =0.0061 A'." ~'!.'0 Q2 =0.14
Qz P ~ . ~ ~
=I .20 ~ 0 . 8 2 p~.37 H-0.64 Q, =0. 118 AoJ1 H-0.79 Q =0.40 ~ 0 . 7 ~
Q, P'.~"
=2.63 ~0.80 p1.25 H-0.58 Qlo =0.583 ~4.64 Qlo =0.63 pl."
QIO =6.55 ~0.79 P l . l Z H-0.52 QZ5 =2.91
Q2, H4.,0 Q2, = l . 10 p1.81
=10.4 A0.T8 pl.m Q5, =8.20 p1.03 Ha"' Q, =1.So A'." PI.8'
Qw =15.7 1.02 H""3 0.84 ~ 4 . 3 3 Q =1.95 A ~ . ~ ~
QIw Q,,, =19.7 AO."
Q - Peak discharge in CFS, subscript indicates
recurrence interval, in years;
A - Drainage area in square miles;
122'
P - Mean annual precipitation in .. .
inches;
H - Altitude index in thousands of feet.'
124a
4~ -., $
-
.-. .-. .
.- e *!*or
.- -..-..-..-..7120'
--24#
BOUNDARY OF FLOOD-FREQUENCYREGION
NC -North Coast
I NE -Northeast
S - Sierra
CC - Central Coast
SC - South Coast
-Sourth Lahontan-Colorado
NOTES:
1. Eqmtio~~s and parameters shown on this figure
have not been converted to L e Metric System.
Multiply calculated discharge in ds by 0.0283 to
obtain discharge in m31s. ______-.--
2. Altitude index, H, is defined as the average of the
elevations at the locations 10% and 85% of the
distance from the project site to the basin divide,
measure alone the main channel of the stream and
the overland k v e l vath to the basin divide.
3. In the North Coast %on use a minimum value of
34a - \-,I---, -
1.O for the altitude index (H).
4. These equations are defines only for basins of 25
mZof les6 in area.
July 1,1995
may be used to estimate peak discharge design hydrograph and design discharge that
values under natural conditions and then by are functionally acceptable to form the basis
use of the techniques described in the for the design of highway drainage facilities.
publication or HEC 19, adjust the discharge
values to compensate for urbanization. 819.3 Statistical Methods
Further limitations on the use of USGS Statistical methods of predicting stream
Regional Flood-Frequency equations are: discharge utilize numerical data to describe the
process. Statistical methods, in general, do not
require as much subjectivejudgment to apply as
Region Drainage Mean Altitude the previously described deterministic methods.
Area (A) Annual Index (H) They are usually well documented mathematical
,j2 Precip (P) lo00 ft. procedures which are applied to measured or
observed data. The accuracy of statistical
methods can also be measured quantitatively.
North 0.2-3000 19-104 1.O-5.7 However, to assure that statistical method
Coast results are valid, the method and procedures
used should be verified by an experienced
Northeast 0.2-25 all all engineer with a thorough knowledge of
Sierra 0.2-9000 7-85 0.1-9.7 engineering statistics.
Central 0.2-4000 8-52 0.1-2.4 Analysis of gaged data permits an estimate of
Coast the peak discharge in terms of its probability or
frequency of recurrence at a given site. This is
South 0.2-25 all all done by statistical methods provided sufficient
Lahontan- data are available at the site to permit a
Colorado meaningful statistical analysis to be made.
@ Desert Water Resources Council Bulletin 17B, 198 1,
suggests at least 10 years of record are
Note: Values shown in table have not been necessary to warrant a statistical analysis. The
converted to metric system. techniques of inferential statistics, the branch of
statistics dealing with the inference of popula-
tion characteristics, are described in HEC 19.
A method for directly estimating design Before data on the specific characteristics to be
discharges for some gaged and ungaged examined can be properly analyzed, it must be
streams is also provided in HEC-19. The arranged in a systematic manner. Several
method is applicable to streams on or nearby computer programs are available which may be
those for which study data are available. used to systematically arrange data and perform
(3) Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Methods. the statistical computations.
The Soil Conservation Service's SCS Na- Some common types of data groupings are as
tional Engineering Handbook, 1972, and follows:
their 1975, "Urban Hydrology for Small
Watersheds", Technical Release 55 (TR- Magnitude
5 3 , present a graphical method for
estimating peak discharge. Most SCS Time of Occurrence
equations and curves provide results in
terms of inches of runoff for unit Geographic Location
hydrograph development and are not ap- Several standard frequency distributions have
plicable to the estimation of a peak design been studied extensively in the statistical
discharge unless the design hydrograph is analysis of hydrologic data. Those which have
first developed in accordance with
e prescribed SCS procedures. SCS methods
and procedures are applicable to drainage
been found to be most useful are:
areas less than 8 km2(800 ha) and result in a

July 1,1995
( I ) Log-Pearson Type 111 Distribution. The sediment control, the volume of runoff must be
popularity of the Log-Pearson 111 distri- known. Since the hydrograph is a plot of flow
bution is simply based on the fact that it very rate against time, the area under the hydrograph
often fits the available data quite well, and it represents volume. If streamflow and
is flexible enough to be used with a wide precipitation records are available for a particular
variety of distributions. Because of this design site, the development of the design
flexibility, the U.S. Water Resources hydrograph is a straight forward procedure.
Council recommends its use by all U.S. Rainfall records can be readily analyzed to
Government agencies as the standard estimate unit durations and the intensity which
distribution for flood frequency studies. produces peak flows near the desired design
discharge.
The three parameters necessary to describe
the Log-Pearson III distribution are: Hydrographs are also useful for determining the
combined rates of flow for two drainage areas
Mean flow which peak at different times. Hydrographs can
also be compounded and lagged to account for
Standard deviation complex storms of different duration and
v e n g intensities. Several methods of
Coefficient of skew developing hydrographs are described in HEC
Log-Pearson 111 distributions are usually 19. For basins without data, two of the most
plotted on log-normal probability graph widely used methods described in HEC-19 for
paper for convenience even though the developing synthetic hydrographs are:
plotted frequency distribution may not be a
straight line. Unit Hydrograph
(2) Log-nomuzl Distribution. The character- SCS Triangular Hydrograph
istics of the log-normal distribution are the
same as those of the classical normal or Both methods however tend to be somewhat
Gaussian mathematical distribution except inflexible since storm duration is determined by
that the flood flow at a specified frequency empirical relations.
is replaced with its logarithm and has a
positive skew. Positive skew means that the 819.5 Transfer of Data
distribution is skewed toward the high flows Often the highway engineer is confronted with
or extreme values the problem where stream flow and rainfall data
(3) Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution. The are not available for a particular site but may
characteristics of the Gumbel extreme value exist at points upstream or in an adjacent or
distribution (also known as the double nearby watersheds.
exponential distribution of extreme values) (a) If the site is on the same stream and near
are that the mean flood occurs at the return a gaging station, peak discharges at the
period of Tr= 2.33 years and that it has a gaging station can be adjusted to the site
positive skew. by drainage area ratio and application of
Special probability paper has been devel- some appropriate power to each drainage
oped for plotting log-normal and Gumbel area. The USGS may be helpful in sug-
distributions so that sample data, if it is dis- gesting appropriate powers to be used
tributed according to prescribed equations, for a specific hydrologic region.
will plot as a straight line. (b) If a design hydrograph can be developed
at an upstream point in the same water-
819.4 Hydrograph Methods shed, the procedure described in HEC-
Hydrograph methods of estimating design 19 can be used to route the design
discharge relate runoff rates to time in response hydrograph to the point of interest.
to a design storm. When storage must be
considered, such as in reservoirs, natural lakes,
and detention basins used for drainage or
July 1,1995
@ (c) If the site is somewhat removed from

rain gage stations for which rainfall IDF
within the HYDRAIN system combines rainfall
and runoff analysis into one program. HYDRO
curves have been computed, an can be used independently within the
interstation interpolation method is HYDRAIN system to generate input data for
described in Volume I of DWR Bulletin other HYDRAIN programs, such as HYDRA.
No. 195 referenced in Index 8 15.3(3). Many hydrologic analysis options are available
Another method is by comparing the within HYDRO, some of which are the
mean annual precipitation at the point of following:
interest with that for nearby rain gage
stations, the station most closely Estimate of site specific surface water runoff
approximating the rainfall characteristics (Design Q's) using Rational method and
of the site can be selected. rainfall analysis of California Department
Water Resources or National Weather
819.6 Hydrologic Computer Programs Service data to calculate intensity, duration,
and frequency (IDF) curves.
The rapid advancement of computer technology
in recent years has resulted in the development Estimate of site specific peak discharge
of many mathematical models for the purpose of (Design Q's) using USGS Regional Flood-
calculating runoff and other hydrologic Frequency Equations for California.
phenomena. In the hands of knowledgeable and
experienced engineers, good computer models Estimate site specific peak discharge in
are capable of efficiently calculating discharge terms of probability of recurrence from
estimates and other hydrologic results that are observed or measured stream gage historical
far more reliable than those which were obtained data using National, USGS, and log
by other means. On the other hand, there is a Pearson Type 111statistical methods.
tendency for the inexperienced engineer to
0 accept computer generated output without
questioning the reasonableness of the results
Create a site specific hyetograph (rainfall
versus time plot) using Yen and Chow
obtained from a hydrologic viewpoint. Most method.
computer simulation models require a significant Two other hydrologic computer programs that
amount of input data that must be carefully are commonly used are the Army Corps of
examined by a competent and experienced user Engineers' HEC-1 and the Soil Conservation
to assure reliable results. Service's TR-20 Method.
Some hydrologic computer models merely solve Another computer. program is the C a l m s
empirical hand methods more quickly. Other Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) PC
models are theoretical and solve the entire runoff Program, which accesses the California De-
cycle using mathematical equations to represent partment of Water Resources (DWR) short du-
each phase of the runoff cycle. ration precipitation data (See Index 815.3(3)).
In most simulation models, the drainage area is The program eliminates reading values from
divided into subareas with similar hydrologic graphs and simplifies the interpolation between
characteristics. A design rainfall is synthesized rain gauge stations.
for each subarea, abstractions removed, and an The DWRICaltrans IDF database has been
overland flow routine simulates the movement linked to the HYDRAIN System. HYDRO also
of surface water into channels. The channels of uses the National Weather Service database
the watershed are linked together and the to generate IDF curves, which in many
channel flow is routed through them to complete instances does not accurately model the many
the basin's response to the design rainstorm. different rainfall characteristics across the state.
Simulation models require calibration of
modeling parameters using measured historical
events to increase their validity.
@ The recommended personal computer system is
the HYDRAIN-Integrated Drainage Design
Computer System. The HYDRO program
July 1, 1995
though some are designed to be inundated under

CHAPTER 820 flood conditions. For economic and hydraulic
CROSS DRAINAGE efficiency, culverts should be designed to
operate with the inlets submerged during flood
flows, if conditions permit. At many locations,
Topic 821 - General either a bridge or a culvert will fulfill both the
structural and hydraulic requirements of the
-
Index 821.1 Introduction stream crossing. Structure choice at these lo-
cations should be based on construction and
Cross drainage involves the conveyance of maintenance costs, risk of failure, risk of prop-
surface water and stream flow across or from erty damage, traffic safety, and environmental
the highway right of way. This is accomplished and aesthetic considerations.
by providing either a culvert or a bridge to con-
vey the flow from one side of the roadway to Culverts are usually considered minor
the other side or past some other type of flow structures, but they are of great importance to
obstruction. adequate drainage and the integrity of the
highway facility. Although the cost of indi-
In addition to the hydraulic function, a culvert vidual culverts is relatively small, the cumulative
must carry construction and highway traffic and cost of culvert construction constitutes a
earth loads. Culvert design, therefore, involves substantial share of the total cost of highway
both hydraulic and structural design. This construction. Similarly, the cost of maintaining
section of the manual is basically concerned highway drainage features is substantial, and
with the hydraulic design of culverts. Both the culvert maintenance is a large share of these
hydraulic and structural designs must be costs. Improved service to the public and a
consistent with good engineering practice and reduction in the total cost of highway
economics. An itemized listing of good construction and maintenance can be achieved
drainage design objectives and economic factors by judicious choice of design criteria and careful
to be considered are listed in Index 801.4. In- attention to the hydraulic design of each culvert.
formation on strength requirements, height of
fill tables, and other physical characteristics of 821.2 Hydrologic Considerations
alternate culvert shapes and materials may be
found in Chapter 850, Physical Standards,. Before the hydraulic design of a culvert or
bridge can begin, the design discharge, the
More complete information on hydraulic quantity (Q) of water in cubic meters per sec-
principles and engineering techniques of culvert ond, that the facility may reasonably be expected
design may be found in the FHWA Hydraulic to convey must be estimated. The most
Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of important step is to establish the appropriate
Highway Culverts". Key aspects of culvert design storm or flood frequency for the specific
design and a good overview of the subject are site and prevailing conditions. Refer to Chapter
more fully discussed in the AASHTO Highway 8 10, Hydrology and specifically Topics 8 18 and
Drainage Guidelines. 8 19 for useful information on hydrological
Structures measuring more than 6.1 m along the analysis methods and considerations.
roadway centerline are conventionally classified When empirical methods are used to estimate the
as bridges. Many longer structures, however, peak rate of runoff, design Q, for important
are designed hydraulically and structurally as culverts, it is recommended that at least two
culverts such as, multi-barrelled box culverts or methods be tried. By comparing results a more
large arch culverts. Culverts, as distinguished reliable discharge estimate for the drainage basin
from bridges, are usually covered with may be obtained. This is more important for
embankment and have structural material around large basins having areas in excess of 1.3 km2
the entire perimeter, although some are (130 ha) than for small basins.
supported on spread footings with the
streambed serving as the bottom of the culvert. 821.3 Selection of Design Flood
@ Bridges are not designed to take advantage of As discussed in Index 818.2, there are two
submergence to increase hydraulic capacity even recognized alternatives to selecting the design
July 1,1995
flood frequency (probability of exceedance) in by this criteria needs to be balanced against

the hydraulic design of bridges and culverts. potential damage to the highway and
They are: adjacent properties upstream and
downstream of the site. The selection of a
By policy - using a preselected recur- design flood with a lesser or greater peak
rence interval. discharge may be warranted and justified by
economic analysis. A more frequent design
By analysis - using the recurrence inter- flood than a 4% probability of exceedance
val that is most cost effective and best (25-year) should not be used for the
satisfies the specific site conditions and hydraulic design of culverts under freeways
associated risks. and other highways of major importance.
Although either of these alternatives may be When channels or drainage facilities under
used exclusive of the other, in actual practice the jurisdiction of local flood control
both alternatives are often considered and used agencies or Corps of Engineers are
jointly to select the flood frequency for involved, the design flood must be
hydraulic design. For culverts and small determined through negotiations with the
bridges, apply the following general rules for agencies involved.
first consideration in the process for ultimate
selection of the design flood. 821.4 Headwater and Tailwater
(I) Bridges. The basic rule for the hydraulic (I) Headwater. The term, headwater, refers to
design of bridges is that they should pass a the depth of the upstream water surface
2% probability flood (50-year) or greatest measured from the invert of the culvert en-
flood of record, whichever is greater. trance. Any culvert which constricts the
Freeboard, vertical clearance between the natural stream flow will cause a rise in the
lowest structural member and the water sur- upstream water surface.
face elevation of the design flood, sufficient
to pass the 1% probability flood should be It is not always economical or practical to
provided. Six-tenths meter of freeboard is utilize all the available head. This applies
often assumed for preliminary bridge particularly to situations where debris must
designs. The effects of bedload and debris pass through the culvert, where a headwater
should be considered in the design of the pool cannot be tolerated, or where the
bridge waterway. natural gradient is steep and high outlet
velocities are objectionable.
(2) Culverts. There are two design frequencies
that should be considered: The available head may be limited by the fill
height, damage to the highway facility, or
A 10% probability flood (10-year) with- the effects of ponding on upstream property.
out causing the headwater elevation to The extent of ponding should be brought to
rise above the inlet top of the culvert the attention of all interested functions, in-
and, cluding Project Development, Maintenance,
and Right of Way.
A 1% probability flood (100-year) or
greatest flood of record, whichever is Full use of available head may develop some
greater, without headwaters rising above vortex related problems and also develop
an elevation that would cause objection- objectionable velocities resulting in abrasion
able backwater depths or outlet of the culvert itself or in downstream
velocities. erosion. In most cases, provided the culvert
is not flowing under pressure, an increase in
The highway engineer must use discretion in the culvert size does not appreciably change
applying the above criteria. Design floods the outlet velocities.
selected on this basis may not be the most
appropriate for specific project site locations
or conditions. The cost of providing fa-
cilities to pass peak discharges suggested
July 1, 1995
(2) Tailwater. The term, tailwater, refers to the If debris control structures are used, access
water located just downstream from a must be provided for maintenance
structure. Its depth or height is dependent equipment to reach the site. Details of a pipe
upon the downstream topography and other riser with debris rack cage are shown on
influences. High tailwater could submerge Standard Plan D93C. See FHWA Hydrau-
the culvert outlet. lic Engineering Circular No. 9, "Debris-
Control Structures" for further information.
821.5 Effects of Tide and Wind
822.3 Economics
Where the tailwater elevation is controlled by
tides, special studies will normally be required (Text Later)
to determine the tailwater stage consistent with
the design storm frequency of the facility. The 822.4 Classification of Debris
effects of wind and flood discharges must be (Text Later)
considered in conjunction with predicted tide
stages. Where necessary, backflow protection 822.5 Types of Debris Control
should be provided in the form of flap gates. Structures
Refer to Indexes 838.3 and 838.5(2) for further
discussion of this subject. The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.
9, "Debris-Control Structures", shows types of
Topic 822 - Debris Control debris control structures and provides a guide
for selecting the type of structure suitable for
various debris classifications.
822.1 Introduction
(Text Later) Topic 823 - Culvert Location
@ 822.2 Debris Control Methods 823.1 Introduction
There are two methods of handling debris: (Text Later)
( I ) Passing Through Culvert. If economically
feasible, culverts should be designed to pass 823.2 Alignment and Slope
debris. Culverts which pass debris often The ideal culvert placement is on straight
have a higher construction cost. On the alignment and constant slope. Variations from a
other hand, retaining solids upstream from straight alignment should be only to accom-
the entrance by means of a debris control modate unusual conditions. Where conditions
structure often involves substantial require deviations from the tangent alignment,
maintenance cost. An economic comparison abrupt changes in direction or slope should be
should be made to determine the method of avoided in order to maintain the hydraulic effi-
handling. ciency, and avoid excessive maintenance.
( 2 ) Interception. If it is not economical to pass Angle points may be permissible in the absence
debris, it should be retained upstream from of abrasives in the flow; otherwise, curves
the entrance by means of a debris control should be used. When angle points are
structure. unavoidable, maintenance access may be
necessary. See Index 838.5 for manhole
If drift and debris are retained upstream, a location criteria.
riser or chimney may be required. This is a
vertical extension to the culvert which pro- Curvature in pipe culverts is obtained by a series
vides relief when the main entrance is of angle points. Whenever conditions require
plugged. The increased head should not be these angle points in culvert barrels, the number
allowed to develop excessive velocities or of angle points must be specified either in the
cause pressure which might induce leakage plans or in the special provisions. The angle
a in the culvert. can vary depending upon conditions at the site,
hydraulic requirements, and purpose of the
culvert. The angle point requirement is
July 1,1995
particularly pertinent if there is a likelihood that (3) Box. (Text Later)

structural steel plate pipe will be used. The (4) Arches. (Text Later)
structural steel plate pipe fabricator must know
what the required miters are in order for the (5) Multiple Barrels. In general, the spacing of
plates to be fabricated satisfactorily. pipes in a multiple installation, measured
Manufacturers' literature should be consulted to between outside surfaces, should be half the
be sure that what is being specified can be fabri- nominal diameter with a minimum of 0.6 m.
cated without excessive cost. See Standard Plan D89 for multiple pipe
Ordinarily the grade line should coincide with headwall details.
the existing streambed. Deviations from this Additional clearance between pipes is re-
practice are permissible under the following quired to accommodate flared end sections.
conditions: See Standard Plans, D94A & B for width of
flared end sections.
(a) On flat grades where sedimentation may
occur, place the culvert inlet and outlet
above the streambed but on the same
slope. The distance above the streambed
Topic 825 - Hydraulic Design of
Culverts
depends on the size length and amount
of sediment anticipated. 825.1 Introduction
If possible, a slope should be used that After the design discharge, (Q), has been
is sufficient to develop self-cleaning ve- estimated, the conveyance of this water must be
locities. investigated. This aspect is referred to as hy-
(b) Under high fills, anticipate greater set- draulic design.
tlement under the center than the sides of The highway culvert is a special type of hy-
the fill. Where settlement is anticipated, draulic structure. An exact theoretical analysis
provisions should be made for camber. of culvert flow is extremely complex because
(c) In steep sloping areas such as on hill- the flow is usually non-uniform with regions of
sides, the overfill heights can be reduced both gradually varying and rapidly varying
by designing the culvert on a slope flow. Hydraulic jumps often form inside or
flatter than natural slope. However, a downstream of the culvert barrel. As the flow
slope should be used to maintain a rate and tailwater elevations change, the flow
velocity sufficient to carry the bedload. type within the barrel changes. An exact
A spillway or downdrain can be hydraulic analysis therefore involves backwater
provided at the outlet. Outlet protection and drawdown calculations, energy and
should be provided to prevent un- momentum balance, and application of the
dermining. For the downdrain type of results of hydraulic studies.
installation, consideration must be given An extensive hydraulic analysis is usually
to anchorage. This design is appropriate impractical and not warranted for the design of
only where substantial savings will be most highway culverts. The culvert design pro-
realized. cedures presented herein and in the referenced
publications are accurate, in terms of head, to
-
Topic 824 Culvert Type within plus or minus 10 percent.
Select ion
825.2 Culvert Flow
824.1 Introduction The types of flow and control used in the design
(Text Later) of highway culverts are:
Inlet Control - Most culverts operate un-
824.2 Shape and Cross Section der inlet control with tailwater elevation
( I ) Circular. (Text Later) below the top of the culvert. 0
(2) Pipe Arch. (Text Later)
July 1, 1995
Supercritical flow is usually encountered The CDS program provides the engineer with
within the culvert barrel. the option of hydraulic design of a culvert or
hydraulic analysis of an existing or proposed
Outlet Control - Culverts under outlet culvert. In its execution, CDS routes hydro-
control generally function with graphs and considers both ponding and over-
submerged outlets and subcritical flow topping.
within the culvert barrel.
The CDS design option automatically selects a
For each type of control, different factors and culvert size and the number of barrels based on
formulas are used to compute the hydraulic engineering data, environmental constraints, and
capacity of a culvert. Under inlet control, the site geometry. The CDS Review Option will
cross sectional area of the culvert, inlet take the chosen culvert shape and size and will
geometry, and elevation of headwater at en- display hydraulic performance data for the
trance are of primary importance. Outlet control selected culvert.
involves the additional consideration of the
tailwater elevation of the outlet channel and the The other HYDRAIN program is HY8, an in-
slope, roughness and length of the culvert bar- teractive culvert analysis program. Given all of
rel. A discussion of these two types of control the appropriate data, the program will compute
with charts for selecting a culvert size for a the culvert hydraulics for circular, rectangular,
given set of conditions is included in the FHWA elliptical, arch, and user-defined culverts.
Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic De- The logic of HY8 involves calculating the inlet
sign of Highway Culverts." and outlet control headwater elevations for the
given flow. The elevations are then compared
825.3 Computer Programs and the larger of the two is used as the
Numerous calculator and computer programs controlling elevation. In cases where the head-
are available to aid in the design and analysis of water elevation is greater then the top elevation
@ highway culverts. The major advantages of
these programs over the traditional hand
of the roadway embankment, an overtopping
analysis is done in which flow is balanced
calculation method are: between the culvert discharge and the surcharge
over the roadway. In the cases where the
Increased accuracy over charts and culvert is not full for any part of its length, open
nomographs. channel computations are performed.
Rapid comparison of alternative sizes 825.4 Coefficient of Roughness
and inlet configurations. Suggested Manning's n values for culvert
Familiarity with culvert hydraulics and tra- design are given in Table 851.2.
ditional methods of solution is necessary to
provide a solid basis for designers to take ad-
vantage of the speed, accuracy, and increased
Topic 826 - Entrance Design
capabilities of hydraulic design computer pro-
grams. 826.1 Introduction
The hydraulic design calculator and computer The size and shape of the entrance are among
programs available from the FHWA are more the factors that control the level of ponding at
fully described in HDS No. 5, "Hydraulic the entrance. Devices such as rounded or
Design of Highway Culverts." beveled lips and expanded entrances help
maintain the velocity of approach, increase the
The recommended personal computer system is culvert capacity, and may lower costs by
the HYDRAIN-Integrated Drainage Design permitting a smaller sized culvert to be used.
Computer System. There are currently two
culvert design and analysis programs within the The inherent characteristics of common entrance
HYDRAIN system. They are the CDS-Culvert treatments are discussed in Index 826.4. End
Design System and the HY8-Culvert Analysis treatment on large culverts is an important
@ program. consideration. Selecting an appropriate end
treatment for a specific type of culvert and
July 1,1995
location requires the application of sound engi- Projecting ends may prove a maintenance
neering judgment. nuisance, particularly when clearance to
right of way fence is limited.
The FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5,
"Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" com- (2) Flared End Sections. This end treatment
bines culvert design information previously does not appreciably improve the hydraulic
containedin HEC No. 5, No. 10, and No. 13. performance of the culvert and is used
The hydraulic performance of various entrance primarily to retain the embankment, improve
types is described in HDS No. 5. the aesthetics, and for safety reasons.
Because prefabricated flared end sections
826.2 End Treatment Policy provide better traffic safety features and are
The recommended end treatment for small considered more attractive than headwalls
culverts is the prefabricated flared end section. they are to be used instead of headwalls
For safety, aesthetic, and economic reasons, whenever feasible.
flared end sections should be used at both en- Details of prefabricated flared end sections
trance and outlet whenever feasible instead of for circular pipe in sizes 300 mm through
headwalls. 2100 rnm in diameter and pipe arches of
End treatment, either flared end section or equivalent size are shown on Standard Plans
headwall, is required for circular culverts D94A & B.
1500 rnm or more in diameter and for pipe (3) Headwalls and Wingwalls. This end
arches of equivalent size. treatment may be required at the culvert
entrance for the following reasons:
826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs
To improve hydraulic efficiency.
The inlet edge configuration is one of the prime
factors influencing the hydraulic performance of To retain the embankment and reduce
a culvert operating in inlet control. The erosion of slopes.
following entrance types are frequently used.
( I ) Projecting Barrel. A thin edge projecting To provide structural stability to the
inlet can cause a severe contraction of the culvert ends and serve as a
flow. The effective cross sectional area of counterweight to offset buoyant or uplift
the barrel may be reduced to about one half forces.
the actual available barrel area. (4)Rounded
. , Liv. This treatment costs little.
The projecting barrel has no end treatment smooths flok contraction, increases culvert
and is the least desirable hydraulically. It is capacity, and reduces the level of ponding at
economical but its appearance is not pleasing the entrance. The box culvert and pipe
and use should be limited to culverts with headwall standard plans include a rounded
low velocity flows where head lip. The rounded lip is omitted for culverts
conservation, traffic safety, and appearance less than 1200 mm in diameter; however,
are not important considerations. the beveled groove end of concrete pipe at
the entrance produces an effect similar to
Typical installations include an equalizer that of a rounded lip.
culvert where ponding beyond the control of
the highway facility occurs on both sides of (5) Mitered End. A mitered culvert end is
the highway or where the flow is too small formed when the culvert barrel is cut to con-
to fill the minimum culvert opening. form with the plane of the embankment
slope. Mitered entrances are not to be used.
The projecting entrance inhibits culvert effi- They are hydraulically less efficient than
ciency. In some situations, the outlet end either flared end sections or headwalls, and
may project beyond the fill, thus providing they are structurally unstable.
security against erosion at less expense than
bank protection work. (6)Entrance Risers. At a location where the
culvert would be subject to plugging, a
vertical pipe riser should be considered.
July 1,1995
a Refer to Index 822.2 for discussion on

debris-control structures.
dikes, or channel lining extending upstream
to complete the transition.
(2) Transitions. Elaborate transitions and
826.4 Improved Inlet Designs throated openings for culverts may be war-
Entrance geometry refinements can be used to ranted in special cases. Generally a highly
reduce the flow contraction at the inlet and developed entrance is unnecessary if the
increase the capacity of culverts operating under shape of the culvert fits the approach chan-
inlet control without increasing the headwater nel. In wide flat channels where ponding at
depth. The following entrance types improve entrance must be restricted, a wide shallow
culvert inlet performance and can be provided at structure or multiple conduit should be used
reasonable cost. if drift and debris are not a problem.
( I ) Expanded Entrances. Headwalls with Throated or tapered barrels at entrance are
straight flared wingwalls or warped more vulnerable to clogging by debris.
wingwalls offer a more highly developed They are not economical unless they are
entrance appropriate for large culverts, used for corrective measures; for example,
regardless of type or shape of barrel. The where there is a severe restriction in right of
effect of such entrances can be approximated way width and it is necessary to increase the
more economically by a shaped entrance capacity of an existing culvert structure.
using air blown mortar, concreted riprap, For further information refer to HEC-9,
sacked concrete or slope paving. "Debris-Control Structures" and HDS 5,
Straight flared wingwalls and warped wing- "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts"
walls aid in maintaining the approach
velocity, align and guide drift, and funnel
the flow into the culvert entrance. To insure
Topic 827 - Outlet Design
enough velocity to carry drift and debris
through the culvert or increase the velocity 827.1 General
and thereby increase the entrance capacity, a The outlet velocity of highway culverts is
sloping drop down apron at the entrance usually higher than the maximum natural stream
may be used. To minimize snagging drift, velocity. This higher velocity can cause
the standard plans require wingwalls to be streambed scour and bank erosion for a limited
flush with the culvert barrel. The flare angle distance downstream from the culvert outlet.
may range from 30 to 75 degrees; the exact
angle is based on the alignment of the ap- The slope and roughness of the culvert barrel
proach channel banks and not the axis of the are the principle factors affecting outlet velocity.
culvert. Greater efficiency is obtained when The shape and size of a culvert seldom have a
the top of the wingwall is the same elevation significant effect on the outlet velocity. When
as the headwall. the outlet velocity is believed to be excessive
and it cannot be satisfactorily reduced by
Whether warped or straight flared wingwalls adjusting the slope or barrel roughness, it may
are used depends on the shape of the be necessary to use some type of outlet protec-
approach channel. Straight flared wingwalls tion or energy dissipater. A method of predict-
are appropriate for well defined channels ing and analyzing scour conditions is given in
with steep banks. Warped wingwalls are the FHWA publication "Scour at Culvert Outlets
more suited to shallow trapezoidal approach in Mixed Bed Materials", FHWARD - 82/01 1.
channels.
When dealing with erosive velocities at the
Usually it is more economical to transition outlet, the effect on downstream property
between the stream section and the culvert should be evaluated.
by means of straight flared wingwalls or
warped wingwalls than to expand the culvert 827.2 Embankment Protection
barrel at entrance. For a very wide channel,
this transition may be combined with riprap, Improved culvert outlets are designed to restore
natural flow conditions downstream. Where
July 1,1995
erosion is to be expected, corrective measures diameter of pipe to be used is 600 mm. When
such as bank protection, vertical flared practicable, intermediate cleanout points should
wingwalls, warped wingwalls, transitions, and be provided for runs of pipe 600 mm in
energy dissipaters may be considered. See diameter that exceed 100 m in length.
Chapter 870, "Channel and Shore Protection- If a choice is to be made between using 450 mrn
Erosion Control", FHWA Hydraulic Engineer- diameter pipe with an intermediate cleanout in
ing Circulars No. 11, "Design of Riprap the highway median or using 600 mm diameter
Revetment", No. 14, "Hydraulic Design of pipe without the median access, the larger
Energy Dissipaters for Culverts and Channels", diameter pipe without the median access is
and No. 15, "Design of Roadway Channels preferred.
with Flexible Linings", and "Hydraulic Design
of Stilling Basins" by the U. S. Department of 828.3 Length
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1964. HY-8,
within the Hydrain Integrated Computer The length of pipe culvert to be installed is
Program System, provides designs for energy determined as follows:
dissipaters and follows the HEC-14 method for (a) Establish a theoretical length based on
design. slope stake requirements making
Wingwall flare angles should be carefully allowance for end treatment.
selected to prevent embankment scour from (b) Adjust the theoretical length for height of
eddy action at the ends of the wingwalls. Both fill by applying these rules:
types of wingwalls should be flush with the cul-
vert barrel and flared at an angle appropriate to For fills 4 m or less, no adjustment
the lines of flow, particularly at high discharge is required.
velocities.
For fills higher than 4 m, add 0.3 m
-
Topic 828 Diameter and of length at each end for each 3 m
increment of fill height or portion
Length thereof. The additional length
should not exceed 2 m on each end.
828.1 Introduction
From a maintenance point of view the minimum In cases of high fills with benches,
diameter of pipe and the distance between the additional length is based on the
convenient cleanout access voints are hvortant height of the lowest bench.
. , Use the nearest combination of com-
A A
considerations. (c)
The following instructions apply to minimum mercial lengths which equal or exceed
pipe diameter and the length of pipe culvert. the length obtained in (b) above.
828.2 Minimum Diameter -

Topic 829 Special
The minimum diameter for cross culverts under considerations
the roadway is 450 mm. For other than cross
vives, the minimum diameter is 300 mm. For 829.1 Introduction
mainknance purposes, where the slope of
longitudinal side drains is not sufficient to In addition to the hydraulic design, other factors
produce self-cleaning velocities, pipe sizes of must be considered to assure the integrity of
450 mm or more in diameter should be con- culvert installations and the highway.
sidered.
829.2 Bedding and Backfill
The minimum diameter of pipe to be used is
further determined by the length of pipe between The height of overfill a culvert will safely
convenient cleanout access points. If pipe runs sustain depends upon foundation conditions,
exceed 30 m between inlet and outlet, or
intermediate cleanout access, the minimum
method of installation, and its structural strength
and rigidity. e
July 1, 1995
Uniform settlement under both the culvert and corrugation configurations, and types of
the adjoining fill will not overstress flexible and materials are given in Chapter 850. Not
segmental rigid culverts. Unequal settlement, included, but covered in the Standard
however, can result in distortion and shearing Plans, are maximum earth cover for
action in the culvert. For rigid pipes this could reinforced concrete box culverts, reinforced
result in distress and disjointing of the pipe. A concrete arches, and structural plate vehic-
flexible culvert accommodates itself to moderate ular undercrossing.
unequal settlements but is also subject to For culverts where overfill requirements ex-
shearing action. Monolithic culverts can tolerate ceed the limits shown on the tables a special
only a minimal amount of unequal settlement, design must be prepared. Special designs
and require favorable foundation conditions. are to be submitted to the Division of
Any unequal settlement would subject a Structures for review, or the Division of
monolithic culvert to severe shear stresses. Structures may be directly requested to pre-
( I ) Foundation Conditions. A slightly yielding pare the design.
foundation under both the culvert and ad- Under any of the following conditions, the
joining fill is the foundation condition Division of Structures is to prepare the
generally encountered. The maximum special design:
height of cover tables given in Chapter 850
are based on this foundation condition. Where foundation material will not
Unyielding foundation conditions can pro- support footing pressure shown on the
duce high stresses in the culverts. Such Standard Plans for concrete arch and
stresses may be counteracted by structural plate vehicular under-
subexcavation and backfill. crossings.
The Standard Plans show details for shaped, Where foundation material will not sup-
0 sand, and soil cement bedding treatments. port footing pressures shown in the
Highway Design Manual for structural
Foundation materials capable of s u p p o p g
pressures between 100 and 800 kN/m are plate pipe arches or corrugated metal
required for culverts with cast-in-place pipe arches.
footing or inverts, such as reinforced Where a culvert will be subjected to un-
concrete boxes, arches, and structural plate equal lateral pressures, such as at the toe
arches. When culvert footing pressures of a fill or adjacent to a retaining wall.
exceed 150 kN/m2 or the &meter or span
exceeds 3 m, a geology report providing a Special designs usually require that a de-
log of test boring is required. tailed foundation investigation be made.
( 2 ) Method of Installation. Under ordinary (4) Minimum Cover. When feasible, culverts
conditions, the methods of installation de- should be buried at least 0.3 m. For
scribed in the Standard Specifications and construction purposes, a minimum cover of
shown on the Standard Plans should be 150 rnm greater than the thickness of the
used. For any predictable settlement, structural cross section is desirable for all
provisions for camber should be made. types of pipe. The minimum thickness of
Excavation and backfill details for circular cover for various type culverts under rigid
or flexible pavements is given in Table
concrete pipe, reinforced box and arch 854.9.
culverts, and corrugated metal pipe and arch
culverts are shown on Standard Plans 829.3 Piping
A62-D, A62-E, and A62-F respectively.
Piping is a phenomenon caused by seepage
(3) Height of Cover. There are several al- along a culvert barrel which removes fill ma-
ternative materials from which acceptable terial, forming a hollow similar to a pipe. Fine
0 culverts may be made. Tables of maximum
height of cover recommended for the more soil particles are washed out freely along the
hollow and the erosion inside the fill may
frequently used culvert shapes, sizes,
July 1,1995
ultimately cause failure of the culvert or the em- 829.5 Anchorage

bankment. (Text Later)
The possibility of piping can be reduced by
decreasing the velocity of the seepage flow. 829.6 Irregular Treatment
This can be reduced by providing for watertight ( I ) Junctions. (Text Later)
joints. Therefore, if piping through joints could
become a problem, consideration should be (2) Bends. (Text Later)
given to providing for watertight joints.
Piping may be anticipated along the entire length 829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts
of the culvert when ponding above the culvert is ( I ) General Notes. There are two kinds of
expected for an extended length of time, such as conduits called siphons: the true siphon and
when the highway fill is used as a detention dam the inverted siphon or sag culvert. The true
or to form a reservoir. Headwalls, impervious siphon is a closed conduit, a portion of
materials at the upstream end of the culvert, and which lies above the hydraulic grade line.
anti-seep or cutoff collars increase the length of This results in less than atmospheric
the flow path, decrease the hydraulic gradient pressure in that portion. The sag culvert lies
and the velocity of flow and thus decreases the entirely below the hydraulic grade line; it
probability of piping developing. Anti-seep operates under pressure without siphonic
collars usually consist of bulkhead type plate or action.
blocks around the entire perimeter of the culvert. Under the proper conditions, there are hy-
They may be of metal or concrete, and, if draulic and economic advantages to be ob-
practical, should be keyed into impervious tained by using the siphon principle in cul-
material. vert design.
-
Piping could occur where a culvert must be (2) Sag Culverts. This type is most often used
placed in a live stream, and the flow cannot be to carry an irrigation canal under a highway
diverted. Under these conditions watertight when the available headroom is insufficient
joints should be specified. for a normal culvert. The top of a sag
829.4 Joints culvert should be at least 1.4 m below the
finished grade where possible, to ensure
The possibility of piping being caused by open against damage from heavy construction
joints in the culvert barrel may be reduced equipment. The culvert should be on a
through special attention to the type of pipe joint straight grade and sumps provided at each
specified. For a more complete discussion of end to facilitate maintenance. Sag culverts
pipe joint requirements see Index 853.1. should not be used:
The two pipe joint types specified for culvert (a) When the flow carries trash and debris
installations are identified as "standard" and in sufficient quantity to cause heavy de-
"positive". The "standard" ioint is adequate for posits,
&nary installations and joints (b) For intermittent flows where the effects
should be specified where there is a need to of standing water are objectionable, or
withstand soil movements or resist disjointing
forces. Cormgated metal pipe coupling bans (c) When any other alternative is possible at
details are shown on Standard Plan sheets D97A reasonable cost.
through D97G and concrete pipe joint details on (3) Types of Conduit. Following are two kinds
sheet D97H. of pipes used for siphons and sag culverts to
If it is necessary ,for "standard" or "positive" prevent leakage:
joints to be watertight they must be specifically (a) Reinforced Concrete Pipe - Reinforced
specified as such. Rubber "0" rings or other re- concrete pipe with joint seals is generally
silient joint material provides the watertight seal. satisfactory. For heads over 6 m,
Cormgated metal pipe joints identified as special consideration should be given to
"downdrain"are watertight joint systems with a hydrostatic pressure.
tensile strength specification for the coupler.
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 820-1 1
July 1, 1995
0 (b) Corrugated Metal Pipe - corrugated

metal pipe must be of the thickness and
Classifications. The following text is taken
directly from Section 8422:
have the protective coatings required to
~rovidethe design service life. Field 8422 Tunnel Classifications.
joints must be watertight. The following
additional treatment is recommended. a) The Division shall classify all tunnels or
portions of tunnels into one of the follow-
When the head is more than 3 m and ing classifications:
the flow is continuous or is inter- 1) Nongassy, which classification shall
mittent and of long duration, pipe be applied to tunnels where there is
fabricated by riveting, spot welding little likelihood of encountering gas
or continuous helical lockseam during the construction of the tunnel.
should be soldered.
2) Potentially gassy, which classification
Pipe fabricated by a continuous shall be applied to tunnels where there
helical welded seam need not be is a possibility flammable gas or
soldered. hydrocarbons will be encountered.
If the head is 3 m or less and the 3) Gassy, which classification shall be

applied to tunnels where it is likely
flow is intermittent and lasts only a gas will be encountered or if a
few days, as in storm flows, concentration of 0.25 percent by
unsoldered seams are permissible. volume (5% of LEL = lower explosive
limit of a flammable gas or vapor) or
829.8 Jacking and Tunneling more of flammable gas has been
Tunnel safety order Section 8422 requires the detected not less than 12 inches h m
Department of Transportation to request the the roof, face, floor and walls in any
Division of Industrial Safety to review and clas- open workings with normal ven-
sify tunnel projects relative to flammable gas tilation.
and vapors prior to bidding. Tunnel projects are 4) Extrahazardous, which classification
held to include pipe jacking operations where shall be applied to tunnels when the
the pipe is 1200 mm or greater in diameter. Division finds that there is a serious
Prior to PS&E submittal on a project that danger to the safety of employees and:
includes any such tunnel or pipe jacking op- Flammable gas or petroleum vapors
erations, the District must submit a written re- emanating from the strata has been ig-
quest for a classification to: nited in the tunnel; or
Cal-OSHA
Mining and Tunneling Unit A concentration of 20 percent of LEL
petroleum vapors has been detected not
22 11 Park Towne Circle, Suite 2
less than three inches from the roof,
Sacramento, CA 95825
face floor and walls in any open
(District 1-6,9 & 10) workings with normal ventilation.
b) The Division may classify any tunnel as
gassy or extrahazardous if the history or
Cal-OSHA past experience indicates that flammable
Mining and Tunneling Unit gas or petroleum vapors in hazardous
6150 Van Nuys Blvd., Rrn. 3 10 concentrations s likely to be encountered in
Van Nuys, CA 91401-3379 such tunnel or if the tunnel is connected to
a gassy or extrahamdous excavation and
(District 7,8, 11 & 12) subjects the men to reasonable likelihood
e The reauest should include the data specified

of danger.
c) A notice of the classification shall be
prominently posted at the tunnel job site.
under p'aragraph (d) of Section 8422,gr~unnel
July 1,1995
d) When the preliminary investigation of a pressures on the upstream side of the fill,
tunnel project is conducted, the owner or creating seepage through the fill and/or
agency proposing the construction of the increased potential for piping.
tunnel shall submit the geological The requirements for submitting information to
information to the Division for review and the FHWA Division Office in Sacramento as
classification relative to flammable gas and described in Index 805.6 are not affected by the
vapors. The preliminary classification regulations mentioned above.
shall be obtained from the Division prior to
bidding and in all cases prior to actual 829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box
underground construction. In order to make Modifications
the evaluation, the following will be
reqw. ( I ) Extensions. Where an existing box culvert
is to be lengthened, it is essential to perform
1) Plans and specifications; an on-site investigation to verify the
2) Geological report; structural integrity of the box. If signs of
distress are present, the Division of
3) Test bore hole and soil analysis log Structures must be contacted prior to
along tunnel alignment; proceeding with the design.
4) Recommendation from owner, agency, (2) Additional Loading. When significant
lessee, or their agent relative to the additional loading is proposed to be added to
possibility of encountering flammable an existing reinforced concrete box culvert
gas or vapors; the Division of Structures must be contacted
5) The Division may require additional prior to proceeding with the design.
drill hole or other geological data prior Overlays of less than 150 rnm in depth, or
to making gas classifications. widenings that do not increase the per unit
loading on the box are not considered to be
829.9 Dams significant. Designers should also check the
extent that previous projects might have
Typically, proposed construction which is increased loading on box culverts, even if
capable of impounding water to the extent that it the current project is not adding a significant
meets the legal definition of a dam must be amount of loading.
approved by the Department of Water Resource
(DWR), Division of Safety of Dams. The legal
definition is described in Sections 6002 and
6003 of the State Water Code. Generally, any
facility 7.6 m or more in height or capable of
impounding 61 700 m3 or more would be
considered a dam. However, any facility 1.8 m
or less in height, regardless of capacity, or with
a storage capacity of not more than 18 500 m3,
regardless of height, shall not be considered a
dam. Additionally, Section 6004 of the
State Water Code states "... and no road or
highway fill or structure ... shall be considered
a dam." Therefore, except for large retention
or detention facilities there will rarely be the
need for involvement by the DWR in approval
of Caltrans designs.
Although most highway designs will be exempt
from DWR approval, caution should always be
exercised in the design of high fills that could
impound large volumes of water. Even partial
plugging of the cross drain could lead to high
July 1,1995
This section involves the hydraulic design

CHAPTER 830 fundamentals necessary for properly sizing and
ROADWAY DRAINAGE locating standard highway drainage features
such as:
Topic 831 - General ~ s p h a ldikes
t and gutters.
-
Index 831.1 Basic Concepts
Concrete curbs and gutters.
Roadway drainage involves the collection, Mediandrains.

conveyance, removal, and disposal of surface
water runoff from the traveled way, shoulders, Roadside ditches
and adjoining roadside areas. Roadway Overside drains.
drainage is also concerned with the handling of
water from the following additional sources: Drop inlets.
Surface water from outside the right of Storm drains.
way and not confined to channels that
would reach the traveled way if not Removal of storm water from highway
intercepted. pavement surfaces and median areas is more
fully discussed in the 1984 FHWA Hydraulic
Crossroads or streets. Engineering Circular No. 12, "Drainage of
Highway Pavement". HEC 12 includes discus-
Irrigation of landscaped areas. sion of the effects of roadway geometry on
The design of roadway drainage systems often pavement drainage; the philosophy of design
involves consideration of the problems as- storm frequency and design spread selection;
sociated with inadequate drainage of the adjacent storm runoff estimating methods; pavement and
or surrounding area. Cooperative drainage im- bridge deck inlets; and flow in gutters. Charts
provement projects with the responsible local and procedures are provided for the hydraulic
agency may offer the best overall solution. Co- analysis and design of roadway drainage
operative agreements are more fully discussed features.
under Index 803.2
831.2 Highway Grade Line
Some of the major considerations of good
roadway drainage design are: In flat terrain, roadway drainage considerations
often control the longitudinal grade line of the
Motorist safety. highway. A grade line that assures the desirable
goal of keeping the traveled way free of
Convenience to vehicular and pedestrian flooding can usually be established for new
traffic. freeway projects and rural conventional
highways.
Aesthetics.
For multilane urban highways with nearly
Flooding of the traveled way and adja- continuous dike or curb along the shoulder or
cent property. parking area, it is seldom practical to design the
highway with a gutter section which will contain
Subgrade infiltration. all of the runoff even from frequent rains. For
this reason the gutter and shoulder combination,
Potential erosion, pollution and other en- and often partial or full width of the traveled
vironmental concerns. way, are used to convey the runoff to inlets.
Economy of construction. 831.3 Design Storm and Water Spread
0 Economy of maintenance. Before the hydraulic adequacy of roadway
drainage facilities can be analyzed, the quantity
of water (design Q) that the facility may
July 1,1995
reasonably be expected to convey must be es- The following geometric and design features of
timated. The most important, and often the the highway directly affect establishment of the
most difficult phase of this task is the selection project design water spread:
of an appropriate design storm frequency for the
specific project, location or site under Cross slope
consideration. In order for a design frequency
to be meaningful criteria for roadway drainage Longitudinal slope
design, it must be tied to an acceptable tolerance Number of lanes
of flooding. Design water spread,
encroachment upon the roadbed or adjacent Width of shoulders
property, is the tolerance of flooding k t l y
related to roadway drainage design. Allowing Height of curb and dike
too little spread is uneconomical in design and
too much spread may result in unsafe driving Parkinglanes
conditions. Desirable limits for water spread with respect to
To optimize economy in roadway drainage, the design storm probability of exceedance are
allowable water spread should vary, depending given in Table 831.3. The parameters shown
on the type of highway project being designed. are considered minimum roadway drainage
Because of the effect of splash and spray on design standards for new freeway construction
motorist visibility and vehicle control, high and for all state highways with depressed
volume roads with high speed cannot sections which require pumping. Local
tolerate as much water spread as urban streets. conditions may justify less stringent criteria than
Likewise,
. . . the allowable water spread should be the table parameters for conventional highways.
m m m e d on urban streets where a large Exceptions should be documented by memo to
number of pedestrians use adjacent sidewalks the project file.
and pedestrian crosswalks. Consideration It is often advantageous, to both the State and
should be given to the element of motorist the local agency, for highway drainage and
surprise when encountering intermittent puddles street drainage to be compatible. This is par-
rather than a continuous encroachment of water ticularly true in urban areas and rapidly devel-
on the driving lane. Eccentric forces are exerted oping suburban areas where a conventional
on a vehicle when one side encounters water in highway is, or will become, part of the street
the lane and the other side does not. network. Street drainage criteria adopted by a
The probability of exceedance of the design local agency are generally based on the hydro-
storm and the acceptable tolerance to flooding logic events peculiar to a geographical area.
depends on the importance of the highway and Local drainage standards that satisfy the needs
risks involved. Selection of the design storm of the community, usually provide reasonable
and water spread parameters on rehabilitation traffic safety and flood risk considerations
and reconstruction are generally controlled by commensurate with those normally expected for
existing constraints. conventional highways in urban areas.
In addition to the major roadway drainage 831.4 Other Considerations
considerations previously listed, the following
more specific factors are to be considered in (I) Sheet Flow. Concentrations of sheet flow
establishing the project design storm: across roadways are to be avoided. As a
general rule, no more than 0.003 m3/s
Highway type should be allowed to concentrate and flow
across a roadway. Particular attention
Tmfiicvolume should be given to reversal points of
superelevation where shoulder and gutter
Design speed slopes may direct flows across the roadway
Local standards and gore areas.
July 1,1995
h
Table 831.3
Desirable Roadway Drainage Guidelines
DESIGN STORM DESIGN WATER SPREAD
HIGHWAY 4% 10% Shldr or 112 Outer Local

TypeICategorylFeature (25 yrs) (10 yrs) Parking Lane Lane Standard
FREEWAYS
Through trafiic lanes, branch X -- X -- --
connections, and other major
ramp connections.
Minor ramps. -- X X -- --
Frontage roads. -- X -- -- X
High volume, multilane
Speeds over 75 kph.
n
High volume, multilane --
Speeds 75 kph and under.
Low volume, rural
Speeds over 75 kph.
Urban --
Speeds 75 kph and under.
ALL STATE HIGHWAYS
Depressed Sections That Require Pumping:
Use a 2% (50 yrs) design storm for freeways and conventional state highways. Design water spread at
depressed sections should not exceed that of adjacent roadway sections. A 4% (25 yr) design storm may
be used on local streets or road undercrossings that require pumping.
-
July 1,1995
-
should be paved. Refer to Table 862.2 for When possible, overside drains should be
permissible velocities for unlined channels positioned at the lower end of cut sections.
in various types of soil. When the ditch Diversion from one watershed to another
grade exceeds a 1:4 slope, a downdrain is should be avoided. If diversion becomes
advisable. Slope ditches may not be necessary, care should be used in the
necessary where side slopes in favorable manner in which this diverted water is
soils are flatter than 1:2 or where positive disposed.
erosion control measures are to be instituted Overside drains which would be conspicu-
during construction. ous or placed in landscaped areas should be
(3) Side Gutters. These are triangular gutters concealed by burial or other means.
adjoining the shoulder as shown in Figures ( 2 ) Type and Requirement. Following are
307.2 and 307.5. The main purpose of the details of various types of overside drains
one meter wide side gutter is to prevent and requirements for their use:
runoff from the cut slopes on the high side
of superelevation from flowing across the (a) Pipe Downdrains. Metal pipes are
roadbeds. The use of side gutters in tangent adaptable to any slope. They should be
alignment should be avoided where used where side slopes are 1:4 or
possible. Local drainage conditions, such steeper. Long pipe downdrains should
as in snow areas, may require their use on be anchored.
either tangent or curved *alignment in cut The minimum pipe diameter is 200 rnrn
sections. In snow areas it may be necessary but large flows, debris, or long pipe in-
to increase the width of side gutters from stallations may dictate a larger diameter.
1 m to 2 m. The slope from the edge of the
Watertight joints are necessary to
-
shoulder to the bottom of the gutter should prevent leakage which causes slope -
be no steeper than 1:6. The structural erosion. Economy in long, high
section for paved side gutters should be
adequate to support maintenance equipment capacity downdrains is achieved by
loads. using a pipe taper in the initial reach.
Pipe tapers should insure improved flow
(4) Dikes. Dikes placed adjoining the shoulder, characteristics and permit use of a
as shown in Figures 307.2, 307.4, and smaller diameter pipe below the taper.
307.5 provide a paved triangular gutter See Standard Plan D87-A for details.
within the shoulder area. For conditions (b) Flume Downdrains. These are rectangu-
governing their use, see Index 835.3.
lar corrugated metal flumes with a
(5) Chart Solutions. Charts for solutions to tapered entrance. See the Standard Plan
triangular channel flow problems are con- D87-B for details. They are best
tained in FI-IWA Hydraulic Engineering Cir- adapted to slopes that are 1:2 or flatter
cular No. 12, "Drainage of Highway Pave- but if used on 1:1.5 slopes, lengths over
ments". 20 m are not recommended. Abrupt
changes in alignment or grade should be
834.4 Overside Drains avoided. Flume downdrains should be
The purpose of overside drains, sometimes depressed so that the top of the flume is
called slope drains, is to protect slopes against flush with the fill slope.
erosion. They convey down the slope drainage (c) Paved Spillways. Permanent paved
which is collected from the roadbed, the tops of spillways should only be used when the
cuts, or from benches in cut or fill slopes. They side slopes are flatter than 1:4. On
may be pipes, flumes or paved spillways. steeper slopes a more positive type of
(1) Spacing and Location. The spacing and overside drain such as a pipe downdrain
location of overside drains depend on the should be used.
configuration of the ground, the highway
profile, the quantity of flow and the limita-
tions on flooding stated in Table 83 1.3.
Temporary paved spillways are effective
in preserving raw fill slopes that are 1:6
or flatter in friable soils during the
-
July 1, 1995
0 period when protective growth is being

established. Paved spillways should be
joints must be provided when the installation
exceeds 20 m in length.
spaced so that a dike 50 mm high placed (6)Drainage on Benches. Drainage from
at the outer edge of the paved shoulder benches in cut and fill slopes should be
will effectively confine drainage between removed at intervals ranging from 100 to
spillways. When it is necessary to place 150 m.
a spillway on curved alignment,
attention must be given to possible (7) Selection of Types. Pipe and flume
overtopping at the bends. See Index downdrains may consist of either corrugated
866.2(3) for discussion of steel, corrugated aluminum, or any other ap-
superelevation of the water surface. proved material that meets the minimum de-
sign service life required under Chapter 850.
(3) Entrance Standards. Entrance tapers for Refer to Index 854.4 for additional
pipes and flume downdrains are detailed discussion on limitations of abrasive
on the Standard Plans. An acceptable resistance of aluminum pipe culverts.
alternative to the pipe entrance taper is a
flared end section. Pipe entrance tapers and
flared end sections should be depressed
- at Topic 835 - Dikes and Berms
least 150 mm. 835.1 General
The local depressions called "paved gutter Dikes and berms are to be used only as
flares" on the Standard Plans are to be used necessary to confine drainage and protect side
at all entrance tapers and flared end sections. slopes susceptible to erosion.
See Standard Plans D78, D87-A and D87-B
for details and Index 837.5 for further 835.2 Earth Berms
discussion on local depressions.
@ In areas where local depressions would de-
crease safety the use of flush grate inlets or
(Text Later)
short sections of slotted drain for entrance 835.3 Asphalt Concrete Dikes
structures may be necessary. Details of asphalt dikes are shown on Standard
(4) Outlet Treatment. Where excessive erosion Plan A87.
at an overside drain outlet is anticipated, a Low Dike. The 50 rnm, Type C, dike may
simple energy dissipator should be em- be used to confine small concentrations of
ployed. Preference should be given to inex- runoff. The capacity of the shoulder gutter
pensive expedients such as an apron of formed by the low dike is quite small.
broken concrete or rock, a short section of Runoff conveyed by the gutter may be re-
pipe placed with its axis vertical with the leased over the side of the fill by means of
lowermost 150 mm filled with coarse gravel paved spillways. The low dike is easily tra-
or rock, or a horizontal tee section which is versed by a vehicle and allows the area be-
usually adequate for downdrain discharges. yond the surfaced shoulder to be used as an
(5)Anchorage. Overside drains 20 m or longer emergency recovery and parking area. The
(not including the buried portion) should be low dike is the only dike that may be used in
anchored as shown on the Standard Plans to front of guardrail. Because the low dike
prevent undue strain on the entrance taper or affords these added traffic safety features it
flared ends. For drains over 50 m long, should be given primary consideration
cable anchorage should be considered. where fill slopes are susceptible to erosion
Where the cable would be buried and in con- and sheet flow over the side cannot be tol-
tact with soil. a solid galvanized rod should erated.
be used for the buriedYportion and a cable, Mountable Dike. The 100 mm, Type E,
attached to the rod, used for the exposed dike provides more capacity than the low
portion. Beyond the buried portion, slip dike and can still be crossed without loss of
control by vehicles traveling at moderate
speeds. Where fill slopes susceptible to
July 1,1995
erosion are steeper than 1:4 it is usually

more advantageous to use the Type E
836.2 Gutter Design a
mountable dike than the low dike. Runoff (1) Capacity. Gutters and drainage facilities are
conveyed by the shoulder gutter formed by to be designed to keep flooding within the
the mountable dike may be released over the limits given in Table 83 1.3. Easy solutions
side of the fill by one of the overside drains to gutter flow problems can be obtained by
discussed under Index 834.4. using the charts contained in FHWA
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 1 2,
The 100 mm, Type F, dike is to be used for "Drainage of Highway Pavements" which
all new construction where dike will be applies to triangular channels and other
placed directly under the face of metal beam shapes illustrated in the charts. Parked cars
guardrail installations. Either Type A or reduce gutter capacity and also can cause
Type F dike may be used with other railing water to shoot over the curb. The down-
systems (e.g., Thrie Beam Barrier). On stream ends of driveway ramps can also
projects where there is existing Type A dike cause water to flow over the curb. As a rule
and MBGR combinations, the existing dike of thumb, gutter capacity should be deter-
will typically be retained and modification to mined on a depth equal to 0.5 the curb
the MBGR will be undertaken. Contact the height for grades up to 10 percent and 0.4
district Traffic Operations unit for design the curb height for grades over 10 percent in
details for the necessary MBGR locations where parlung is allowed or where
modifications. driveways are constructed.
(2) Grade and Cross Slope. The longitudinal
The 150 mm, Type D, dike provides the grade of curbs and gutters is controlled by
same capacity as the Type A dike but the the highway grade line as discussed under
quantity of material in the Type D is more Index 831.2.
than twice that of a Type E. It should only
be used where economicallyjustified. The cross slope of gutters is normally 8
percent toward the curb. Pavement slopes
High Dike. The 150 mm high, Type A or on superelevated roadways extend the full
B, dike is primarily for use in cut sections width of the gutter except that gutter slopes
where the slope is in erodible material and on the low side should be not less than 8
catches at the edges of the surfaced shoul- percent. Flatter cross slopes should be
der. Either Type A or B dike may be used avoided because they cut down gutter capac-
under these conditions. ity and severely reduce inlet efficiency.
Although the standard dike shape in the past (3) Curbed Intersections. If pedestrian trac is
was the Type A high dike, its use on fill slopes a ruling factor, intersection drainage
or directly under metal beam guardrail is to be presents the following alternatives to be
avoided, even on rehabilitation projects. weighed as to effectiveness and economy.
Topic 836 - Curbs and Gutters (a) Intercept the whole flow upstream of the
crosswalk.
(b) Intercept a part of the water and allow
836.1 General the ovefflow to cross the intersection.
The primary reason for constructing curbs and The width of flow should be controlled
gutters may be for delineation or pedestrian so that pedestrian traffic is not unduly
traffic rather than for drainage considerations. hampered.
Refer to Section 209 for further discussion (c) If flow is small, pass the entire flow
and Standard Plan A87 for details on concrete across the intersecting street in a valley
curbs and gutters. gutter.
Whatever the justification for constructing curbs (4) Valley Gutters. Valley gutters across the
and gutters, they will usually have an effect on traveled way of the highway should not be
surface water runoff and result in becoming a used. Valley gutters may be used across
roadway drainage design consideration. intersecting streets and driveways, however,
July 1,1995
at intersections with high traffic volumes on The Type OS and OL inlets are only used
all approaches, it is desirable to intercept all with Type A or B curbs. A checkered steel
gutter flow upstream of the intersection and plate cover is provided for maintenance
avoid the use of valley gutters. Valley access.
gutters are also undesirable along streets The Type OS inlet has a curb opening
where speeds are relatively high. In 1.07 m long. Since a fast flow tends to
locations of frequent intermittent low flows, overshoot such a short opening, it should be
the use of valley gutters with slotted drains used with caution on grades above 3
should be considered. In general, the total percent.
width of gutters should not exceed 2 m and
cross slopes should not exceed 3 percent. The Type OL inlet is a high capacity unit in
Two percent is suggested where more than which the length of curb opening ranges
nominal speeds are involved. from 2.1 m to 6.4 m.
(2) Grate. Grate inlets provide a grate opening
Topic 837 - Inlet Design in the gutter or waterway. As a class, grate
inlets perform satisfactorily over a wide
837.1 General range of gutter grades. Their main dis-
The basic features of standard storm drain inlets advantage is that they are easily clogged by
are shown in Figure 837.1. Full details appear floating trash. They merit preference over
on Standard Plan D72 through D75, D98-A and the curb opening type, particularly on grades
D98-B. The variety of standard designs of 3 percent or more. Gutter depressions,
available is considered sufficient to any drainage discussed under Index 837.5, increase the
situation; hence, the use of nonstandard inlets capacity of grate inlets. Grate inlets may
should be rare. also be used at locations where a gutter
depression is not desirable. Locating grate
@ 837.2 Inlet Types inlets within pedestrian walkways or areas
subject to bicycle traffic should be avoided
From an operating standpoint, there are five when practicable. If grate inlets must be
main groups of inlets; these are: located in roadway areas where cyclists may
( 1 ) Curb-Opening. Curb opening inlets have an be expected to travel, bicycle proof grates
opening parallel to the direction of flow in are to be specified. Bicycle proof grates are
the gutter. This inlet group is adapted to shown on Standard Plan D77-B.
curb and gutter installations. The curb (3) Combination. Combination inlets provide
opening is most effective with flows car- both a curb opening and a grate. These are
rying floating trash. As the gutter grade high capacity inlets which make use of the
steepens, their interception capacity advantages offered by both kinds of
decreases. Hence, they are commonly used openings.
on grades flatter than 3 percent.
(a) Type GO and GDO. These types of
When curb opening inlets are used on urban inlets have a curb opening directly
highways other than fenced freeways, a opposite the grate. The GDO inlet has
20 mm plain round protection bar is placed two grates placed side by side and is
horizontally across any curb or wall opening designed for intercepting a wide flow.
whose height is 180 mm or more. The A typical use of these inlets would be in
unsupported length of bar should not exceed a sag location either in a curb and gutter
2.1 m. Use of the protection bar on streets installation or within a shoulder fringed
or roads under other jurisdiction is to be by a dike. When used as the surface inlet
governed by the desires of the responsible for a pumping installation, the trash rack
authorities. shown on the Standard Plan D74B is
provided.
July 1,1995
Figure 837.1
Storm Drain Inlet Types , Ma 80 Grata.
eckormd 1t.01 plat. to
0 Type 80 Grata.
Curbs-
0s 1.07 m 1%.
OL
Curb o p d n l l w ~ # t h . O.lm, 3.0 m
GDO
Truh rack p d e d whan nwded. Ula
GOL
Curb o p a d r q II&I 8.1 m and 3.0 m.
Uma wi Type A an B onrbm. 4.3 m. 8.4 m. Uma only with nth and B curb. and Type. A. U I ~with %em A mad B owb.
Q p a A mnd B curbm. B mwdikcl.
Type A o w b Typm B curb
Typ. W Gr.t.1
G- 1 G-2 6-3 6-4 G-5

Umad r h m m t of inlet UI. d t h Typepe. A, 8,and D Ume with Type. A and B U I ~with types A .nd II c u r b Uma with -am A and B
1. 1.8 m or Ian. dlkam whan ouilmt pip. O.D. curb. when hdght of i n h i when outlmt pipe O.D. 8xceed1 curb. whmn hd~htof inlet
mame& 800 mm. i. 1.8 m or 1-1. 800 mm. b 1.8 m or l a m .
GT- 1 GT-2 GT-3 GT-4

lp
- 2i.t61 1A.and
Uma with A and B o u r b whan Uae with 7 q o s . A and B mvbm whan U I ~w i t h 8 curb. whm UII with am A and B o w b ~whmn
hmlght of 1 m i 1. 1.8 rn or lam. outlet p i p .D acr& 800 mm. baht of 1.8 m or 1m
... outlet pip3.D. axasam 800 mm.
I mm No=. Oi.. Cho&.nd .t.ol plat. 900 ma Checkend .*el plmta

/or roodon top. / ;/ or roodm top.
A.C.
GCP OCP GMP OMP

900 mm D1.m.t.r B W mm Dhm* BOO mm DL.m.ta 900 mm Dilmetm
conont. Plpa. Conorat. Pipa. YaW Plpm. Y C p~
ip. SLOTTED DRAIN INLET
N m 8 : 1. All dimendon. .n outddm d l m ~ n d o wb u e d on 110 mm wmll ihlcknmr. 300 mm and 800 mm D l l m d u Cornumtd
0. m r full d e b & w warn maaordlq tn (IP.. 10. Indu 897.9. Yet.1 Pipe. 1 = 4s rmn
s. a = h W t Of Inlet.
4. Bee Stuadud P h for Detail#.
July 1, 1995
(b) Type GOL. This is called a sweeper the centerline of the highway. Short
inlet because the curb opening precedes sections of slotted drain may be used as an
the grate. It is particularly useful as a alternate solution to a grate catch basin in the
trash interceptor during the initial phases median or edge of shoulder.
of a storm. When used in a grade sag, Drop inlets or other type of cleanout should
the sweeper inlet can be modified by be provided at intervals of about 30 m.
providing a curb opening on both sides
of the grate. 837.3 Location and Spacing
( 4 ) Pipe. Pipe drop inlets are made of a ( 1 ) Governing Factors; The location and
commercial pipe section of concrete or spacing of inlets depend mainly on these
corrugated metal. As a class, they develop a factors:
high capacity and are generally the most
economical type. This type of inlet is (a) The amount of runoff,
intended for uses outside the roadbed at (b) The longitudinal grade and cross slope ,
locations that will not be subjected to normal
highway wheel loads. (c) The location and geornetrics of inter-
changes and at-grade intersections,
Two kinds of inlets are provided; a wall
opening and a grate top. The wall opening (d) Tolerable water spread, see Table 831.3,
inlet should only be used at protected loca- (e) The inlet capacity,
tions where it is unlikely to be hit by an out
of control vehicle. (f) Accessibility for maintenance and
inspection,
(a) Wall Opening Intake. This opening is
placed normal to the direction of surface (g) Volume and movements of vehicles and
flow. It develops a high capacity unaf- pedestrians, and
0 fected by the grade of the approach wa-
terway. The inlet capacity is increased
(h) Amount of debris.
by depressing the opening; also by (2) Location. There are no ready rules by
providing additional openings oriented which the spacing of inlets can be fixed; the
to intercept flows from different most effective and economical installation
directions. When used as the surface should be the aim.
intake to a pumping installation, a trash The following are locations where an inlet is
rack across the opening is required. See nearly always required:
Standard Plan D75. Because this type
of inlet projects above grade, its use Sag points
should be avoided in areas subject to
traffic leaving the roadway. Points of superelevation reversal
(b) Grate Intake. The grate intake intercepts Upstream of ramp gores
water from any direction. For maximum
efficiency, however, the grate bars must Upstream and downstream of bridges
be in the direction of greatest surface
flow. Being round, it is most effective Street intersections
for flows that are deepest at the center,
as in a valley median. Upstream of pedestrian crosswalks
(5) Slotted Drains. This type of inlet is made of Upstream of curbed median openings
corrugated metal pipe with a continuous slot
on top. The slot is formed by a pair of angle In urban areas, the volume and movements
irons or grating which serves as a paving of vehicles and pedestrians constitute an im-
bulkhead. See Standard Plans D98-A and portant control. For street or road
D98-B. This type of inlet can be used in crossings, the usual inlet location is at the
@ flush, all paved medians with superelevated
sections to prevent sheet flow from crossing
intersection at the upstream end of the curb
or pavement return and clear of the
July 1,1995
pedestrian crosswalk. Where the gutter flow capacity. The gutter grade line exerts
is small and both vehicular and pedestrian such an influence that it often dictates the
traffic are not important considerations, the choice of inlet types as well as the gutter
flow may be carried across the intersection treatment opposite the opening. See
in a valley gutter and intercepted by an inlet Index 831.2.
placed downstream. See Index 836.2(4). Sag vertical curves produce a flattening
Safety of location for maintenance purposes grade line which increases the width of
is an important consideration. Wall opening flow at the bottom. To reduce ponding
inlets should not be placed where they and possible sedimentation problems,
present an obstacle to maintenance the following measures should be
equipment and to vehicles that leave the trav- considered:
eled way. Grate top inlets should be
installed in such locations. Reduce the length of vertical curve.
At depressed grade lines under structures, Use a multiple installation consisting
care must be taken to avoid bridge pier foot- of one inlet at the low point and one
ings. See Index 204.6. or more inlets upstream on each
(3) Spacing. Arbitrary spacing of inlets should side. Refer to HEC 12 for further
be avoided. The distance between inlets discussion and design procedures
should be determined by a rational analysis for locating multiple inlets.
of the factors mentioned above. Detailed Short sections of slotted drains on
procedures for determining inlet spacing are either side of the low point are an
given in FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Cir- alternate to drop inlets.
cular No. 12, "Drainage of Highway Pave-
ments". In a valley median, the designer (b) Cross Slope for Curbed Gutters. Make
should consider the effect of inlet spacing on the cross slope as steep as possible
flow velocities where the soil is susceptible within limits stated under Index
to erosion. To economize on disposal 836.2(2). This concentrates the flow
facilities, inlets are often located at culverts against the curb and greatly increases
or near roadway drainage conduits. inlet capacity.
(4) Inlets in Series. Where conditions dictate (c) Local Depressions. Use the maximum
the need for a series of inlets, the depression consistent with site
recommended minimum spacing should be conditions; for further details see Index
approximately 6 m to allow the bypass flow 837.5.
to return to the curb face. (d) Trash. The curb-opening type inlet,
when the first in a series of grate inlets,
837.4 Hydraulic Design may intercept trash and improve grate ef-
( I ) Factors Governing Inlet Capacity. Met ficiency. In a grade sag, one trash inter-
capacity is a variable which depends on: ceptor should be used on each side of
the sump.
(a) The size and geometry of the intake
opening, (e) Design Water Surface Within the Inlet.
The crown of the outlet pipe should be
(b) The velocity and depth of flow and the low enough to allow for pipe entrance
gutter cross slope just upstream from the losses plus a freeboard of 0.25 m
intake, and between the design water surface and the
(c) The amount of depression of the intake opening at the gutter intake. This allows
opening below the flow line of the sufficient margin for turbulence losses,
waterway. and the effects of floating trash.
(2) General Notes. ( f ) Inlet Floor. The inlet floor should
generally have a substantial slope toward
(a) Effect of Grade Profile. The grade pro- the outlet. In a shallow drain system
file affects both the inlet location and its
July 1, 1995
@ where conservation of head is essential,

or any system where the preservation of
dictate the magnitude of the clogging factor,
if any, to be applied. In the absence of local
a nonsilting velocity is necessary, the experience, design clogging factors of 33
half round floor shown on the Standard percent for freeways and 50 percent for city
Plan D74C should be used when a pipe streets may be assumed.
continues through the inlet. Grate type inlets are most economical and
(g) Partial Interception. Economies may be effective if designed and spaced to intercept
achieved by designing inlets for partial only 75 to 80 percent of the gutter flow.
interception with the last one or two (5) Combination Inlets.
inlets in series intercepting the remaining
flow. See Hydraulic Engineering (a) Type GO and GDO Inlet. For design
Circular No. 12. purposes, only the capacity of the grates
need be considered. The auxiliary curb
(3) Curb-Opening Inlets. Gutter depressions opening, under normal conditions,
should be used with curb-opening inlets. offers little or no increase in capacity;
The standard gutter depressions for curb- but does act as a relief opening should
opening inlets, shown on Standard Plan the grate become clogged. Since the
D78 are 30 mm and 80 mm deep. grates of Type GDO are side by side, the
Curb-opening inlets are most economical inlet capacity is the combined capacity of
and effective if designed and spaced to inter- the two grates.
cept only 85 to 90 percent of the flow. This (b) Type GOL Inlet. The interception ca-
provides for an increased flow depth at the pacity of this inlet, a curb-opening up-
curb face. stream of a grate, is equal to the sum of
Chart 9, "Curb-Opening and Slotted Drain the capacities for the two inlets except
Met Length for Total Interception", and that the frontal flow and thus inter-
Chart 10, "Curb-Opening and Slotted Drain ception capacity of the grate is reduced
Inlet Interception Efficiency" of Hydraulic by interception at the curb opening.
Engineering Circular No. 12 can be used to (6)Pipe Drop Inlets.
obtain interception capacities for various
longitudinal grades, cross slopes, and gutter (a) Wall Opening Intake. The standard
depressions. Charts for determining intake opening 0.6 m wide and 200 to
interception capacities under sump 300 mm deep provides a capacity of
conditions are also available in HEC No. approximately 0.17 m3/s when the
12. water surface is 0.3 m higher than the lip
(4) Grate Inlets. The grate inlet interception of the opening. Where the flow is from
capacity is equal to the sum of the frontal more than one direction, two or more
flow (flow over the grate) interception and standard openings may be provided.
the side flow interception. The frontal flow Higher capacity openings larger than
interception will constitute the major portion standard may be provided but are of a
of the grate interception. In general, grate special design.
inlets will intercept all of the frontal flow (b) Grate Intake. The choice between inlets
until a velocity is reached at which water be- with a round grate (Types GCP and
gins to splash over the grate. Charts GMP) and those with a rectangular grate
provided in HEC 12 can be used to compute (Type GI) hinges largely on hydraulic
grate interception capacities for the various efficiency. In a waterway where the
grates contained therein. Grate depressions greatest depth of flow is at the center,
will greatly increase inlet capacity. both grates are equally effective. In a
The HEC 12 charts neglect the effects of de- waterway where the cross slope
concentrates the flow on one side of the
a bris and clogging on inlet capacity. In some
localities inlet clogging from debris is
extensive, while in other locations clogging
grate, the rectangular shape is preferred.
For rectangular grates, the charts
contained in HEC 12 can be used to
is negligible. Local experience should
July 1,1995
compute flow intercept. Round grates where gutter grades exceed 2% and flow
(Type 900R) with 0.15 m of depression is in the opposite direction of traffic.
develop a capacity of 0.34 to 0.42 m3/s. (c) Roadside Gutter and Ditch Locations.
837.5 Local Depressions Regardless of type of intake, the
( 1 ) Purpose. A local depression is a paved opening of a drop inlet in a roadside
hollow in the waterway shaped to gutter or ditch should be depressed from
concentrate and direct the flow into the 100 to 150 mm below the flow line of
intake opening and increases the capacity of the waterway with 3 m of paved
the inlet. In a gutter bordered by a curb, it is transition upstream.
called a gutter depression. (d) Curb and Gutter Depressions. This type
of depression is carefully proportioned
(2) Requirements. Local depressions generally in length, width, depth, and shape. To
consist of a paved apron or transition of a best preserve the design shape,
shape which serves the purpose. Local construction normally is of concrete.
depressions should meet the following Further requirements for curb and gutter
requirements: depressions are:
(a) Valley Medians. In medians on a grade,
the depression should extend a minimum Length - As shown on Standard Plan
of 3 m upstream, 1.8 m downstream and D78.
1.8 m l;erally, measured from the edge
of the opening. In a grade sag, the Width - Normally 1.2 m, but for
depression should extend a minimum of wide flows or a series of closely
3 m on all sides. No median local spaced inlets, 1.8 m is authorized.
depression, however should be allowed Depth - Where traffic considerations
to encroach on the shoulder area. govern, the depth commonly used is
The normal depth of depression is 30 mm. Use the maximum of
100 mm. 80 mm wherever feasible at locations
where the resulting curb height
(b) Paved Gutter Flares. The local would not be objectionable.
depression which adjoins the outer edge
of shoulder at the entrance to overside (e) Type of Pavement. Local depressions
downdrains and spillways is labeled outside the roadbed are usually surfaced
"paved gutter" on Standard Plans D87-A with asphalt concrete 45 mm thick.
and D87-B. The flow line approaching (3) General Notes on Design. Except for traffk
the inlet is depressed to increase capacity safety reasons, a local depression is to be
and minimize water spread on the provided at every inlet even though the
roadbed. Within a flare length of 3 m waterway is unpaved. Where the size of in-
the gutter flow line is depressed a take opening is a question, a depression of
minimum of 0.15 m at the inlet. maximum depth should be considered
Recommended flare lengths for various before deciding on a larger opening. For
gutter flow line depression depths are traffic reasons, the gutter depression should
given on the Standard Plans. When be omitted in driveways and median curb
conditions warrant, these flare lengths and gutter installations.
mav be exceeded.
#.
Traffic safety should not be It is permissible to omit gutter depressions at

compromised for hydraulic efficiency. sump inlets where the width of flow does
Any change in the shape of the paved not exceed design water spread.
gutter flare that will result in a
depression within the shoulder area
should not be made. The Type 2
entrance taper and paved gutter flare is
intended for use on divided highways
e
July 1,1995
traveled way of highways. Depending upon

Topic 838 - Storm Drains local agency criteria, storm drains under the
traveled way of other streets and roads may
838.1 General be acceptable. A manhole or specially de-
signed junction structure is usually provided
The total drainage system which conveys runoff at changes in direction or grade and at loca-
from roadway areas to a positive outlet tions where two or more storm drains are
including gutters, ditches, inlet structures, and joined. Refer to Index 838.5 for further
pipe is generally referred to as a storm drain discussion on manholes and junction
system. In urban areas a highway storm drain structures.
often augments an existing or proposed local
drainage plan and should be compatible with the (2) Pipe Diameter. The minimum pipe diameter
local storm drain system. to be used is given in Table 838.4.
This section covers the hydraulic design of the (3) Slope. The minimum longitudinal slope
pipe or enclosed conduit portion of a storm should be such that when flowing half full,
drain system. a self cleaning velocity of one meter per
second is attained.
838.2 Design Criteria (4) Physical Properties. In general, the con-
To adequately estimate design storm discharges siderations which govern the selection of
for a storm drain system in urban areas culvert type apply to storm drain conduits.
involving street flooding it may be necessary to Alternative types of materials, overfill tables
route flows by using hydrograph methods. and other physical factors to be considered
Hydrographs are discussed under Index 816.5 in selecting storm drain conduit are
and further information on hydrograph methods discussed under Chapter 850.
may be found in Chapters 6 and 7 of HEC 19,
Hydrology. Table 838.4
838.3 Hydraulic Design
Minimum Pipe Diameter for
Closed conduits should be designed for the full Storm Drain Systems
flow condition. They may be allowed to operate
under pressure, provided the hydraulic gradient
is 0.25 m or more below the intake lip of any Type of Drain Minimum
inlet which may be affected. The energy Diameter (mm)
gradient should not rise above the lip of the
intake. Allowances should be made for energy Trunk Drain 450
losses at bends, junctions and transitions.
To determine the lowest outlet elevation for Trunk Laterals 375"'
drainage systems which discharge into leveed
channels or bodies of water affected by tides, Met Laterals 375"'
consideration should be given to the possibilities
of backwater. The effect of storm surges (e.g., (1) 450 minimum if wholly or partly under the roadbed.
winds and floods) should be considered in
addition to the predicted tide elevation.
Specific subjects for special consideration
Normally, special studies will be required to are:
determine the minimum discharge elevation
consistent with the design discharge of the Bedding and Backfill. Bedding and
facility. backfill consideration are discussed
under Index 829.2. Maximum height of
838.4 Standards cover tables are included in Chapter 850
@ ( I ) Location and Alignment. Longitudinal and minimum thickness of cover is
given in Table 854.8.
storm drains are not to be placed under the
July 1, 1995
Roughness Factor. The roughness preferred by the responsible authority or

factor, Manning's n value, generally owner is appropriate.
assumes greater importance for storm Commercial precast manhole shafts are
drain design than it does for culverts. effective and usually more economical
Suggested Manning's n values for than cast in place shafts. Brick or block
various types of pipe materials are given may also be used, but only upon request
in Table 851.2. and justification from the local agency or
(5) Storage. In developing the most economical owner.
installation, the designer should not (b) Location. Following are common loca-
overlook economies obtainable through the tions for manholes:
use of pipeline storage and, within allowable
limits, the ponding of water in gutters, Where two or more drains join,
medians and interchange areas. Inlet
capacity and spacing largely control surface At locations and spacing which
storage in gutters and medians; inlet capacity facilitate maintenance,
governs in sump areas. Where the drain changes in size,
(6)Floating Trash. Except at pumping in-
stallations, every effort should be made to At sharp curves or angle points in
carry all floating trash through the storm excess of 10 degrees,
drain system. Curb and wall opening inlets
are well suited for this purpose. In special Points where an abrupt flattening of
cases where it is necessary to exclude trash, the grade occurs, and
as in pumping installations, a standard trash On the smaller drains, at the down-
rack must be provided across all curb and
wall openings of tributary inlets. See the stream end of a sharp curve.
Standard Plans for details. Manholes are not required if the conduit
(7) Median Flow. In estimating the quantity of is large enough to kcommodate a man,
flow in the median, consideration should be unless spacing criteria govern.
given to the effects of trash, weeds, and Manholes should not be placed within
plantings. the traveled way. Exceptions are
frontage roads and city streets, but inter-
838.5 Appurtenant Structures section locations should be avoided.
( I ) Manholes. (c) Spacing. In general, the larger the storm
drain, the greater the manhole spacing.
(a) General Notes. The purpose of a man- For pipe diameter of 1200 rnrn or more,
hole is to provide access to a storm drain or other shapes of equal cross sectional
for inspection and maintenance. area, the manhole spacing ranges from
Manholes are usually constructed out of 200 m to 350 m. For diameters of less
cast in place concrete, pre-cast concrete, than 1200 mm, the spacing may vary
or corrugated metal pipe. They are from 100 m to 200 m. In the case of
usually circular and approximately three small drains where self-cleaning
or four feet in diameter to facilitate the velocities are unobtainable, the 100 m
movement of maintenance personnel. spacing should be used. With self-
There is no Caltrans Standard Plan for cleaning velocities and alignments
manholes. Relocation and without sharp curves, the distance
reconstruction of existing storm drain between manholes should be in the
facilities, owned by a city or county upper range of the above limits.
agency, is often necessary. Generally (d) Access Shaft. For drains less than
the local agency has adopted manhole 1200 rnm in diameter, the access shaft is
design standard for use on their to be centered over the drain. When the
facilities. Use of the manhole design drain diameter exceeds the shaft
July 1, 1995
diameter, the shaft should be offset and plished with long runs of pipe or continuing the
made tangent to one side of the pipe for depressed grade to a natural low area.
better location of the manhole steps. For Whenever possible, drainage originating outside
drains 1200 mm or more in diameter, the depressed areas should be excluded. District
where laterals enter from both sides of and Division Of Structures cooperation is
the manhole, the offset should be toward essential in the design of pumping stations,
the side of the smaller lateral. See tributary storm drains, and outfall facilities.
Standard Plan D93A for riser connection This is particularly true of submerged outlets,
details. outlets operating under pressure, and outlets of
(e) Arrangement of Laterals. To avoid un- unusual length.
necessary head losses, the flow from
laterals which discharge opposite each 839.2 Pump Type
other should converge at an angle in the Horizontal pumps in a dry location are generally
direction of flow. If conservation of specified for ease of access, safety, and
head is critical, a training wall should be standardization of replacement parts.
~rovided.
Only in special cases is stand-by power for
( 2 ) Junction Structures. A junction structure is pumping plants a viable consideration. All pro-
an underground chamber used to join two or posals for stand-by power are to be reviewed by
more conduits, but does not provide direct and coordinated with the Division of Structures.
access from the surface. It is designed to
prevent turbulence in the flow by providing 839.3 Design Responsibilities
a smooth transition. This type of structure
is usually needed only where the trunk drain When a pumping station is required, re-
is 1050 mm or more in diameter. Where sponsibility for design between the District and
required by spacing criteria, a manhole the Division of Structures is as follows:
@ should be used. ( I ) Districts. The District designs the collector
(3) Flap Gates. When necessary, backflow and the outfall facilities leading from the
protection should be provided in the form of chamber into which the pumps discharge.
flap gates. These gates offer negligible This applies to outfalls operating under
resistance to the release of water from the gravity and with a free outlet. Refer to
system and their effect upon the hydraulics Topic 838.
of the system may be neglected. Details of pumping stations supportive in-
If the outlet is subject to floating debris, a formation to be submitted by the District to
shelter should be provided to prevent the de- the Division of Structures is covered under
bris from clogging the flap gate. Where the Index 805.7 and Article 3-3.2 of the
failure of a flap gate to close would cause Drafting and Plans Manual.
serious damage, a manually controlled gate (2) Division of Structures. The Division of
in series should be considered for Structures will prepare the design and
emergencies. contract plans for the pumping station, the
storage box and appurtenant equipment,
Topic 839 - Pumping Stations considering the data and recommendations
submitted by the District.
839.1 General The Division of Structures will furnish the
Drainage disposal by pumping should be District a preliminary plan based on data
avoided where gravity drainage is reasonable. previously submitted by the District. It will
Because pumping installations have high initial show the work to be covered by the
cost, maintenance expense, power costs, and Division of Structures plans, including a
the possibility of failure during a storm, large specific location for the pumping plant and
@ expenditures can be justified for gravity
drainage. In some cases, this can be accom-
storage box, the average and maximum
pumping rates and the power required.
July 1.1995
839.4 Surface Inlets

Grate and combination inlets are used for
surface drainage. If conditions dictate the use of
a side opening inlet, a trash rack must be
provided. See Standard Plan D74B for trash
rack details.
Type GDO inlet is recommended for use in the
shoulder. Type GCP and GMP are rec-
ommended for use in the median. See Standard
Plans D74B and D75.
839.5 Maintenance Consideration
Access to the pumping plant location for both
maintenance personnel and maintenance vehicles
is generally provided by way of paved access
road or city street. One parking space minimum
is to be provided in the vicinity of the pumping
plant. An area light is generally provided when
it is determined that neither the highway lighting
or the street lighting is adequate. Access to the
pumping plant for maintenance from the top of
the cut slope generally consists of a stairway
located adjacent to the pumping plant. The
stairway generally extends from the top of cut
slope to the toe of cut slope. Access to the
pump control room should be through a vertical
doorway with the bottom above flood level, and
never through a hatch.
July 1,1995
can be obtained by analytical methods. Such

CHAPTER 840 methods, however, are usually cumbersome and
SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE unsatisfactory; field explorations will yield
better results.
Topic 841 - General 841.3 Preliminary Investigations
Field investigations may include:
-
Saturation of the structural section or underlying Soils, geological, and geophysical
foundation materials is a maior cause of studies.
"
premature pavement failures. Subsurface Borings, pits, or trenches to find the
drainage systems designed to rapidly remove elevation, depth, and extent of the
and prevent water from reaching the roadbed are aquifer.
discussed in this section.
The solution of subsurface drainage problems Inspection of cut slopes in the immediate
often calls for a knowledge of geology and the vicinity.
application of soil mechanics. This requires
close cooperation between the Project Engineer Measurement of groundwater discharge.
and the Materials Engineer. On major projects, Preliminary investigations should be as
assistance should be requested from the thorough as possible, recognizing that fwther
Engineering Service Center. In the case of information is sometimes uncovered during
subsurface drainage at bridge abutments, the construction. Where an existing road is part of
Division of Structures should be consulted new construction, the presence and origin of
where hydrostatic pressure is involved. groundwater is often known or easily detected.
The basis for design is the Materials Report. In Personnel responsible for maintenance of the
this report the District Materials Engineer in- existing road are an excellent source of such
cludes findings on subsurface conditions and information and should be consulted. Explo-
recommendations for design. rations, therefore, are likely to be lesser in scope
and cost than explorations for a project on new
There are many variables and uncertainties as to alignment. In slope stability questions, and
the actual subsurface conditions. In general, the other problems of equal importance, an
more obvious subsurface drainage problems can extensive knowledge of subsurface conditions is
be anticipated in design; the less obvious are required. The District should ask for the as-
frequently uncovered during construction. sistance of the Office of Structural Foundations
Extensive exploration may be required to obtain in the Engineering Service Center in such cases.
the design variables with reasonable accuracy.
For these reasons, many designs are based on 841.4 Exploration Notes
local experience and empirical rules which have
given satisfactory results. In general, explorations should be made during
the rainy season or after the melting of snow in
841.2 Subsurface (Groundwater) regions where snow cover is common. An
Discharge exception would be where seepage occurs from
irrigation sources.
Groundwater, as distinguished from capillary
water, is free water occurring in a zone of Groundwater difficulties frequently stem from
saturation below the ground surface. Subsurface water perched on an impermeable layer some
discharge, the rate at which groundwater and distance above the actual water table. Perched
infiltration water can be removed depends on the water problems can often be solved with
effective hydraulic head and on the permeability, horizontal drains. See Index 841.5.
depth, slope, thickness and extent bf the watir- Pumped water supply wells often give un-
bearing formation (the aquifer). The discharge reliable indications of the water table and such
data should be used with caution.
July 1,1995
841.5 Category of System

saturation of the roadbed. They may be
Depending upon the scope and complexity of used in varying lengths up to 300 m on
the problem, an appropriate solution may re- grades that range from 0 to 25 percent.
quire the installation of one or a combination of A collection system to remove the in-
different types of subsurface drainage systems. tercepted water from the area is generally
The type of subsurface drainage system initially also required.
considered is usually an underdrain.
An example of a horizontal drain system
The standard underdrain is the pipe underdrain. is illustrated on page C5-15 of the
A pipe underdrain consists of a perforated pipe Maintenance Manual.
near the bottom of a narrow trench lined with
filter fabric and backfilled with permeable Prejbbricated Geocomposite Drains.
material. Available in sheets or rolls,
Pipe underdrains are discussed in more detail geocomposite drains provide a cost
under Topic 842. effective solution to subsurface drainage
behind bridge abutments, wingwalls and
"French Drains" have proven to be unreliable retaining walls. Prefabricated
underdrains. A "French drain" consists of a subsurface drainage systems consist of a
trench backfilled with rock. They are not to be plastic drain core covered on one or both
used where a permanent solution is needed. sides with a filter fabric.
Exceptions may be made for special cases such
as where depth of the underdrain and soil con- Stabilization Trenches. This category of
ditions would conflict with industrial safety subsurface drainage system is
regulations. Under such circumstances a design constructed in swales, ravines, and
that includes a filter fabric liner and permeable under sidehill fills to stabilize water
material backfill, without the perforated pipe logged fill foundations. The Geotechni-
may be used. cal Design Report should contain depth
In addition to pipe underdrains, the following and width of trench recommendations.
special purpose categories of subsurface drains Stabilization trenches may be only a few
are used to intercept, collect, and discharge feet in width requiring a backhoe or sim-
groundwater. ilar type of excavation equipment, or
they may be large enough for earth
Structural Section and Edge Drains. moving equipment such as dozers and
Subsurface drainage systems that are scrapers to operate. Trenches wide
primarily designed for the rapid removal enough to permit the use of earth
of surface water infiltration from treated moving equipment should be considered
or untreated roadbed base materials are wherever feasible. A 1:1 side slope is
called structural section drains or edge commonly used.
drains. A 80 mm slotted plastic pipe The excavated trench, including the side
with 3 rows of slots is the standard for slopes, is covered with a thick blanket of
structural section drains. The design of permeable material. One or more
flexible pavement structural drains is perforated drain pipes, usually 200 to
discussed under Index 606.2 and rigid 300 mm in diameter, are placed at the
pavement edge drains are discussed bottom of the trench depending on the
under Index 606.3. quantity of groundwater, type of
material, and area to be stabilized.
Horizontal Drains. Horizontal drains are
40 mm perforated or slotted pipes placed The alignment of the trench and collector
in drilled holes bored into the aquifer or pipe are often made parallel to the high-
water bearing formations. They are in- way centerline. Conditions may be such
stalled in cut slopes and under fills more that trench alignment on a skew or with
to guard against slides by relieving tee, wye, or herringbone configurations
hydrostatic pressure than to prevent are a better design.
July 1,1995
9 Lining the trench with filter fabric is

recommended. The usual one meter or
is usually lined with filter fabric prior to
placement of the perforated pipe and permeable
more thickness of permeable material material backfill.
may be reduced and a less expensive Two standard cross sections for pipe un-
gradation may be specified if a filter derdrains are shown on Standard Plan D87-C.
fabric is used. Assistance in selecting The one with the permeable material carried to
filter fabric and permeable material the top of the grading plane is used under paved
specifications should be requested from areas. The other, with a topping of earth
the Geotechnical Branch or Geotextile backfill over the permeable material, is used
Unit of the Engineering Service Center. under unpaved areas.
Drainage Galleries. Drainage galleries
consist of a row or rows of closely 842.2 Single Installations
spaced wells 900 to 1200 mm in A single pipe underdrain is commonly used in
diameter bored with power augers to the these cases:
depth required to intercept the aquifer.
They are a variation of the stabilization Along the toe of a cut slope to intercept
trench principle and may afford a more seepage when slope stability is not a
cost effective solution under certain problem.
conditions.
Along the toe of a fill on the side from
Drainage galleries are a viable option which groundwater originates.
where the depth of the aquifer exceeds
the economical or practical limits for Across the roadway at the downhill end
open trench excavation. Because of of a cut.
a potential cave-ins or slides, open trench

excavation may not be practical.
The bottom of the bored wells should be
842.3 Multiple Installations
Multiple underdrain installations may be used in
interconnected and a suitable collector a herringbone or other effective pattern in
and outlet system must be provided. situations such as the following:
The wells may be interconnected by
belling out at the bottoms, tunneling Under the roadway structural section
between wells, drilled-in-place outlets, when a permeable blanket is required.
or horizontal drains.
To stabilize fill foundation areas.
The wells are backfilled with permeable
material. The Geotechnical Design Refer to Table 842.4 for a guide to selecting
Report should contain well spacing and depth and spacing of multiple pipe underdrain
depth recommendations. Assistance in installations.
selecting permeable material and other
specifications pertinent to drainage 842.4 Design Criteria
galleries should be requested from the
Office of Structural Foundations in the Size and Length. For pipe underdrains
Engineering Service Center. of 150 m or less in length, the standard
perforated pipe size is 150 mm in
diameter. As a rule, the 150 rnm
Topic 842 - Pipe Underdrains diameter is adequate for collectors and
laterals in most soils. For lengths
842.1 General exceeding 150 m, the minimum diameter
of pipe is 200 rnm.
As stated under Index 841.5, the standard
underdrain treatment is the perforated pipe un- &@ace Runoff. Surface drainage
derdrain. Pipe underdrain systems consist of a should be prevented from discharging
150 or 200 mm diameter perforated pipe placed into underdrain systems.
near the bottom of a narrow trench. The trench
July 1,1995
Outlets. Underdrain outlets should be because it is a minor part of the underdrain

investment.
@
provided at intervals of not more than
300 m. Pipes for underdrains may be made of metal,
concrete, clay, -asbestos cement or
Underdrain systems may be designed to bituminous fiber.
discharge directly into a storm drain or
culvert as long as the underdrain outlet is Following are the types of underdrain in-
not subjected to hydrostatic pressures stallations relative to conduit characteristics:
that could cause backflow damage. (a) Pegorated Pipe.
Cleanouts. Terminal and intermediate Metal Pipes. Perforated pipes of
risers may be placed for the convenience corrugated metal, steel or aluminum,
of the maintenance forces cleaning the are structurally acceptable for either
system. When practical, a terminal riser deep or shallow installations.
should be placed at the upper end of an
underdrain. Intermediate cleanout risers Nonmetallic. Perforated pipes of
may be placed at intervals of 150 m and corrugated plastic, bituminous fiber,
at sharp angle points greater than 10 clay, and asbestos cement are
degrees. satisfactory for use as longitudinal or
transverse underdrains.
The diameter of risers should be the
same as the pipe underdrain. Details of (b) Open Joint Pipes. Clay, concrete
underdrain risers are shown on Standard and porous concrete drain tile may
Plan D87-B. be laid with open joints. These
drains are effective where admission
Grade. If possible, pipe underdrains of excessive solids through the joints
should be placed on grades steeper than will be controlled. These pipes are
0.5 percent. Minimum grades of 0.2 not suitable for use in shallow in-
percent for laterals and 0.25 percent for stallations subjected to construction
mains are acceptable. traffic.
Depth and Spacing. The depth of the 842.6 Design Service Life
underdrain depends on the permeability
of the soil, the elevation of the water Refer to Chapter 850 for further discussion and
table, and the amount of drawdown criteria relative to design service life of pipe
needed to ensure stability. Whenever materials used in underdrain installations.
practicable, an underdrain pipe should Experience with underdrains has shown that
be set in the impervious zone below the they are not subject to corrosion in an en-
aquifer. vironment that lacks an adequate supply of air
and oxygen entrained in the water. Subsurface
Table 842.4 gives suggested depths and waters that may be inclined to be corrosive
spacing of underdrains according to soil chemically do not tend to become so as long as
types. It is only a guide and should not they are not exposed to oxygen. However, sub-
be considered a substitute for field surface water may become corrosive after it has
observations or local experience. surfaced and been exposed to oxygen. Fur-
thermore, there is evidence that indicates there is
842.5 Types of Underdrain Pipe little oxygen available in long lengths of the
The aim of any underdrain installation is long small diameter pipe normally used in a sub-
term effectiveness. This aim is associated with surface drainage system.
filtering ability, durability, strength, and cost of Although tests may indicate that corrosive salts
conduit, mainly in that order. In choosing are present in the soil solution, corrosion will
between pipes of different types, the key not take place without the presence of oxygen.
considerations are filtering ability and durability. Therefore, when it is anticipated that the
Pipe cost assumes secondary importance
July 1,1995
underdrain will be placed to intercept ground- The guide values contained in the tables
water under the above conditions, it will not be mentioned above may be modified where field
necessary to allow for metal pipe corrosion. observation of existing installations dictates.
When the above conditions do not prevail, the 842.7 Pipe Selection
design service life of metal pipe isAdetennined In cases where more than one material meets the
from pH and resistivity tests covered in foregoing requirements, alternatives should be
California Test 643. This information is shown specified on the basis of optional selection by
in the Materials Report. The design service life the contractor. The selection of a single type of
of steel pipe may be increased by a bituminous underdrain may be appropriate due to other
coating as indicated in Table 854.3A. related factors. This selection should be
supported by complete analysis of factors and
documentation placed on file in the District.
Table 842.4
Suggested Depth and Spacing of Pipe

Underdrains for Various Soil Types
a
-
Percent
Soil Composition
Percent Percent 1.00 m

Drain Spacing (m)
1.25m 1.50m 1.75 m

Soil Class Sand Silt Clay Deep Deep Deep Deep
Clean Sand 80- 100 0-20 0-20 35 - 45 45 - 60 -- --
Sandy Loam 50-80 0-50 0-20 15-30 30-45 -- --

Loam 30-50 30-50 0-20 9 - 18 12-24 15-30 18 - 36
Clay Loam 20-50 20-50 20-30 6 - 12 8 - 15 9 - 18 12 - 24
Sandy Clay 50-70 0-20 30-50 4-9 6 - 12 8 - 15 9 - 18
silty clay* 0-20 50-70 30-50 3-8 4-9 6 - 12 8 - 15
clay* 0-50 0-50 30-100 4(max) 6(max) 8(max) 12(max)
* Drainage blankets or stabilization trenches should be considered.

July 1, 1995
(3) Maintenance and ConstructionFactors.

CHAPTER 850 (a) Local experience.
(b) Accessibility of site.
Topic 851 - General (c) Construction conditions.

(4) Economy. Comparative cost should be
-
Index 851.1 Introduction weighed on a long-term basis considering
the factors given under Index 801.5.
This section deals with the selection of drainage
facility material size and type(s).
Topic 852 - Design Service Life
851.2 Selection of Material and Type
852.1 Basic Concepts
The choice of drainage facility material size and
type is based on the following factors: The prediction of design service life of drainage
facilities is difficult because of the large number
( I ) Physical and Structural Factors. Of the of variables, continuing changes in materials,
many physical and structural considerations, wide range of environments, and use of various
some of the most important are: protective coatings. The design service life of a
(a) Durability. drainage facility is defined as the expected
maintenance free service life of each installation.
(b) Headroom.
For corrugated metal pipe culverts (CMP),
(c) Earth Loads. maintenance free service life, with respect to
(d) Bedding Conditions. corrosion, abrasion and/or durability, is the
a (e) Conduit Rigidity.

(f) Impact.
number of years from installation until the
deterioration reaches the point of perforation at
any location on the culvert (See Figure 854.3B).
(g) Watertightness. For reinforced concrete pipe culverts (RCP),
maintenance free service life, with respect to
( 2 ) Hydraulic Factors. Hydraulic considera- corrosion, abrasion and/or durability, is the
tions involve: number of years from installation until the
(a) Design Discharge. deterioration reaches the point of exposed rein-
forcement at any point on the culvert.
(b) Shape, slope and cross sectional area of
channel. All types of culverts are subject to deterioration
from corrosion, abrasion, or both. Corrosion
(c) Velocity of approach. may result from active elements in the soil,
(d) Outlet velocity. water and/or atmosphere. Mechanical wear
depends upon the frequency, duration and
(e) Total available head. velocity of flow, and the amount and character
(f) Bedload. of bedload.
(g) Inlet and outlet conditions. To assure that the maintenance free service life
is achieved, alternative metal pipe may require
(h) Slope. added thickness and/or protective coatings.
(i) Smoothness of conduit. Concrete pipe may require extra thickness of
concrete cover over the steel reinforcement, high
(j) Length. density concrete, and/or protective coatings.
Suggested values for Manning's Roughness Means for estimating the maintenance free
coefficient (n) for design purposes are given service life of pipe, and techniques for ex-
a in Table 851.2 for each type of conduit. See

Index 864.3 for use of Manning's formula.
tending the useful life of pipe materials are
discussed in more detail in Topic 854.
Table 851.2
Manning N-Value for Alternative
Pipe ~ a t e r i a l d ' )
Type of Recommended N-Value

Conduit Design Value Range
Corrugated Metal Pipe Q,
(Annular and Helical) '3)

68mmx 13mm corrugation
76mmx25mm I!
125mmx25mm I1
152mmx51 mm I1
229mmx64mm It
Concrete Pipe
Pre-cast
Cast-in-place
Concrete Box
Plastic Pipe
Smooth Interior
Corrugated Interior
Spiral Rib Metal Pipe
19mm(W)x25 mm(D) @ 292mmolc
19mm(W)x 19mm(D) @ 191 mmolc
Steel Pipe, Ungalvanized
Cast Iron Pipe
Clay Sewer Pipe
(1) Tabulated n-values apply to circular pipes flowing full. For noncircular or partially full conduits the tabulated values may
be modified as shown in Appendix B of HDS No. 5, Hydraulic Desin of
(2) For lined corrugated metal pipe, a composite roughness coefficient may be computed using the procedures outlined in the
HDS No. 5,w va- Culver&.
(3) Lower n-values may be possible for helical pipe under specific flow conditions (refer to FHWA's publication
Pow F b h h w e Factors for Corrugated M ,-et but in general, it is recommended that the tabulated n-value be
used for both annular and helical corrugated pipes.
July 1, 1995
The design service life for drainage facilities for (I) Allowable Alternatives. A table of allowable
all projects should be as follows: alternative materials for culverts, drainage
systems, overside drains, and subsurface
(I) Culverts, Drainage Systems, and Side drains is included as Table 853.1A. This
Drains. table also identifies the various joint types
(a) Roadbed widths greater than 8.4 m - 50 described in Index 853.1(2) that should be
years. used for the different types of installations.
(b) Greater than 3 m of cover - 50 years. (2) Joint Requirements. The Standard
Specifications set forth general performance
(c) Roadbed widths 8.4 m or less and with requirements for transverse field joints in all
less than 3 m of cover - 25 years. types of culvert and drainage pipe used for
(d) Installations under interim alignment - highway construction, such as corrugated
25 years. metal pipe, and reinforced and plain concrete
pipe.
(2) Overside Drains.
Table 853.1A indicates the alternative types of
(a) Buried more than one meter - 50 years. joints that are available for different arch and
(b) All other conditions, such as on the sur- pipe installations. The two joint types specified
face of fill slopes - 25 years. for culvert and drainage systems are identified
as "standard" and "positive".
(3) Subsutface Drains.
The type of joint required for a particular
(a) Underdrains within roadbed - 50 years. installation is to be designated on the culvert list.
(b) Underdrains outside of roadbed - 25 (a) Standard Joints. The "standard" joint is
years. usually for pipes or arches not subject to
a (c) Stabilization trench drains - 50 years.
In case of conflict in the design service life
large soil movement or disjointing
forces. These "standard" joints are
satisfactory for ordinarily installations,
requirements between the above controls, where tongue and groove or simple slip
the highest design service life is required ex- type joints are typically used. The
cept for those cases of interim alignment "standard" joint type is generally
with more than 3 m of cover. For adequate for underdrains.
temporary construction, a lesser design
service life than that shown above is (b) Positive Joints. "Positive" joints are for
acceptable. more adverse conditions such as the
need to withstand soil movements or
Where the above indicates a minimum resist disjointing forces. Examples of
design service life of 25 years, 50 years may these conditions are steep slopes, sharp
be used. For example an anticipated change curves, and poor foundation conditions.
in traffic conditions or when the highway is (See Index 829.2 for additional
considered to be on permanent alignment discussion.) "Positive" joints should
may warrant the higher design service life. always be designated on the culvert list
for siphon installations.
Topic 853 - Alternate Materials (c) Downdrain Joints. Pipe "downdrain"
joints are designed to withstand high
853.1 Basic Policy velocity flows, and to prevent leaking
When two or more materials meet the design and disjointing that could cause failure.
service life, and structural and hydraulic (d) Joint Properties. A description of the
requirements, the plans and specifications must specified joint properties tabulated in
provide for alternative pipes, pipe arches, Table 853.1B is as follows:
overside drains, and underdrains to allow for
optional selection by the contractor. Shear Strength. The shear strength
required of the joint is expressed as
July 1,1995
Table 853.1A
Allowable Alternate Materials
Type of Service Joint Type

Installation Life Allowable Alternatives Standard Positive Downdrain
(yrs)
Culverts & Drainage 50 ASRP, CAP, CASP, CIPCP, CSP, X X --
Systems SAPP, SSPP, SSRP, RCP, RCB, PPC
Overside Drains 50 CAP, CASP, CSP -- -- X
Underdrains 50 CDT, CLDT, PAP, PCLP, PCP, PSP, X -- --
PPET, PPVCP
Arches (Culverts & 50 CAPA, CSPA, RCA, SAPPA, SSPPA, X X --
Drainage Systems) SSPA
LEGEM)
ASRP - Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe PPVCP - Perforated Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe
CAP - Corrugated Aluminum Pipe PSP - Perforated Steel Pipe
CAPA - Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arch RCA - Reinforced Concrete Arch
CASP - Corrugated Aluminized Steel Pipe, Type 2 RCB - Reinforced Concrete Box
CDT - Concrete Drain Tile RCP - Reinforced Concrete Pipe
CIPCP - Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe SAPP - Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe
CLDT - Clay Drain Tile SAPPA - Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arch
CSP - Corrugated Steel Pipe SSPA - Structural Steel Plate Arch
CSPA - Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch SSPP - Structural Steel Plate Pipe
PAP - Perforated Aluminum Pipe SSPPA - Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arch
PCLP - Perforated Clay Pipe SSRP - Steel Spiral Rib Pipe
PCP - Perforated Concrete Pipe X - Permissible Joint Type for the Type
PPC - Plastic Pipe Culvert of installation Indicated
PPET - Perforated Polyethylene Tubing
July 1,1995
Table 853.1 B
Culvert Joint Property
Requirements
Joint Property Standard Positive Downdrain

Shear Property 2% 5% 5%
Moment Strength 0% 15% 15%
Tensile Strength
(150 mm - 1050 mm dim.) 0 0 22,500 N
(1200mm - 2100mmdiam.) 0 0 45,000 N
Joint Overlap
Integral - (300 mm - 825 mm diam.) 13 mm Min. 19 mm Min. Not Required
(400 mm - 2700 mm dim.) 19 mm Min. 25 mm Min. Not Required
Sleeve-min. width 265 mm 265 mm 265 rnm
NOTE: Refer to Standard Specifications, Section 61, Culvert and Drainage Pipe Joints.
e
July 1,1995
a percentage of the calculated shear type. The characteristics of the joint

strength of the pipe at a transverse to provide for soiltightness are
section remote from the joint. All generally satisfied by other
joints, including any connections performance requirements.
must be capable of transferring the (3) Design Service Life. Each pipe type se-
required shear across the joint. lected as an alternative must have the ap-
Moment Strength. The moment propriate protection as outlined in Topic 854
strength required of the joint is ex- to assure that it will meet the design service
pressed as a percent of the calculated life requirements specified in Topic 852.
moment capacity of the pipe on a The maximum height of cover must be in
transverse section remote from the accordance with the tables included in Topic
joint. 854.
Tensile Strength. The tensile (4) Selection of a Specijic Material Type. In the
strength is that which resist the cases listed below, the selection of a specific
longitudinal force which tends to culvert material must be supported by a
separate (disjoint) adjacent pipe complete analysis based on the foregoing
sections. factors. All pertinent documentation should
Joint Overlap. be placed on file in the District.
(e) Integral Preformed Joint. The Joint Where satisfactory performance for a life
overlap is the amount of protection of expectancy of 25 or 50 years, as defined
one culvert barrel into the adjacent under design service life, cannot be
culvert barrel by the amount specified obtained with certain materials by reason
for the size of pipe designated. of highly corrosive conditions, severe
abrasive conditions, or critical structural
Any part of an installed joint that has and construction requirements.
less than 6 mm overlap will be consid-
ered disjointed. Whenever the plans For individual drainage systems such as
require that the culvert be constructed on roadway drainage systems or culverts
a curve, specially manufactured sections which operate under hydrostatic
of culvert will be required if the design pressure or culverts governed by
joint cannot meet the minimum 6 mrn hydraulic considerations and which
overlap requirement after the culvert would require separate design for each
section is placed on the specified curve. culvert type.
(f) Sleeve Joints. The joint overlap is the When alterations or extensions of
minimum sleeve width required to existing systems are required, the culvert
engage both the culvert barrels which are type may be selected to match the type
abutted to each other. used in the existing system.
Watertightness. Watertightness may 853.2 Alternative Selection

be specified for joints of any Each alternative material selected for a drainage
category where needed to satisfy facility must provide the required design service
other criteria. Where specified, the life based on physical and structural factors, be
maximum leakage rate must not be of adequate size to satisfy the hydraulic design,
exceeded. The leakage rate may be and require the minimum of maintenance and
measured with the pipe in place or at construction cost for each site condition.
the manufacturer's facility.
Soiltightness. Soiltightnessrefers to
the ability of the joint to resist soil
migration. The amount of soil
migration is dependent on size of
openings, velocity of flow, and soil
July 1, 1995
853.3 Alternative Pipe Culvert List factor to use for various ranges of sulfate
concentrations in soil and water. California
Table 853.3 shows a method of designating the Test 532 is useful for anticipating the effect
type of material, size, class, thickness, chlorides in the environment have on the
protection, etc., for each type of allowable time to corrosion of the embedded steel. In
material. A similar table should be included in addition to the protective measures noted
the plans adjacent to the drainage list when above, the following measures increase the
alternative materials are allowed. Because of durability of reinforced concrete culverts.
the difference in roughness coefficients between (a) Cover Over Reinforcing Steel.
various materials, it may be necessary to specify Additional cover over the reinforcing
a different size for each allowable material at any steel should be specified where
one location. In this event, it is recommended abrasion is likely to be so severe as to
that the material with the smallest dimension be appreciably shorten the design service
listed as the alternative size. Refer to Drafting life of a concrete culvert. This extra
and Plans Manual for standard format to be thickness is also warranted under
used. exposure to corrosive envionments.
There may be situations where there is a Extra cover over the reinforcing steel
different set of alternatives for the same nominal does not necessarily require extra wall
size of alternative drainage facilities. In this thickness, as it may be possible to
case the different sets of the same nominal size provide the additional cover and still
should be further identified by different types, obtain the specified D-load with standard
for example, 450 mrn alternative pipe culvert wall thicknesses. Refer to Topic 8.22 of
(Type A), 450 mm alternative pipe culvert (Type the Bridge Design Specifications Manual
B), etc. No attempt to correlate type designation for minimum concrete cover for
between projects is necessary. The first reinforcing steel.
alternative combination for each culvert size on (b) Density. High density concrete pipe as
each project should be designated as Type A, achieved by spinning or other process
second as Type B, etc. should be considered under exposure to
Since the available nominal sizes for pipe arches salt air, salt water, or other highly corro-
vary slightly between pipe arch materials, it is sive locations.
recommended that the listed alternative pipe arch (2) Strength Requirements.
sizes conform to those sizes shown for
cormgated steel pipe arches shown on Table (a) Design Standards. The strength of rein-
854.3E. The designer should verify the forced concrete pipe is determined by the
availability of reinforced concrete pipe arches. load to produce a 0.3 mm crack under
If reinforced concrete pipe arches are not avail- the 3-edge bearing test called for in
able, oval shaped reinforced concrete pipe of a AASHTO Designations M 170M,
size necessary to meet the hydraulic require- M 207M, and M 206M for circular
ments may be used as an alternative. reinforced pipe, oval shaped reinforced
pipe, and reinforced concrete pipe
-
Topic 854 Kinds of Pipe arches, respectively.
(b) Height of Fill. Table 854.1C gives the
Culverts
maximum height of overfill for
854.1 Reinforced Concrete Pipe reinforced concrete pipe, up to and
including 2700 mm diameters (or
( I ) Durability. The durability of reinforced reinforced oval pipe and reinforced
concrete pipe can be affected by acids, concrete pipe arch with equivalent cross-
chlorides and sulfate concentrations in the sectional area), using the backfill method
soil and water. Table 854.1A indicates the specified in Standard Specification
limitation on the use of concrete by acidity Section 19-3.06, Structure Backfill,
of soil and water. Table 854.1B is a guide which is referred to as "Method A
for designating type of cement and cement Backfill" in Table 854.1C. Any plan to
July 1,1995
Table 853.3
Example Listing of Alternative Pipe

Culverts and Pipe Arch Culverts
ALLOWABLE PIPE MATERIAL AND PROTECTION
RCP(~) CSP CAP RCB

Designation Size Size Thick Bitum. Bitum. Size Thick Bitum. Bitum. Span X Max.
(mm) (mm) (mm) Coating Coat (mm) (mm) Coating Coat Ht. Cover
Pav'd Pav'd In (m) (m)
Inv.
450 mm Alt. 450 450 1.6 No No 450 1.5 No No -- --
Pipe (Type A)
450 mm Alt. 450 600 1.6 Yes No 600 1.5 No No -- --
Pipe (Type B)
600 mm Alt. 600 600 1.6 No No 600 1.5 No No -- --
Pipe (Type A)
600mmAlt 600 750 2.0 Yes Yes -- -- -- -- -- --
Pipe (Type B)
600 mm Alt. -- 600 2.8 No No 600 3.4 No No -- --
pipe (Type C)
900 mm Alt. 900 1050 2.8 Yes Yes 1050 3.4 No No -- --
Pipe (Type A)
900 mm Alt. 900 900 2.0 Yes No 900 2.7 No No -- --
Pipe (Type B)
1200 mm Alt. 1200 1200 2.0 No No 1200 2.7 No No -- --
Pipe (Type A)
1200 mm Alt. 1200 1350 2.8 Yes Yes 1350 3.4 No No -- --
Pipe ( S p e B)
1225 mm x -- 1225x 2.0 Yes No 1225 1.9 No No -- --
825 mm 825 x 825
Alternate Pipe
Arch
1500 rnm Alt. 1500 1650 2.0 No No -- -- -- -- -- --
Pipe (Type A)
1950 mm Alt. 1950 125 x 25 2.8 No No -- -- -- --
Pipe (Type B) 1950 1.8 x 1.8 6
1950 76x25 2.0 No No -- -- -- --
(1) See Standard Plan A62D for RCP strength classification and method of backfill.
(2) Coupler Type must be shown on Culvert List. (S=Standard, P=Positive, D=Downdrain)
July 1, 1995
Table 854.1A
Limitation on Use of Concrete

Pipe by Acidity of Soil and Water
Acidity pH Remarks
Use reinforced concrete pipe with extra cover

or a protective coating(2)
NOTE:
(1) If soil and/or water have a pH less than 5.5, cast-in-place pipe should not be used.
(2) Consult METS Concrete Branch.
Table 854.18
Guide for Sulfate Resisting Concrete

Pipe and Other Concrete Drainage
Structures(1)
Water-Soluble Sulfate Sulfate in Water

in Soil Sample(2) Sample(2)(Parts Type of Cement Cement Factor
(Percent) per W o n )
0-0.20 0-2000 I1 Modified Minimum required by Specifications
V Minimum required by Specifications
I1 Modified 400 kglm3
V Minimum required by Specifications
11 Modified 400 kglm3, w/c of 0.40 or less,
Over 1.50 Over 15000 V 400 kglm3, w/c of 0.40 or less, AE(3)
NOTE:
(1) Recommended measures for type and amount of cement based on analysis of sulfate content in soil
and water.
(2) Reported as SO4.
(3) Air-Entrainment, air content 5% +/- 1%.
Table 854.1C
Strength and Uses of Reinforced

Concrete Pipe for Diameters from
300 mm to 2700 mm
-
MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF COVER (Meters)
lass") of Pipe cracking(') Ultimate

D-Load D-Load Method A Backfill
NOTES :
(1) Conforms to AASHTO Designation M-170M.
(2) Special strength-cracking D-load.
(3) Interpolated or extrapolated.
(4) Cover heights exceeding tabular values are considered a special design.
(5) Standard Backfill Methods and pipe strength classifications are governed by the tables in
Standard Plan A62-D.
July 1,1995
@ utilize any other culvert backfill method

that varies from the suecified Method A
have been discontinued by West Coast
manufacturers.
backfii must be submitted to the In general, the circular shaped is the most
Division of Structures for an evaluation economical for the same cross-sectional
of the structural adequacy of the area. Oval shapes are appropriate for areas
proposed installation. Table 854.1C with limited head or overfill or where these
tabulates the same data given in the shapes are more appropriate for site
Standard Plan A62-D, E and F. It is conditions. A convenient reference to
included here to give the designer an un- commercially available products and shapes
derstanding of the basis for the tables is the AASHTO publication, "A Guide to
shown in the Standard Plan referred to Standardized Highway Drainage Products".
above.
The designer should be aware of the (4) Invert Protection. Invert protection should
premises on which the table is computed be considered for culverts exposed to
as well as its limitations. Table 854.1C excessive wear from abrasive flows.
presupposes: Continued maintenance can be expected if
the culvert is not adequately designed for
That the bedding and backfill satisfy severe abrasion. When severe abrasion is
the terms of the Standard specifica- anticipated, special designs should be
tions, the conditions of cover and investigated and considered. Higher initial
pipe size required by the plans, and costs can probably be justified on the basis it
take into account the essentials of would be more economical than later repair
Index 829.2. or replacement costs. Typical invert
protection includes increased wall thickness,
That a small amount of settlement invert paving with portland cement concrete
e will occur under the culvert equal in
magnitude to that of the adjoining
material outside the trench.
with wire mesh reinforcement, and invert
lining with metal plate, channel iron, or
rails. Invert linings should cover the lower
fourth of the periphery of circular pipes, and
Subexcavation and backfill as the lower third of pipe arches.
required by the Standard (5) Non-Reinforced Concrete Pipe Option.
Specifications where unyielding Non-reinforced concrete pipe may be substi-
foundation material is encountered. tuted at the contractors option for reinforced
(c) Special Designs. concrete pipe for all sizes 900 mm in diame-
ter and smaller as long as it conforms to
If the height of overfill exceeds the Section 65 of the Standard Specifications.
tabular values a special design is
required; see Index 829.2. (6)Direct Design Method - RCP. (Contact
Division of Structures)
Where severe abrasion or wear from
high velocity is anticipated, at least 854.2 Cast-in-Place Non-reinforced
50 mm of cover over the reinforcing Concrete Pipe
steel must be specified by special (1) Design Criteria
provision. Specifying thick wall
pipe will not assure 50 mm of cover (a) Use of cast-in-place concrete pipe
over the steel. should not be considered when an
unstable trench condition occurs; for
In corrosive environments, consid- example, it should not be installed under
eration must be given to the the following conditions.
requirements of Index 854.1(1).
Sandy and cohesionless soil.
(3) Shapes. Reinforced concrete culverts are
@ available in circular and oval shapes. Re-
inforced concrete pipe arch (RCPA) shapes
July 1,1995
Shallow location in expansive soil

where the volume change would Table 854.2
crack h e .
Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe
Areas where ground is subject to
freezing to considerable depths for Fill Height Table
lengthy periods.
Marshy, tidal areas and other areas
of subsidence or differential Inside Min. Wall Maximum Fill Height
settlement. Dia. Thickness (m)
(mm) (mm)
Locations near geologic faults or
where potential for liquefaction
exists.
(b) Cover between top of pipe and ground
surface should be at least 0.75 m, or 0.6
m below the grading plane. In
expansive soils, cover should be a
minimum of one meter. Some special
treatment may be needed in expansive
soil, depending on moisture content.
(c) Cast-in-place concrete pipe may be used
only if static head is intermittent and less
than 3.5 m above center of pipe, and
some leakage is acceptable.
(d) Installation under any State Highway
Roadbed is only permissible with
FHWA andlor headquarters and the
Division of Structures approval.
Installations outside the roadbed are
permissible, but the possibility of future
widenings should be considered prior to 854.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe and Pipe
finalizing the culvert location. Arches
(e) A guide to the type of cement and ce- ( I ) Durability. The anticipated maintenance free
ment factor to be used with various service life, with respect to corrosion, of
ranges of sulfate concentrations in the corrugated steel pipe and pipe arch installa-
soil and water are shown in Table tions must be determined from the pH and
854.1B. See Table 854.1A for resistivity test covered in California Test
limitations of use due to soil and water 643. Refer to Topic 852.1 for a discussion
acidity. of maintenance free service life.
(2) Height of Fill. The maximum allowable Consideration should be given to specifying
height of cover for cast-in-place concrete alternative designs when it is possible to
pipe is given in Table 854.2. The designer achieve the required design service life by
should review Standard Plan A62-D for either increasing the metal thickness or by
guidance in using Table 854.2. using protective coatings.
The following measures are commonly used
to prolong the maintenance free service life
of metal culverts:
July 1,1995
e (a) Plain Galvanizing. Under most condi-

tions plain galvanizing of steel pipe is
Table 854.3A
all that is needed, however, the presence
of corrosive or abrasive elements may Guide for Anticipated Service
require additional protection. Life Added to Steel Pipe by
Protective Coating
Extra Metal Thickness. Added
service life can be achieved by
adding metal thickness. Since
1.3 rnrn thick steel culverts is the Flow Channel Bituminous Bituminous
Vel. Materials Coating Coating &
minimum steel pipe Caltrans allows, (yrs.) Paved Invert
it must be limited to locations that are (yrs.1
nonabrasive.
4.5 Abrasive 6 15
Protective Coatings - The necessity
for a bituminous coating should be Non-Abrasive 8 15
determined considering hydraulic 15 2 . 0 Abrasive 6 12
conditions, local experience, and
long-term economy. However, a Non-Abrasive 8 15
bituminous coating combined with
galvanizing of steel is usually most >2.0 Abrasive 0 5
effective in forestalling accelerated Non-Abrasive 2 10
corrosion on the backfi side of the
pipe. This type of exterior coating,
under the right conditions, may add The designer should be aware of the fol-
up to 25 years of service life. The lowing limitations when using Table
0 Standard Specifications permit
asphalt mastic or polymeric coatings
854.3A:
to be substituted for bituminous Channel Materials: If there is no
coating. Normally, these coatings existing culvert, it may be assumed
have a heavier or thicker coat on one that the channel is potentially
side of the pipe and a lighter or no abrasive to culvert if sand andfor
coat on the other side. The Standard rocks are present. Presence of silt,
Specifications further direct that clay or heavy vegetation may indi-
these coatings shall be placed on the cate a non-abrasive flow. For
outside surface of the pipe and the continuous flow, the years of invert
inside need not be coated. If protection can be expected to be one-
conditions at the culvert site reauire a half of that shown.
lining on the inside of the pi& or a Asphalt mastic or polymeric coatings
coating different than that indicated are acceptable alternatives for
in the Standard Specifications, then bituminous coatings for non-
the different requirements must be abrasive flow condition on the inside
described in the Special Provisions. of the culvert. Under these cir-
Table 854.3A constitutes a guide for cumstances, a special provision will
estimating the added service life that can be required to specify this
be achieved by bituminous coatings and alternative.
invert paving for steel pipes. The guide (b) Aid Steel (Type 2). For pH
values for years of added service life values between 5.5 and 8.5, and
should be modified where field observa- minimum resistivity greater than 3000
tions of existing installations show that ohm-cm, the use of aluminized steel
other values are more accurate. (type 2) will provide a design service life
equal to that of the next size thicker
metal than galvanized steel (i.e., 1.3 mrn
July 1,1995
aluminized steel will have a life equal to arches are available in 68 rnrn x
1.6 mm galvanized steel). For the same 13 mm profiles with helical and
pH range and minimum resistivity annular corrugations.
between 1500 and 3000 ohm-cm,
aluminized steel (type 2) is considered to Metal Thickness - Corrugated steel
have a design service life equivalent to pipe and pipe arches are available in
galvanized steel. For pH ranges outside the thickness as indicated on Tables
the 5.5 and 8.5 limits or minimum 854.3B, C, D & E. Where a
resistivity below 1500 ohm-cm, maximum overfill is not listed on
aluminized steel (type 2) should not be these tables, the pipe or arch size is
used. In no case should the thickness of not normally available in that
aluminized steel (type 2) be less than the thickness.
minimum struct&'ai requirements for a Height of Fill - The allowable
given diameter of galvanized steel. overfill heights for corrugated steel
Figure 854.3B should be used to determine pipe and pipe arches for the various
the minimum thickness and limitation on the diameters or arch sizes and metal
use of corrugated metal pipe for various thickness are shown on Tables
levels of pH and minimum resistivity. For 854.3B, C, D & E.
example, given a soil environment with pH (b) Basic Premise. To properly use the
and minimum resistivity levels of 6.5 and above mentioned tables, the designer
15,000 ohm-cm, respectively, the minimum should be aware of the premises on
thicknesses for the various metal pipes are: which the tables are based as well as
1) 2.8 mm galvanized steel, 2) 2.0 mm their limitations. The design tables
aluminized steel (type 2) and 3) 1.5 rnrn presuppose:
aluminum. The minimum thickness of metal
pipe obtained from the figure only satisfies That bedding and backfill satisfy the
corrosion requirements. Overfill require- terms of the Standard Specifications,
ments for minimum metal thickness must the conditions of cover, and pipe
also be satisfied. The metal thickness of size required by the plans and the
corrugated pipe that satisfies both essentials of Index 829.2.
requirements should be used. That a small amount of settlement
The CULVERT3 (4- 16-94) Computer will occur under the culvert, equal in
Program is also available to help designers magnitude to that of the adjoining
estimate service life for various corrosive/ material outside the trench.
abrasive conditions. This program can be (c) Limitations. In using the tables, the fol-
obtained from the District Hydraulics lowing restrictions must be kept in
Engineer. mind.
(2) Strength Requirements. The strength The values given for each size of
requirements for corrugated steel pipes and pipe constitute the maximum height
pipe arches, fabricated under acceptable of overfill or cover over the pipe for
methods contained in the Standard the thickness of metal and kind of
Specifications, are given in Tables 854.3B, corrugation.
C, D, & E.
(a) Design Standards. The thickness shown is the structural
minimum. Where abrasive condi-
Corrugation Profiles - Corrugated tions are anticipated, additional metal
steel pipe is available in 68 mm x thickness or a paved invert as stated
13 mm, 76mm x 25 mm, and under Index 854.3(4) should be
125 mm x 25 mm profiles with provided when required to fulfill the
helical corrugations, and 68 mm x design service life requirements of
13 mm profiles with annular Topic 852.
corrugations. Corrugated steel pipe
July 1,1995
Figure 854.3B
Minimum Thickness of Metal Pipe
for 50 Year Maintenance Free Service Life
I ' I I I I
I I
I Required
I I I I I
3 4 5 5m5 6 7 7.3 g 8.5 9 10
pH
Notes: 1. For pH and minlmum resistivity levels not shown refer to California Test 643.
2. Refer to CULVERT 3 computer program for service life estimate due to various
corrosive conditions.
July 1, 1995
0
steel and a 229 mm x 64 mm Where needed, adequate provisions , ,
corrugation profile for aluminum. for corrosion resistance must be
Metal Thickness - structural plate made to achieve the required design
pipe and pipe arches are available in service life called for in the
thickness as indicated on Tables references mentioned herein.
Tables 854.6B & D show the limit
Height of Fill - The allowable height of heights of cover for structural
of cover over structural plate pipe plate arches based on the supporting
and pipe arches for the available soil sustaining a bearing pressure
diameters and thickness are shown of 285 Wm2at the corners.
on Tables 854.6A, B, C & D. (d) Special Designs. If the height of overfill
Where a maximum overfill is not listed exceeds the tabular values, or if the
on these tables, the pipe or arch size is foundation investigation reveals that the
not normally available in that thickness. supporting soil will not develop the
bearing pressure on which the overfill
(b) Basic Premise. To properly use the heights for structural plate pipe or pipe
above mentioned tables, the designer arches are based, a special design
should be aware of the premises on prepared by the Division of Structures is
which the tables are based as well as required.
their limitations. The design tables
presuppose: (3)Arches. Design details with maximum
allowable overfills for structural plate
That bedding and backfill satisfy the arches, with cast in place concrete footings
terms of the Standard Specifications, may be obtained from the Division of
the conditions of cover, and pipe or Structures. w
arch size required by the plans and (4) Vehicular Underpasses. Design &tails with
the essentials of Index 829.2. maximum allowable overfills for structural
That a small amount of settlement plate vehicular underpasses with spans from
will occur under the culvert, equal in 3708 mm to 6198 mm,inclusive, are given
magnitude to that of the adjoining in the Standard Plans. These designs are
material outside the trench. based on bearing soil pressures from 135 to
555 wlm2.
(c) Limitations. In using the tables, the fol-
lowing restrictions should be kept in (5) Special Shapes.
mind. (a) Long Span. (Text Later)
The values given for each size of Arch
structural plate pipe or arch
constitute the maximum height of Low Profile Arch
overfill or cover over the pipe or High Profile Arch
arch for the thickness of metal and
kind of corrugation. (b) Ellipse. (Text Later)
The thickness shown is the structural Vertical

minimum. For steel pipe or pipe Horizontal
arches, where abrasive conditions
--
are anticipated, additional metal (c) Inverted Box. (Text Later)
thickness or a paved invert should be (d) Box. (Text Later)
provided when required to fulfill the
design service life requirements. (6) Tunnel Liner Plate.
The Division of Structures will prepare
designs upon request.
July 1,1995
Table 854.38
Corrugated Steel Pipe

Helical Corrugations
MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF COVER (m)

Diameter Metal Thickness (rnm)
(mm)
1.3 1.6 2.0 2.8 3.5 4.3
68 rnm x 13 mm Corrugations
2100 - - - - - 18.0
76 mm x 25 mrn Corruaations
NOTE:
(1) When flow velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions, thicker metal may be required.
July 1.1995
Table 854.3C

Helical Corrugations

Metal Thickness (mm)
Diameter (rnm)
1.6 2.0 2.8 3.5
1200 13.0 16.0 23.0 --
NOTE:
(1) When flow velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions, thicker metal may
be required.
July 1, 1995
A
Table 854.3D

68 mm x 13 mm Annular Corrugations

Diameter (mm) Metal Thickness (rnm)
1.6 2.0 2.8 3.5 4.3
450 16.5 -- -- -- --
525 14.5 -- -- -- --
600 12.5 13.5 -- -- --
750 10.0 10.5 -- -- --
900 8 .O 9.0 11.5 -- --
NOTE:
(1) When flow velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions, thicker metal may be required.
July 1,1995
Table 854.5A
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe

19 mm x 25 mm Ribs at 292 mm Pitch
Diameter (mm) Metal Thickness (rnrn)

1.6 2.0 2.8
600 13.5 17.0 24.0
750 11.0 13.5 19.0
900 9.0 11.5 16.0
1050 8.0 10.0 13.5
1200 6.5 8.5 12.0
1350 6.0 7.5 10.5
1500 5.5 6.5 9.5
1650 -- 6.0 8.5
1800 -- 5.5 8.0
w
NOTES:
(1) When flow velocity exceeds 1.5 mIs under abrasive conditions, thicker metal may be required.
(2) Plans for proposed use of pipe diameters greater than 1800 mm must be submitted to the Office of
Project Planning & Design for review and approval.
July 1,1995
Table 854.5B
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe


Diameter (mm) Metal Thickness (mm)
1.6 2.0 2.8
600 13.5 17.5 24.0
750 11.0 13.5 19.0
900 9.0 11.5 16.0
1050 8.O 10.0 13.5
1200 6.5 8.5 12.0
1350 6.0 7.5 10.5
1500 -- 6.5 9.5
1650 -- -- 8.5
1800 -- -- 8.0
NOTES:
@ (1) When flow velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions, thicker metal may be required.
(2) Plans for proposed use of pipe diameters greater than 1800 mm must be submitted to the Office of
Project Planning & Design for review and approval.
July 1,1995
Table 854.5C
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe


Diameter (mm) Metal Thickness (mm)
1.5 1.9 2.7
600 10.5 13.0 18.5
750 8.0 10.5 14.5
900 7.O 8.5 12.0
1050 6.0 7.5 10.5
1200 5.0 6.5 9.0
1350 -- 6.0 8.0
1500 -- -- 7.5
1650 -- -- --
1800 -- -- --
NOTES:
(1)Not recommended under abrasive conditions.
(2)Plans for proposed use of pipe diameters greater than 1800 mm must be sumbitted to the Office
of Project Planning & Design for review and approval.
July 1.1995
A
Table 854.6A
Structural Steel Plate Pipe


Diameter Metal Thickness (mm)
(mm)
n
NOTE:
(1) When flow velocities exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions thicker metal may be required.
July 1,1995
investigation should be made to insure that the

supporting soils withstand the design soil pres-
sures. The Office of Structural Foundations of the
Engineering Services Center is to provide a log of
test borings on all culverts having a span length or
diameter larger than 3 m.
Table 854.8
Thermoplastic Pipe Fill Height
Tables
High Density Polyethylene Corrugated
Pipe (PE), AASHTO M294
Size Maximum Height of Cover
(mm) (m)
300 3.7
375 3.4
450 3.4
600 3.4
750 3.0
900 2.7
High Density Polyethylene Ribbed

Pipe (PE), ASTM FS94
Maximum Height of Cover
600
Polyvinyl Chloride Ribbed or Profile

Wall Pipe (PVC), AASHTO M304
Size Maximum Height of Cover
(mm) (m)
450 8.2
525 7.9
600 7.6
675 7.3
750 7.0
900 6.7
1050 6.4
1200 6.1
July 1,1995
Table 854.9
Minimum Thickness of Cover

for Culverts
I
I Minimum Thickness
I of Cover Measured
I +Traveled Way
I
at Ultimate ETW
I
I Min. 'hichess
I 0.15 m at H.P.
I
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF COVER AT ETW
SURFACE Cormgated Structural Reinfd Plastic Cast-In-Place

TYPE metal pipes plate pipes mllcrete pipes concrete pipes
and pipe-arches and pipearches P~P
Flexible 115 (dia. or span) 118 (dia. or span) Structural Section
Pavements or or or 0.6 m minimum 0.6 m minimum plus
Unpaved 0.6 m minimum. 0.6 m minimum
Rigid 115 (dia. or span) 118 (dia. or span) Structural Section
Pavements or or 0.3 m minimum 0.6 m minimum plus 0.6 m.
0.4 m minimum. 0.4 m minimum
Note: See Index 854.2(1)(d) for necessary approvals prior to placing cast-in-place concrete pipes under the roadway.
July 1,1995
aspects of channel linings are discussed in

CHAPTER 860 Chapter 870.
OPEN CHANNELS The hydraulic capacity of a drainage channel is
dependent on the size, shape, slope and
Topic 861 - General roughness of the channel section. For a given
channel, the hydraulic capacity becomes greater
as the grade or depth of flow increases. The
-
Index 861.1 Introduction channel capacity decreases as the channel
An open channel is a conveyance in which water surface becomes rougher. A rough channel can
flows with a free surface. Although closed sometimes be an advantage on steep slopes
conduits such as culverts and storm drains are where it is desirable to keep flow velocities from
open channels when flowing partially full, the becoming excessively high.
term is generally applied to natural and A good open channel design minimizes the
improved watercourses, gutters, ditches, and effect on existing water surface profiles. Open
channels. While the hydraulic principles channel designs which lower the water surface
discussed in this section are valid for all elevation can result in excessive flow velocities
drainage structures, the primary consideration is and cause erosion problems. A planned rise in
given to channels along, across, approaching water surface elevation can cause:
and leaving the highway.
In addition to performing its hydraulic function, Objectional flooding of the roadbed and
the drainage channel should be economical to adjacent properties;
construct and maintain. Open channels should An environmental and maintenance problem
be reasonably safe for vehicles accidently with sedimentation due to reduced flow
leaving the traveled way, pleasing in velocities.
appearance, convey collected water without
@ damage to the highway or adjacent property and Additional hydraulic considerations include
minimize the environmental impacts. These those of channel and flood water characteristics
considerations are usually so interrelated that such as: movable beds, heavy bedloads and
optimum conditions cannot be met for one bulking during flood discharges. A detailed
without compromising one or more of the discussion of sediment transport and channel
others. The objective is to achieve a reasonable morphology is contained in the FHWA
balance, but the importance of traffic safety publication entitled Highways in the River
must not be underrated. Environment-Hydraulic and Environmental
Design Considerations.
861.2 Hydraulic Considerations Reference is made to Volume VI of the
An evaluation of hydraulic considerations for AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines for a
the channel design alternatives should be made general discussion on channel hydraulic con-
early in the project development process. The siderations.
extent of the hydrologic and hydraulic analysis
should be commensurate with the type of 861.3 Selection of "Design Flood"
highway, complexity of the drainage facility, As with other drainage facilities, the fust step in
and associated costs, risks, and impacts. the hydraulic design of an open channels is to
The hydraulic design of an open channel establish the range of peak flows which the
consists of developing a channel section to carry channel section must carry. The recommended
the design discharge under the controlling design criteria for cross drainage type
conditions, adding freeboard as needed and installations is discussed in Index 821.3. The
determining the type of channel protection desirable design storm and water spread criteria
required to prevent erosion. In addition to for roadway drainage type installations are
erosion protection, channel linings can be used presented in Table 831.3. Empirical and
@ to increase the hydraulic capacity of the channel
by reducing the channel roughness. Both
statistical methods for estimating design
July 1,1995
discharges are discussed in Chapter 8 10, measures and possibly advance the planned
"Hydrology". erosion control program to assure that minor
erosion will not develop into major damage.
861.4 Safety Considerations
861.6 Economics
An important aspect of highway drainage design
is that of traffic safety. Economical drainage design is achieved by
selecting the design alternative which best
The shape of a roadside channel section should satisfies the established design criteria at the
minimize vehicular impact and provide a lowest cost.
traversable section for errant vehicles leaving the
traveled way. The ideal channel section, from a The economic evaluation of design alternatives
safety standpoint, will have flattened side slopes should be commensurate with the complexity
and a curved transition to the channel bottom. and importance of the facility. Analysis of the
channel location, shape, size, and materials
861.5 Maintenance Consideration involved may reveal possibilities for reducing
construction costs, flood damage potential,
Design of open channels and roadside ditches maintenance problems and environmental
should recognize that periodic maintenance impacts.
inspection and repair is required. Provisions
should be incorporated into the design for 861.7 Coordination with Other
access to a channel by maintenance personnel Agencies
and equipment. When assessing the need for
permanent or temporary access easements, There are many Federal, State and local agencies
entrance ramps and gates through the right of and private entities engaged in water related
way fences, consideration should be given to planning, construction and regulation activities
the size and type of maintenance equipment whose interests can affect the design of highway
required. drainage channels. Such agencies may request
the channel design satisfy additional and
Damaged channels can be expensive to repair perhaps governing design criteria. Early
and interfere with the safe and orderly coordination with these agencies may help avoid
movement of traffic. Minor erosion damage delays in the project development process.
within the right of way should be repaired Early coordination may also reveal opportunities
immediately after it occurs and action taken to for cooperative projects which may benefit both
prevent the recurrence. Conditions which Caltrans and the water resources agency. For
require extensive repair or frequently recurring information on cooperative agreements refer to
maintenance may require a complete redesign Index 803.2.
rather than repetitive or extensive re-
construction. The advice of the District Hy- 861.8 Environment
draulics Engineer should be sought when
evaluating the need for major restoration. Many of the same principles involved in sound
highway construction and maintenance of open
The growth of weeds, brush, and trees in a channels parallel environmental considerations.
drainage channel can effectively reduce its Erosion, sedimentation, water quality, and
hydraulic efficiency. The result being that a aesthetics should be of prime concern to the
portion of the design flow may overflow the highway design engineer. Refer to Index 110.2
channel banks causing flooding and possible for discussion on control of water pollution.
erosion.
Proposed channel improvements may involve
Accumulation of sediment and debris may wildlife habitat and refuge areas. Where fish
destroy vegetative linings leading to additional resources are a concern, the necessity to protect
erosion damage. and preserve the ecosystem may affect decisions
Channel work on some projects may be regarding low flow channel design, flow
completed several months before total project velocities, channel grades, channel stabilization
completion. During this interim period, the techniques, and construction methods.
contractor must provide interim protection Conservation and fish and wildlife agencies may
July 1,1995
be able to provide valuable information relating presents a point of attack for flowing water, and
to channel planning and design. Early abrupt changes in grade can result in possible
coordination with these agencies is also scour when the grade is steepened or deposition
recommended. of transported material when the grade is
flattened.
861.9 References Ideally, a drainage channel should have flow
Information on design of highway drainage velocities that neither erode nor cause deposition
channels is included in FHWA's Hydraulic in the channel. This optimum velocity is
Design Series No. 4, "Design of Roadside dependent on the size and slope of channel, the
Drainage Channels" and Hydraulic Design quantity of flowing water, the material used to
Series No. 3, "Design Charts for Open Channel line the channel, the nature of the bedding soil
Flow". and the sediment being transported by the flow.
Refer to Table 862.2 for recommended
For a general textbook discussion of open permissible flow velocities in unlined channels.
channel hydraulics, reference is made to "Open-
Channel Hydraulics" by Ven Te Chow. In The point of discharge into a natural wa-
addition, many helpful design aids are included tercourse requires special attention. Water en-
in "Handbook of Hydraulics", by Brater and tering a natural watercourse from a highway
King. drainage channel should not cause eddies with
attendant scour of the natural watercourse. In
Topic 862 - Channel Location erodible embankment soils, if the flow line of
the drainage channel is appreciably higher than
that of the watercourse at the point of discharge,
862.1 General then the use of a spillway may be advisable to
Assuming adequate functional design, the next prevent erosion of the channel.
most important design consideration is channel
location. Locations that avoid poorly drained
areas, unstable soil conditions, and frequently
Topic 863 - Channel Section
flooded areas can greatly reduce drainage related 863.1 Natural Channels
problems. Refer to Index 110.4 for discussion
on wetlands protection. Natural channels are water conveying sections
such as streams, rivers, creeks and swales
Often drainage and open channel considerations which have been formed by natural forces.
are not considered the primary decision factors Good drainage design involving natural
in the roadway location; however they are channels will maintain the existing flow
factors which will often directly or indirectly characteristics such as size and shape of
affect many other considerations. Often minor channel, flow velocities, and flow distributions.
alignment adjustments can avoid serious
drainage problems. It should be recognized by the design engineer
If a channel can be located far enough away
that streams have inherent dynamic qualities by
from the highway, the concerns of tr&c safety which changes continually occur in stream
position and shape. These changes may be
and aesthetics can be somewhat mitigated. The slow or rapid, but all streams are subjected to
cost of additional right of way may be offset the forces that cause these changes to occur.
somewhat by the reduced cost of erosion For example, in alluvial streams, i.e., streams
control, traffic protection, and landscaping. whose beds and banks are composed of
862.2 Alignment and Grade materials deposited in water, it is the rule rather
than the exce~tionthat banks erode. sediments
Ordinarily, the highway drainage channel must are depositd, and islands and side channels
be located where it will best serve its intended form and disappear with time. A general
purpose, using the grade and alignment understanding of fluvial geomorphology and
obtainable at the site. Insofar as practicable, river mechanics can help evaluate and resolve
abrupt changes in alignment and grade should problems associated with alluvial streams.
be avoided. A sharp change in alignment Reference is made to the FHWA publication
July 1.1995
Table 862.2
Recommended Permissible Velocities
for Unlined Channels
T v ~ of
,I
e Material in Excavation Section Permissible Velocity. W
. s )-
Intermittent Flow Sustained Flow
Fine Sand (Noncolloidal)
Sandy Loam (Noncolloidal)
Silt Loam (Noncolloidal)
Fine Loam
Volcanic Ash
Fine Gravel
Stiff Clay (Colloidal)
Graded Material (Noncolloidal)
Loam to Gravel
Silt to Gravel
Gravel
Coarse Gravel
Gravel to Cobbles (Under 150 mm)
Gravel and Cobbles (Over 200 mm)
July 1,1995
@ entitled Highways in the River Environment -

Hydraulic and Environmental Design
designed as earth retaining structures, the
construction costs can be somewhat offset by
Considerations. the reduced costs associated with right of way,
materials, and channel excavation.
863.2 Triangular V-Ditch
The shape of a channel section is generally
determined by considering the intended
Topic 864 - Hydraulic Design of
Channels
purpose, terrain, flow velocity and quantity of
flow to be conveyed. 864.1 General
The triangular channel or V-ditch is intended Open channel hydraulic design is of particular
primarily for low flow conditions such as in importance to highway design because of the
median and roadside ditches. V-shaped ditches interrelationship of channels to most highway
are susceptible to erosion and will require lining drainage facilities.
when flow velocities exceed the permissible
flow velocities in Table 862.2. The hydraulic principles of open channel flow
are based on steady state uniform flow
863.3 Trapezoidal conditions, as defined in Index 864.2. Though
The most common channel shape for large these conditions are rarely achieved in the field,
flows is the trapezoidal section. generally the variation in channel properties is
sufficiently small that the use of uniform flow
Trapezoidal channels are easily constructed by theory will yield sufficiently accurate results.
machinery and are often the most economical.
When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, 864.2 Flow Classifications
both traffic safety and aesthetics can be ( I ) Steady vs. Unsteady Flow. The flow in an
improved by rounding all angles of the channel open channel can be classified as steady or
cross section with vertical curves. The unsteady. The flow is said to be steady if
approximate length of these vertical curves can the depth of flow at a section, for a given
be determined by the formula: discharge, is constant with respect to time.
The flow is considered unsteady if the depth
of flow varies with respect to time.
where L = length of vertical curve in meters (2) Uniform Flow. Steady flow can further be
X = horizontal component of side classified as uniform or nonuniform. The
slopes expressed as x,y flow is said to be uniform if the depth of
coordinates with y = 1 flow and quantity of water are constant at
For narrow channels, L, is limited to the bottom every section of the channel under
width. consideration. Uniform flow can be
maintained only when the shape, size,
For large flows, consideration should be given roughness and slope of the channel are
to using a minimum bottom width of 4 m for constant. Under uniform flow conditions,
construction and maintenance purposes, but the depth and mean velocity of flow is said
depths of flow less than 0.3 m are not to be normal. Under these conditions the
recommended. water surface and flowlines will be parallel
to the stream bed and a hydrostatic pressure
863.4 Rectangular condition will exist, the pressure at a given
Rectangular channels are often used to convey section will vary linearly with depth.
large flows in areas with limited right of way. As previously mentioned, uniform flow
At some locations, guardrail or other types of conditions are rarely attained in the field, but
positive traffic barrier may be necessary the error in assuming uniform flow in a
between the traveled way and the channel. channel of fairly constant slope, roughness
Though rectangular channels are relatively and cross section is relatively small when
expensive to construct, since the walls must be
July 1,1995
compared to the uncertainties of estimating entering or leaving along the length of

the design discharge. channel under consideration.
(3) Non-uniform Flow. There are two types of (2) Bernoulli Equation. Water flowing in an
steady state non-uniform flow: open channel possesses two kinds of en-
ergy: (1) potential energy and (2) kinetic en-
Gradually varied flow. ergy. Potential energy is due to the position
Gradually varied flow is described as a of the water surface above some datum. Ki-
steady state flow condition where the netic energy is due to the energy of the mov-
depth of water varies gradually over the ing water. The total energy at a given
length of the channel. Under this condi- section as expressed by the Bernoulli
tion, the streamlines of flow are practi- equation is equal to:
cally parallel and therefore, the assump-
tion of hydrostatic pressure distribution
H=z+d+
v2
-
is valid and uniform flow principles can 2g
be used to analyze the flow conditions. Where:
Rapidly varied flow. H = Total head, in meters of water
With the rapidly varied flow condition, z = Distance above some datum, in meters
there is a pronounced curvature of the
flow streamlines and the assumption of d = Depth of flow, in meters
hydrostatic pressure distribution is no
longer valid, even for the continuous
flow profile. A number of empirical
-v2 = Velocity head, in meters
2g
procedures have been developed to g = Acceleration of gravity
address the various phenomena of
rapidly varied flow. For additional = 9.81 mfS2
discussion on the topic of rapidly varied
flow, refer to "Open-Channel 3) Energy Equation. The basic principle used
Hydraulics" by Chow. most often in hydraulic analysis is con-
servation of energy or the energy equation.
864.3 Open Channel Flow Equations For uniform flow conditions, the energy
The equations of open channel flow are based equation states that the energy at one section
on uniform flow conditions. Some of these of a channel is equal to the energy at any
equations have been derived using basic downstream section plus the intervening
conservation laws (e.g. conservation of energy) energy losses. The energy equation,
whereas others have been derived using an expressed in terms of the Bernoulli
empirical approach. equation, is:
( I ) Continuity Equation. One of the fun-
damental concepts which must be satisfied
in all flow problems is the continuity of
flow. The continuity equation states that the
mass of fluid per unit time passing every Where hL = Intervening head losses, in meters
section in a stream of fluid is constant. The
continuity equation may be expressed as (4) Manning's Equation. Several equations
follows: have been empirically derived for computing
the average flow velocity within an open
channel. One such equation is the Manning
Equation. Assuming uniform and turbulent
Where Q is the discharge, A is the crossflow conditions, the mean flow velocity in
sectional flow area, and V is the mean flow an open channel can be computed as:
velocity. This equation is not valid for spa-
tially varied flow, i.e., where flow is
July 1,1995
Table 864.3A
n Average Values for Manning's
Where V = Mean velocity, in meters Roughness Coefficient (n)
per second
n = Manning coefficient of Type of Channel n value
roughness
S = Channel slope, in meters per Unlined Channels:
meter Clay Loam
R = Hydraulic Radius, in meters Sand
=A/WP Gravel
Where A = Cross sectional flow area, in Rock
square meters
WP =Wetted perimeter, in meters Lined Channels:
Portland Cement Concrete
Commonly accepted values for Manning's Air Blown Mortar (troweled)
roughness coefficient, n, based on materials Air Blown Mortar (untroweled)
and workmanship required in the Standard Air Blown Mortar (roughened)
Specifications, are provided in Table Asphalt Concrete
864.3A. The tabulated values take into
account deterioration of the channel lining Sacked Concrete
surface, distortion of the grade line due to Pavement and Gutters:
unequal settlement, construction joints and Portland Cement Concrete
normal surface irregularities. These average
0 values should be modified to satisfy any
foreseeable abnormal conditions.
Asphalt Concrete
Depressed Medians:
Direct solutions for Manning's equation for Earth (without growth)
many channels of trapezoidal, rectangular, Earth (with growth)
and circular cross sections can be found in Gravel
FHWA's Hydraulic Design Series No. 3,
"Design Charts for Open Channel Flow". NOTES:
For additional values of n, see "Design of
(5) Conveyance Equation. Often it is con- Roadside Drainage Channels", Hydraulic Design
venient to group the properties peculiar to Series No. 4, FHWA Table 2.
the cross section into one term called the
conveyance factor, K. The conveyance
factor, as expressed by the Manning's (6) Critical Flow. A useful concept in hydraulic
equation, is equal to: analysis is that of "specific energy". The
specific energy at a given section is defined
as the total energy, or total head, of the
flowing water with respect to the channel
bottom. For a channel of small slope;
For the non-pressure, full flow condition,
the geometric properties and conveyance of
a channel section can be computed. Then
for a given channel slope the discharge
capacity can be easily determined. Where E = Specific energy, in meters
d = Depth of flow, in meters
-
v2
2g
= Velocity head, in meters
July 1,1995
When the depth of flow is plotted against the

specific energy, for a given discharge and Figure 864.3C
channel section, the resulting plot is called a
specific energy diagram (see Figure Specific Energy Diagram
864.3C). The curve shows that for a given
specific energy there are two possible
depths, a high stage and a low stage. These aa
flow depths are called alternate depths.
Starting at the upper right of the curve with a
large depth and small velocity, the specific
energy decreases with a decrease in depth,
reaching a minimum energy content at a
depth of flow known as critical depth. A
further decrease in flow depth results in a
rapid increase in specific energy.
Flow at critical depth is called critical flow. Supercriticol
flow ronge
The flow velocity at critical depth is called
critical velocity. The channel slope which
produces critical depth and critical velocity
for a given discharge is the critical slope.
Uniform flow within approximately 10
percent of critical depth is unstable and
should be avoided in design, if possible.
The reason for this can be seen by referring of flow in concrete-lined channels carrying
to the specific energy diagram. As the flow supercritical flow.
approaches critical depth from either limb of
the curve, a very small change in energy is Critical depth is an important hydraulic
required for the depth to abruptly change to parameter because it is always a hydraulic
the alternate depth on the opposite limb of control. Hydraulic controls are points along
the specific energy curve. If the unstable the channel where the water level or depth of
flow region cannot be avoided in design, the flow is limited to a predetermined level or
least favorable type of flow should be as- can be computed directly from the quantity
sumed for the design. of flow. Flow must pass through critical
depth in going from subcritical flow to
When the depth of flow is greater than supercritical flow. Typical locations of
critical depth, the velocity of flow is less critical depth are at:
than critical velocity for a given discharge
and hence, the flow is subcritical. (a) Abrupt changes in channel slope when a
Conversely, when the depth of flow is less flat (subcritical) slope is sharply
than critical depth, the flow is supercritical. increased to a steep (supercritical) slope,
When velocities are supercritical, air en- (b) A channel constriction such as a culvert
trainment mav occur. This ~roducesa bulk- entrance under some conditions,
ing effect whkh increases tke depth of flow. (c) The unsubmerged outlet of a culvert on
For concrete lined channels, the normal subcritical slope, discharging into a wide
depth of flow with bulking can be computed channel or with a free fall at the outlet,
by using a Manning's "nu value of 0.018 and
instead of the 0.014 value given in Table
864.3A. Air entrainment also causes a (d) The crest of an overflow dam or weir.
reduction in channel friction with a resulting Critical depth for a given channel is de-
increase in flow velocity. A Manning's "n" pendent on the channel geometry and dis-
value of about 0.008 is recommended for charge only, and is independent of channel
computing the velocity and specific energy slope and roughness.
July 1, 1995
0 When flow occurs at critical depth the

following relationship must be satisfied
(a) Water surface approaches the uniform
depth line asymptotically,
(b) Water surface approaches the critical
depth line at a finite angle,
Where A= Cross sectional area, in square (c) Subcritical flow is controlled from a
meters downstream location, and
T = Top width of water surface, in
meters (d) Supercritical flow is controlled from an
Q= Discharge, in m3/s upstream location.
g = Acceleration of gravity, There are 13 possible water surface profiles
9.81 m/s2 depending on the particular flow conditions.
Critical depth formulas, based on the above A complete discussion of water surface
equation, for various channel cross-sections profile analysis is contained in most open
include: channel hydraulics textbooks.
(2) Methods of Analysis. Two methods of
Rectangular sections, performing a water surface profile analysis
are:
The Direct Stev method
L
Where q = Flow per unit width, in m3/s

The Standard Step method
Trapezoidal sections. The tables in Both methods make use of the energy
King's "Handbook of Hydraulics" equation to compute the water surface
provide easy solutions for critical depth profile. The direct step method can be used
for channels of varying side slopes and to analyze straight prismatic channel sections
bottom widths. only. The standard step method is
Circular sections. The tables in King's apfiicable to non-prismatic &d non-straight
"Handbook of Hydraulics" can be used channel alignments. For a complete
for obtaining easy solutions for critical discussion of both refer to Open-Channel
depth. Hydraulics, by Chow.
(7) Froude Number. The Froude number is a (3) Computer Programs. The analysis of water
useful parameter which uniquely describes surface profile problems is best performed
open flow. The Froude number is a dimen- by computer. The recommended personal
sionless value: computer system is the HYDRAIN-
Integrated Drainage Design Computer
System. The Water-Surface Profile
Computation Model Program (WSPRO)
Where D = A/T= Hydraulic depth, in within the HYDRAIN system was
meters specifically developed for analysis of
Fr < 1.0 ==> Subcritical flow highway bridge and culvert backwater.
Fr = 1.0 ==> Critical flow The WSPRO program provides analysis for
six major types of open channel flow
Fr > 1.0 ==> Supercritical flow situations.
864.4 Water Surface Profiles - Unconstricted flow;
- Single opening bridge;
( I ) General. For the gradually varied flow
condition, the depth of flow must be estab- - Bridge opening(s) with spur dikes;
lished through a water surface profile analy- - Single opening embankment overflow;
0 sis. The basic principles in water surface
profile analysis are where:
- Multiple alternatives for a singlejob; and
- Multiple openings.
July 1,1995
Two other water surface profile computer

programs that are commonly used are the
865.2 Design Considerations 0
-
Channel changes should be designed with
FHWA's HY7 and the Army Corps of extreme caution. Careful study of the stream
Engineers' HEC-2 programs. characteristics upstream and downstream as well
as within the channel change area is required to
864.5 Stage-Discharge Relationships
-
achieve a safe and effective design.
The stage-discharge relationship is an important Channel changes usually decrease the surface
consideration in the analysis and design of an roughness and increase the channel slope. As a
open channel. The depth of flow for various result the following may occur:
discharges can be plotted to create a "rating
curve" which provides a visual display of the Higher velocities which result in damage
relationship. ' due to scour
Depending on the site conditions, accuracy Sedimentation and meandering at down-
required, and risks involved, a single section stream end of channel change
analysis may be sufficient to adequately describe
the channel stage discharge relationship. The A flattened downstream gradient which
basic assumptions to a single section analysis progresses upstream undercutting the
are uniform cross section, slope, and Manning's channel banks or highway fill
"n" values. Flattened downstream gradient or channel
Where uniform flow conditions do not ad- restrictions may create- undesirable back-
equately describe the actual flow conditions or water conditions.
where additional accuracy is desired, the Modification to a natural channel may reduce the
computation of complete water surface profiles available cover for fish and other wildlife in and
for each discharge value may be necessary. around the water and eliminate the natural food
supplies available in the old channel. The
Topic 865 - Channel Changes design of new channels involving rivers or
streams supporting fish or wildlife must be
coordinated with the Department of Fish and
865.1 General Game in accordance with current practices.
A channel change is any realignment or change On intermittent streams the problems are
in the hydraulic characteristics of an existing generally erosion or silting. For a discussion of
channel. temporary measures to be made a part of the
The main reasons for channel changes are to: contract, see Index 110.2.
Permit better drainage A channel change perched above the bottom of
an old flood stage stream bed may cause the
Permit better culvert alignment
- stream to return to its old channel during a
Eliminate the need for bridges and culverts subsequent flood. This is most likely to occur
where a stream recrosses a highway in arid or semi-arid locations.
Improve flow conditions
Protect the highway from flood damage
-
Topic 866 Freeboard
Considerations
Reduce right of way requirements
866.1 General
The effects of a channel change can vary greatly
depending on the site conditions. For example Freeboard is the extra height of lining above the
certain streams may have a great tolerance to design depth where overflow is predicted to
changes, whereas with others, small changes cause damage. Freeboard allowances will vary
may have significant impacts. When potentially with each situation.
detrimental effects can be foreseen, plans should
be developed to mitigate the effects to within
tolerable limits.
e
l..l.r 1 1 OOC
B = Wave angle in degrees, defined as:
sin B = tgd)'I2
v
July 1,1995
The simplest way and generally the surest of

CHAPTER 870 success and permanence, is to locate the
CHANNEL AND SHORE roadway away from the erosive forces.
PROTECTION EROSION - This is not always feasible or economical,
but should be the first consideration.
CONTROL Locating the roadway to higher ground or
solid support should never be overlooked,
Topic 871 - General even when it requires excavation of solid
rock. since excavated rock mav serve as a
-
Index 871.1 Introduction valuable material for
points of attack.
at other
Highways are often attracted to parallel locations
along streams, coastal zones and lake shores. The most commonly used method is to
These locations are under attack from the action armor the embankment with a more resistant
of waves and flowing water that may require material like rock slope protection. The type
protective measures. of material to be used for the protection is
discussed under Topic 872.
Channel and shore protection can be a major
element in the design, construction, and A third method is to reduce the force of the
maintenance of highways. This section deals attacking water. This is often done by
with procedures, methods, devices, and means of retards, permeable jetties and
materials commonly used to mitigate the various plantings such as willows.
damaging effects of flowing water and wave Plantings once established not only reduce
action on highway facilities and adjacent stream velocity near the bank during heavy
properties. Potential sites for such measures flows, but their roots add structure to the
should be reviewed in conjunction with other bank material.
features of the project such as long and short
term protection of downstream water quality, Another method is to direct the attacking
aesthetic compatibility with surrounding water away from the embankment. In the
environment, and ability of the newly created case of wave attack, additional beach may be
ecological system to survive with minimal created between the embankment and the
maintenance. See Index 110.2 for further water by means of groins and sills which
information on water quality and environmental trap littoral drift or hold imported sand. In
concerns related to erosion control. the case of stream attack, a new channel can
Refer to Topic 874 for defmition of drainage be created or the stream can be diverted
terms. away from the embankment by the use of
jetties, baffles, or deflectors.
871.2 Design Philosophy Combinations of the above four methods may
In each district there should be a designer or be used. Even protective works destroyed in
advisor, usually the District Hydraulics floods have proven to be effective and cost ef-
Engineer, knowledgeable in the application of ficient in minimizing damage to highways.
bank protection principles and the performance Design of protective features should be gov-
of existing works. Information is also available erned by the importance of the facility and ap-
from headquarters specialists in the Office of propriate design principles. Some of the factors
Project Planning and Design and the Division of which should be considered are:
Structures. The most effective designs result
from involvement with Design, Structures, Roughness. Revetments generally are less
Construction, and Maintenance (for further resistant to flow than the natural channel
discussion on functional responsibilities see bank. Channel roughness can be
Topic 802). significantly reduced if a rocky vegetated
bank is denuded of trees and rock outcrops.
There are a number of ways to &al with the When a rough natural bank is replaced by a
problem of wave action and stream flow. smooth revetment, the current is accelerated,
July 1,1995
increasing its power to erode, especially Limits. Horizontal and vertical limits of
along the toe and downstream end of the protection should be carehlly designed.
revetment. Except in narrowed channels, The bottom limit should be secure against
protective elements should approximate scour. The top limit should not arbitrarily
natural roughness. Retards, baffles and be at high-water mark, but above it if
jetties can simulate the effect of trees and overtopping would cause excessive damage
boulders along natural banks and in and below it if floods move slowly along the
ovefflow channels. upper bank. The end limits should reach
and conform to durable natural features or
Undercutting. Particular attention must be be secure with respect to design parameters.
paid to protecting the toe of revetments
against undercutting caused by the 871.3 Selected References
accelerated current along smoothed banks.
Hydraulic and drainage related publications are
Standardization. Standardization should be listed by source under Topic 807. References
a guide but not a restriction in designing the specifically related to slope protection measures
elements and connections of protective are repeated here for convenience.
structures.
(a) FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars
Expendability. The primary objective of the (HEC) -- The following five circulars
design is the security of the highway, not were developed to assist the designer in
security of the protective structure. Cheap using various types of slope protection
replaceable protection may be more and channel linings:
economical than expensive permanent
structures. HEC 11, Design of Riprap
Revetment ( 1989)
Dependability. An expensive structure is
warranted primarily where highways carry HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of
high traffic volumes, where no detour is Energy Dissipaters for Culverts and
available, or where roadway replacement is Channels (1983)
very expensive. HEC 15, Design of Roadside
Longevity. Short-lived structures or Channels with Flexible Linings
materials may be economical for temporary (1988).
situations. Expensive revetments should not HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at
be placed on banks likely to be buried in Bridges (1990)
widened embankments. nor on banks
attacked by transient meander of mature HEC 20, Stream Stability at
streams. Highway Structures (1990)
Materials. Optimum use should be made of (b) FHWA Highways in the River
local materials, considering the cost of Environment (1990) -- A comprehensive
special handling. Specific gravity of stone treatise of natural and man-made impacts
is a major factor in shore protection and the and responses on the river environment,
specified minimum should not be lowered sediment transport, bed and bank
without increasing the weight of stones. stabilization, and countermeasures.
For example, 10% decrease in specific (c) FHWA Hydraulic Design Series (HDS)
gravity requires a 55% increase in mass. -- HDS 4, Design of Roadside
(say from a 9 tonne stone to a 14 tonne Channels, contains information on
stone) for equivalent protection. erosion control measures and channel
Selection. Selection of class and type of lining practices.
protection should be guided by the intended (d) AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines @
function of the installation. -- General guidelines for good erosion
control practices are covered in
July 1,1995
a Volume 111 - Erosion and Sediment

Control in Highway Construction, and
begins with site investigation. The selection of
the class of protection can be determined during
Volume XI - Guidelines for Highways or following site investigation. For some sites
Along Coastal Zones and Lakeshores. the choice is obvious; at other sites several
alternatives or combinations may be applicable.
-
Topic 872 Planning and See the FI-IWA publication, "Highways in the
River Environment", for a complete and
Location Studies thorough discussion of hydraulic and
environmental design considerations associated
872.1 Planning with hydraulic structures in moveable boundary
waterways.
The development of cost effective protective
works requires careful planning. Planning
Table 872.1
Guide to Selection of Protection
0 Where large rock for riprap is not available

July 1,1995
Some specific site conditions that may dictate

selection of a class and type of protection
872.3 Site Consideration 0
different from those shown in Table 872.1 are: The determination of the lengths, heights,
alignment, and positioning of the protection are
Available right of way. affected to a large extent by the facility location
environment.
Available materials. An evaluation is required for any proposed
Possible damage to other properties through highway construction or improvement that en-
streamflow diversion or increased velocity. croaches on a floodplain. See Topic 804,
Floodplain Encroachments for detailed
Environmental concerns. procedures and guidelines.
( I ) Young Valley. Typically young valleys are
Channel capacity or conveyance. narrow V-shamd vallevs with streams on
Conformance to new or existing structures. steep gadient;. At flo& stage, the stream
flow covers all or most of the valley floor.
Provisions for side drainage, either surface The usual situation for such locations is a
waters or intersecting streams or rivers. structure crossing a well-defined channel in
which the design discharge will flow at a
The first step is to determine the limits of the moderate to high velocity.
protection with respect to length, depth and the
degree of security required. (a) Cross-Channel Location. A cross
channel location is a highway crossing a
Considerations at this stage are: stream on normal or skewed alignment.
The erosive forces of parallel flow
The severity of attack. associated with a normal crossing are
The present alignment of the stream or generally less of a threat than the
river and potential meander changes. impinging and eddy flows associated
with a skewed crossing. The effect of
The ratio of cost of highway replacement constriction by projection of the
versus cost of protection. roadway embankment into the channel
should be assessed.
Whether the protection need be Characteristics to be considered include:
permanent or temporary.
Stream velocity.
Analysis of foundation and materials ex-
plorations. Scouring action of stream.
The second step is the selection and layout of Bank stability.
protective elements in relation to the highway
facility. Channel constrictions (artificial or
natural).
872.2 Class and Type of Protection
Protective devices are classified according to Nature of flow (tangential or
their function. They are further categorized as curvilinear).
to the type of material from which they are con- Areas of impingement at various
structed or shape of the device. For additional stages.
information on specific material types and
shapes see Topic 873, Design Concepts. Security of terminals.
There are two basic classes of protection, armor Common protection failures occur from:
treatment and training works. Table 872.1
relates different location environments to these Undermining of the toe (inadequate
classes of protection. foundation). @
July 1,1995
Local erosion due to eddy currents. by relatively long training embankments

or structures.
Inadequate upstream and down- Channel changes, if properly designed,
stream terminals or transitions to can improve conditions of a crossing by
erosion-resistant banks or outcrops. reducing skew and curvature and
enlarg6g the main channel.
Structural inadequacy at points of Unfortunately there are "side effects"
impingement overtopping. which actually increase erosion
Any of the more substantial armor potential. velocity is almost always
treatments can function properly in such increased by the channel change, both
exposures providing precautions are by a reduction of channel roughness and
taken to alleviate the probable causes of increase of slope.
-
failure. If the foundaiion is questionable At crossing locations, lateral erosion can
for grouted rock or other rigid types it be controlled by positive protection,
would not be necessary to reject them such as armor on the banks, jetties to
from consideration but only to provide a deflect currents away from the banks,
more acceptable treatment of the retards to reduce riparian velocity, or
foundation, such as heavy rock or sheet vertical walls or bulkheads. The life
piling. cycle cost of such devices should be
Whether the highway crosses a stream considered in the economic studies to
channel on a bridge or over a culvert, choose a bridge length which minimizes
economic considerations often lead to total cost.
constriction of the waterway. The most Accurate estimates of anticipated scour
common constriction is in width, to
e shorten the structure. Next in frequency
is obstruction by piers and bents of
bridges or partitions of multiple culverts.
depths are a prerequisite for safe, cost
effective designs. Design criteria require
that bridge foundations be placed below
anticipated scour depths. For this
The risk of constricting the width of the reason the design of protection to control
waterway is closely related to the relative scour at such locations is seldom
conveyance of the natural waterway ob- necessary for new construction.
structed, the channel scour, and to the However, if scour may undercut the toes
channel migration. Constricting the of dikes or embankments positive
width of flow at structures has the methods including self-adjusting armor
following effects: at the toe, jetties or retards to divert
scouring currents away from the toe, or
Increase in the upstream water sill-shaped baffles interrupting transport
surface elevation (backwater of bedloads should be considered.
profile).
There is the potential for instability from
Increase in flow velocity through the saturated or inundated embankments at
structure opening (waterway). crossings with embankments projecting
Causes eddy currents around the into the channel. Failures are usually
upstream and downstream ends of reported as "washouts", but several
the structure. distinct processes should be noted:
Unless protection is provided the eddy Saturation of an embankment
currents can erode the approach roadway reduces its angle of repose.
embankment and the accelerated flow Granular fills with high permeability
can cause scour at bridge abutments. may "dissolve" steadily or slough
The effects of erosion can be reduced by progressively. Cohesive fills are
providing transitions from natural to less permeable, but failures have
constricted and back to natural sections, occurred during falling stages.
either by relatively short wingwalls or
July 1,1995
As eddies carve scallops in the em- flow. Energy dissipaters may be used to
bankment, saturation can be shorten the deceleration process when
accelerated and complete failure may such a transition would be too long to be
be rapid. Partial or total losses can economical. Bank protection at the end
occur due to an upstream eddy, a of wingwalls is more cost effective in
downstream eddy, or both eddies most cases.
eroding toward a central (b) Parallel Location. With parallel
conjunction. Training &vices or locations the risk of erosion damage
armor can be employed to prevent along young streams increases where
damage. valleys narrow and gradients steepen.
The risk of erosion damage is greatest
If the fill is pervious and the along the outer bend of natural meanders
pavement overtopped, the buoyant or where highway embankment
pressure under the slab will exceed encroaches on the main channel.
the weight of slab and shallow
ovefflow by the pressure head of the The encroaching parallel location is very
hydraulic drop at the shoulder line. common, especially for highways
A flat slab of thickness, t, will float following mountain streams in narrow
when the upstream stage is 4t higher young valleys or canyons. Much of the
than the top of the slab. Thereafter roadway is supported on top of the bank
the saturated fiil usually fails rapidly or a berm and the outer embankment
by a combination of erosion and encroaches on the channel in a zone of
sloughing. This problem can occur low to moderate velocity. Channel
or be increased when curbs, dikes, banks are generally stable and
or emergency sandbags maintain a protection, except at points of
differential stage at the embankment impingement, is seldom necessary.
shoulder. It is increased by an The constricting parallel location is an
impervious or less pervious mass extreme case of encroaching location,
within the fill. Control of flotation, causing such impairment of channel that
insofar as bank protection is acceleration of the stream through the
concerned, should be obtained by constriction increases its attack on the
using impervious armor on the highway embankment requiring extra
upstream face of the embankment protection, or additional waterway must
and a pervious armor on the be provided by deepening or widening
downstream face. along the far bank of the stream.
Culvert problem locations generally In young valleys, streams are capable of
occur in and along the downstream high velocity flows during flood stages
transition. Sharp divergence of the high that may be damaging to adjacent
velocity flow develops outward highway facilities. Locating the
components of velocity which attack the highway to higher ground or solid
banks directly by impingement and support is always the preferred
indirectly by eddies entrained in quieter alternative when practical.
water. Downward components and the
high velocity near the bed cause the Characteristics to be considered include:
scour at the end of the apron.
High velocity flow.
Standard plans of warped wingwalls
have been developed for a smooth Narrow confined channels.
transition from the culvert to a
trapezoidal channel section. A rough Accentuated impingement.
revetment extension to the concrete
wingwalls is often necessary to reduce Swift ovefflow.
high velocity to approximate natural
July 1, 1995
Disturbed flow due to rock outcrops Armor protection has proven effective to
on the banks or within the main prevent erosion of road approach
channel. embankments, supplemented if
necessary by stream training devices
Alterations in flow patterns due to such as guide dikes, permeable retards
the entrance of side streams into the or jetties to direct the stream through the
main channel. structure. The abutments should not
depend on the training dikes to protect
Protective methods that have proven them from erosion and scour. At bridge
effective are: ends one of the more substantial armor
types may be required, but bridge
Rock slope protection. approach embankments affected only by
Grouted-rock slope protection. overflow seldom require more than a
light revetment, such as a thin layer of
Walls of masonry and concrete. rocky material, vegetation, or a fencing
along the toe of slope. For channel flow
Reticulated revetments. control upstream, the size and type of
training system ranges from pile wings
Sacked concrete. for high velocity, through permeable
jetties for moderate velocity, to the earth
Cribs walls of various materials. dike suitable for low velocity.
(2) Mature Valley. Typically mature valleys are The more common failures in this
broad V-shaped valleys with associated situation occur from:
flood plains. The gradient and velocity of
the stream are low to moderate. In addition Lack of upstream control of channel
to the general information previously given, alignment.
the following applies to mature valleys.
Damage of unprotected embank-
(a) Cross-Channel Location. The usual ments by overflow and return flow.
situation is a structure crossing a braided
or meandering normal flow channel. Undercut foundations.
The marginal area subject to overflow is
usually traversed by the highway on a Formation of eddies at abrupt
raised embankment and may have long changes in channel.
approaches extending from both banks.
Stranding of drift in the converging
Characteristics to be considered include: channel.
Shifting of the main channel. (b) Parallel Location. Parallel highways
along mature rivers are often situated on
Skew of the stream to the structure. or behind levees built, protected and
maintained by other agencies. Along
Foundation in deep alluvium. other streams, rather extensive protective
Erodible embankment materials. measures may be required to control the
action of these meandering streams.
Channel constrictions, either artifi- Channel change is an important factor in
cial or natural, which may affect or locations parallel to mature streams. The
control the future course of the channel change may be to close an em-
stream. bayment, to cut off an oxbow, or to shift
the alignment of a long reach of a
Variable flow characteristics at stream. In any case, positive means
various stages. must be adopted to prevent the return of
Stream acceleration at the structure. the stream to its natural course. For a
straight channel, the upstream end is
July 1, 1995
critical, usually requiring bank need for shore protection structures is,
protection equivalent to the facing of a therefore, generally limited to highway
dam. On a curved channel change, all of locations along the top or bottom of bluffs
the outer bend may be critical, requiring having a history of sloughing and along
continuous protection. For a channel beach fronts.
much shorter than the natural channel, Beach protection considerations include:
particularly for elimination of an oxbow,
the corresponding increase in gradient Attack by waves.
may require drop structures along the
bed to prevent undercutting. For Littoral drift of the beach sands.
unusual channel changes, preliminary
plans and hydraulic data must be Seasonal shifts of the shore.
submitted to FHWA for approval (see
Index 805.5). Foundation for protective structures.
(3) Lakes and Tidal Basins. Highways adjacent Wave attack on a beach is less severe than
to lakes or basins may be at risk from wave on a headland, due to the gradual shoaling
generated erosion. All bodies of waters of the bed which trips incoming waves into
generate waves. Height of waves is a a series of breakers called a surf.
function of fetch and depth. Erosion along Littoral drift of beach sands may either be an
embankments behind shallow coves is asset or a liability. If sand is plentiful, a
reduced because the higher waves break new beach will be built in front of the
upon reaching a shoal in shallow water. highway embankment, reducing the depth of
The threat of erosion in deep water at water at its toe and the corresponding height
headlands or along causeways is increased. of the waves attacking it. If sand supply is
Constant exposure to even the rippling of less plentiful or subject to seasonal
tiny waves may cause severe erosion of variations, the new beach can be induced or
some soils. retained by groins.
Older lakes normally have thick beds of pre- If sand is in scant supply, backwash from a
cipitated silt and organic matter. Bank revetment tends to degrade the beach or bed
protection along or across such lakes must even more than the seasonal variation, and
be designed to suit the available foundation. an allowance should be made for this scour
It is usually more practical to use lightweight when designing the revetment, both as to
or self-adjusting armor types supported by weight of stones and depth of foundation.
the soft bed materials than to excavate the Groins may be ineffective for such
mud to stiffer underlying soils. locations; if they succeeded in trapping some
In fresh waters, effective protection can littoral drift, downcoast beaches would
often be provided by the establishment of recede from undernourishment.
vegetation, but planners should not overlook Seasonal shifts of the shore line result from
the possibility of moderate erosion before combinations of:
the vegetative cover becomes established. A
light armor treatment should be adequate for Ranges of tide.
this transitional period.
Reversal of littoral currents.
(4) Ocean Front Locations. Wave action is the
erosive force affecting the reliability of Changed direction of prevailing onshore
highway locations along the coast. The winds.
corrosive effect of salt water is also a major
concern for hydraulic structures located Attack by swell.
along the coastline. Headlands and rocks
that have historically withstood the relentless Generally the shift is a recession, increasing
pounding of tide and waves can usually be the exposure of beach locations to the hazard
relied on to continue to protect adjacent of damage by wave action. On strands or
highway locations founded upon them. The along extensive embayments, recession at
July 1, 1995
one end may result in deposition at the the single channel emerging from the
other. Observations made during location uplands is usually stable. For a location at
assessment should include investigation of the bottom of the cone (Line C), instability
this phenomenon. For strands, the hazard is maximum with poor definition of the
may be avoided by locating the highway on channel, but discharge is reduced by
the backshore facing the lagoon. infiltration and stream dispersion. The
Foundation conditions vary widely for energy of the stream is usually dissipated so
beach locations. On a receding shore, good that any protection required is minimal. The
bearing may be found on soft but substantial least desirable location is midway between
rock underlying a thin mantle of sand. Bed top and bottom (Line B), where large
stones and even gravity walls have been discharge may approach the highway in any
founded successfully on such foundations. of several old channels or break out on a
Spits and strands, however, are radically new line. Control may require dikes
different, often with softer clays or organic continuously from the top of the cone to
materials underlying the sand. Sand is such a mid-cone site with slope protection
usually plentiful at such locations, added near the highway where the
subsidence is a greater hazard than scour, converging flow is accelerated.
and location should anticipate a "floating"
foundation for flexible, self-adjusting types Figure 872.2
of protection.
In planning ocean-front locations, the Alternative Highway Locations
primary decision is a choice of (1) alignment Across Debris Cone
far enough inshore to avoid wave attack, (2)
armor on the embankment face, or (3) off
shore devices like groins to aggrade the
@ beach at embankment toe.
See Index 873.3(2) for further discussion
on determining the size of rocks necessary
in shore protection for various wave
heights.
(5) Desert Wash Locations. Special consid-
eration should be given to highway locations
across the natural geographical features of
desert washes, sand dunes, and other
similar regions susceptible to intrinsic
erosion.
Desert washes are a prominent feature of the
physiography of California. Many long
stretches of highway are located across a (A) crosses at a single definite channel,
succession of outwash cones. Infrequent (B) a series of unstable indefinite channels and
discharge is typically wide and shallow, (C)a widely dispersed and diminished flow.
transporting large volumes of solids, both
mineral and organic. Rather than bridge the Characteristics to be considered include:
natural channels, the generally accepted The intensity of rainfall and subsequent
technique is to concentrate the flow by a run-off.
series of guide dikes leading like a funnel to
a relatively short crossing. The relatively large volumes of solids
The important consideration at these that are carried in such run-off.
a locations is instability of the channel (see
Figure 872.2). For a location at the top of a The lack of definition and permanence of
the channel.
cone (Line A), discharge is maximum, but
July 1.1995
The scour depths that can be anticipated. that the design engineer has in mind. These
plans should show controlling factors and an
The lack of good foundation. end product in such detail that there will be no
dispute between the construction engineer and
Effective protective methods include armor contractor. To serve the dual objectives of
along the highway and at structures and the adequacy and economy, plans and specifications
probable need for baffles to control the should be precise in defining materials to be
direction and velocity of flow. Installations incorporated in the work, and flexible in
of rock, fence, palisades, slope paving, and describing methods of construction or
dikes have been successful. conformance of the end product to working
lines and grades.
872.4 Data Needs
Recommendations on channel lining, slope
The types and amount of data needed for protection, and erosion control materials can be
planning and analysis of bank and shore pro- requested from the District Hydraulics Engineer,
tection varies from project to project depending the District Materials Branch and the Erosion
upon the class and extent of the proposed pro- Control and Geosynthetics Branch of the
tection, site location environment, and Engineering Service Center. The Office of
geographic area. The data that is collected and Landscape Architecture can be of assistance in
developed including preliminary calculations, selecting the best practices for temporary and
and alternatives considered should be permanent erosion and sediment control
documented in project development reports measures. The Caltrans Joint Bank Protection
(Environmental Document, Project Report, etc.) Committee is available on request to provide
or as a minimum in the project file. These expert advise on extraordinary situations or
records serve to guide the detailed designs, and problems. See Index 802.3 for further
provide reference background for analysis of information on the organization and functions of
environmental impacts and other needs such as the Committee
permit applications and historical documentation
for any litigation which may arise. Combinations of armor-type protection can be
used, the slope revetment being of one type and
Recommendations for data needs can be re- the foundation treatment of another. The use of
quested from the District Hydraulics Engineer or rigid, non-flexible slope revetment may require
determined from the following references: a flexible, self-adjusting foundation for
Chapter VI of the FHWA publication, example: grouted rock on the slope with heavy
"Highways in the River Environment", for a rock foundation below, or PCC slope paving
more complete discussion of data needs for with a steel sheet-pile cutoff wall for
highway crossings and encroachments on foundation.
rivers. Further references to data needs are
contained in Chapter 810, Hydrology and Bank protection may be damaged while serving
FHWA's Hydrology manual, HEC- 19. its primary purpose. Cheap replaceable facilities
may be more economical than expensive
Topic 873 - Design Concepts permanent structures. However, an expensive
structure may be economically warranted for
highways carrying large volumes of traffic or
873.1 Introduction for which no detour is available.
No attempt will be made here to describe in Cost of stone is extremely sensitive to location.
detail all of the various devices that have been Variables are length of haul, efficiency of the
used to protect embankments against scour. quarry in producing acceptable sizes, royalty to
Methods and devices not described may be used quarry and, necessity for stockpiling and
when justified by economical analysis. Not all rehandling. On some projects the stone is
publicized treatments are necessarily suited to available in roadway excavation.
existing conditions for a specific project.
Cost of stone is not very sensitive to size.
A set of plans and specifications must be Quarrying produces a wide range of sizes. If
prepared to define and describe the protection only a light riprap is specified, the large stones
July 1,1995
@ have to be broken by spot blasting. If heavy

riprap is required, the run of the quarry may be
Catastrophic failure with loss of life.
usable without reblasting. With Method A Disruption of fire and ambulance services or
placement, one 8 tonne stone can be set quicker closing of the only evacuation route
than two 4 tonne stones. available to a community.
873.2 Design High Water and Refer to Topic 804, Floodplain Encroachments,
Hydraulics for further discussion on evaluation of risks and
I
impacts.
a
The most important, and often the most
perplexing obligation, in the design of bank and ( I ) Streambank Locations. The velocity along
shore protection features is the determination of the banks of watercourses with smooth or
the appropriate design high water elevation to be uniformly rough tangent reaches may only
used. The design flood stage elevation should be a small percentage of the average stream
be chosen that best satisfies site conditions and velocity. However, local irregularities of
level of risk associated with the encroachment. the bank and streambed may cause
The basis for determining the design frequency, turbulence that can result in the bank
velocity, backwater, and other limiting factors velocity being greater than that of the central
should include an evaluation of the thread of the stream. The location of these
consequences of failure on the highway facility irregularities is not always permanent as
and adjacent property. Stream stability and they may be caused by local scour,
sediment transport of a watercourse are critical deposition of rock and sand, or stranding of
factors in the evaluation process that should be drift during high water changes. It is rarely
carefully weighted and documented. Designs economical to protect against all possibilities
should not be based on an arbitrary storm or and therefore some damage should always
flood frequency. Such designs imply that be anticipated during high water stages.
@ limiting factors and related risks have been
adequately evaluated which is seldom, if ever,
Essential to the design of streambank pro-
tection is sufficient information on the
the case. characteristics of the watercourse under
A suggested starting point of reference for the consideration. For proper analysis,
determination of the design high water level is information on the following types of
that the protection withstand high water levels watercourse characteristics must be
caused by meteorological conditions having a . developed or obtained:
recurrence interval of one-half the service life of Design Discharge
the protected facility. For example, a modem
highway embankment can reasonably be Design High Water Level
expected to have a service life of 100 years or
more. It would therefore be appropriate to base Flow Types
the preliminary evaluation on a high water
elevation resulting from a storm or flood with a Channel Geometry
2 percent probability of exceedance (50 year
frequency of recurrence). The first evaluation Flow Resistance
may have to be adjusted, either up or down, to
conform with a subsequent analysis which Sediment Transport
considers the importance of the encroachment Refer to Chapter 810, Hydrology, for a
and level of related risks. general discussion on hydrologic analysis
There is always some risk associated with the and specifically to Topic 817, Flood
design of protection features. Special attention Magnitudes; Topic 8 18, Flood Probability
must be given to life threatening risks such as and Frequency; and Topic 8 19, Estimating
those associated with floodplain encroachments. Design Discharge. For a detailed discussion
Si-cant floodplain risks are classified as on the fundamentals of alluvial channel
those having probability of: flow, refer to Chapter 111, "Highways in the
River Environment", and to HEC-20,
July 1,1995
Stream Stability at Highway Structures, for Figure 873.2A

further information on sediment transport.
(2) Ocean & Lake Shore Locations. Infor- Nomenclature of Tidal Ranges
mation needed to design shore protection is:
Design High Water Level
Design Wave Height
(a) Design High Water Level. The flood
stage elevation on a lake or reservoir is
usually the result of inflow from upland
runoff. If the water stored in a reservoir
is used for power generation, flood
control, or irrigation, the design high
water elevation should be based on the
owners schedule of operation.
Except for inland tidal basins affected by Because of the great variation of tidal elements, Figure
wind tides, floods and seiches, the static 873.2A was not drawn to scale.
or still-water level used for design of The elevation of the design high tide may be taken as mean
shore protection is the highest tide. In sea level (MSL) plus one-half the maximum tidal range
tide tables, this is the stage of the highest (Rm).
tide above "tide-table datum" at MLLW.
To convert this to MSL datum there
must be subtracted a datum equation Particularly on the Pacific coast where
(0.8 to 1.2 m) factor. If datum differs MLLW is datum for tide tables, the stage
from MSL datum, a further comtion is of MHHW is numerically equal to
necessary. These steps should be diurnal range.
undertaken with care and independently The average of all highs (indicated
checked. Common errors are: graphically as the mean of higher high
Ignoring the datum equation. and lower high) is the MHW, and of all
the lows, MLW. Vertical difference
Adding the factor instead of between these two stages is the mean
subtracting it. range.
Using half the diurnal range as the See Index 814.5, Tides and Waves, for
stage of high water. information on where tide and wave data
may be obtained.
To clarify the determination of design (b) Design Wave Heights.
high-water, Fig. 873.2A shows the
Highest Tide in its relation to an (1) General. Even for the simplest of
extreme-tide cycle and to a hypothetical cases, the estimation of water levels
average-tide cycle, together with caused by meteorological conditions
nomenclature pertinent to three is complex. Elaborate numerical
definitions of tidal range. Note that the models requiring the use of a
cycles have two highs and two lows. computer are available, but
The average of all the higher highs for a simplified techniques may be used to
long period (preferably in multiples of predict acceptable wind wave heights
the 19-yr. metonic cycle) is MHHW, for the design of highway protection
and of all the lower lows, MLLW. The facilities along the shores of
vertical difference between them is the embayments, inland lakes, and
diumal range. reservoirs. It is recommended that
for ocean shore protection designs
July 1, 1995
the assistance of the U.S. Army wave height, H,, for a 20-year
Corp of Engineers be requested. return period.
Shore protection structures are Other design wave heights can also
generally designed to withstand the be designated, such as H 10 and H 1.
wave that induces the highest forces The Hlo design wave is the average
on the structure over its economic of the highest 10 percent of all
service life. The design wave is waves, and the H1 design wave is
analogous to the design storm the average of the highest 1 percent
considerations for determining return of all waves. The relationship of
frequency. A starting point of Hlo and H1 to Hs can be
reference for shore protection design approximated as follows:
is the maximum significant wave
height that can occur once in about Hlo = 1.27 Hs and HI = 1.67 Hs
20-years. Economic and risk
considerations involved in selecting
the design wave for a specific project Economics and risk of catastrophic
are basically the same as those used failure are the primary considerations
in the analysis of other highway in designating the design wave
drainage structures. average height.
(2) Wave Distribution Predictions. (3) Wave Characteristics. Wave height
Wave prediction is called hindcasting estimates are based on wave
when based on past meteorological characteristics that may be derived
conditions and forecasting when from an analysis of the following
based on predicted conditions. The data:
same procedures are used for
hindcasting and forecasting. The Wave gage records
only difference is the source of the
meteorological data. Reference is Visual observations
made to the Army Corps of Published wave hindcasts
Engineers, Shore Protection Manual,
Volume 1, Chapter 3, for more Wave forecasts
complete information on the theory
of wave generation and predicting Maximum breaking wave at the
techniques. site
The prediction of wave heights from (4) Predicting Wind Generated Waves.
boat generated waves must be The height of wind generated waves
estimated from observations. is a function of fetch length,
The surface of any large body of windspeed, wind duration, and the
water will contain many waves depth of the water.
differing in height, period, and (a) Hindcasting -- The U.S. Army
direction of propagation. A repre- Corp of Engineers has historical
sentative wave height used in the records of onshore and offshore
design of bank and shore protection weather and wave observations
is the significant wave height, Hs. for most of the California
The significant wave height is the coastline. Design wave height
average height of the highest one- predictions for coastal shore
third of all the waves in a wave train protection facilities should be
for the time interval (return made using this information and
frequency) under consideration. hindcasting methods. Deep-
Thus, the design wave height water ocean wave characteristics
generally used is the significant derived from offshore data
analysis may need to be heights will be smaller and wave

transformed to the project site by periods shorter if the wave
refraction and diffraction tech- generation takes place in
niques. As mentioned previ- transitional or shallow water
ously, it is strongly advised that rather than in deep water.
the Corps technical expertise be The height of wind generated
obtained so that the data are waves may also be fetch-limited
properly interpreted and used. or duration-limited. Selection of
(b) Forecasting -- Simplified wind an appropriate design wave may
wave prediction techniques may require a maximization procedure
be used to establish probable considering depth of water, wind
wave conditions for the design direction, wind duration,
of highway protection on bays, windspeed, and fetch length.
lakes and other inland bodies of Procedures for predicting wind
water. Wind data for use in generated waves are complex
determining design wind veloci- and our understanding and
ties and durations is usually ability to describe wave phenom-
available from weather stations, ena, especially in the region of
airports, and major dams and the coastal zone, is limited.
reservoirs. Many aspects of physics and
The following assumptions per- fluid mechanics of wave energy
tain to these simplified methods: have only minor influence on the
&sign of shore protection for
The fetch is short, 120 krn highway purposes. Designers
or less interested in a more complete
discussion on the rudiments of
The wind is uniform and wave mechanics should consult
constant over the fetch. the U.S. Army Corps of
It should be recognized that these Engineers' Shore Protection
conditions are rarely met and Manual (SPM), Volume I, 1984.
wind fields are not usually There is no single theory for the
estimated accurately. The forecasting of wind generated
designer should therefore not waves for relatively shallow
assume that the results are more water. Until further research
accurate than warranted by the results are available the interim
accuracy of the input and SPM method for wave
simplicity of the method. Good, forecasting in shallow-water
unbiased estimates of all wind represented in Figures 3-27
generated wave parameters through 3-36 in the SPM is
should be sought and the recommended. This method
cumulative results conservatively uses deepwater forecasting
interpreted. The individual input relationships and is based on
parameters should not each be successive approximations in
estimated conservatively, since which wave energy is added due
this may bias the result. to wind stress and subtracted due
The applicability of a wave to bottom friction and
forecasting method depends on percolation.
the available wind data, water An initial estimate of wind
depth, and overland topography. generated significant wave
Water depth affects wave heights can be made by using
generation and for a given set of Figure 873.2B. If the estimated
wind and fetch conditions, wave wave height from the nomogram
July 1,1995
is greater than 0.6 m, the bottom slope can support. The

procedure may need to be design wave height will be the
refined. It is recommended that smaller of either the maximum
advice from the Army Corps of breaker height or the forecasted or
Engineers be obtained to refine hindcasted wave height.
significant wave heights, Hs, The relationship of the maximum
greater than 0.6 m. height of breaker which will expend
(5) Breaking Waves. Wave heights its energy upon the protection, Hb,
derived from hindcasts or any and the depth of water at the slope
forecasting method should be protection, d,, which the wave must
checked against the maximum pass over a k illustrated in Figure
breaking wave that the design 873.2C.
stillwater level depth and nearshore
Figure 873.28
Significant Wave Height Prediction Nomograph
4
12
UA = Wind Stress Factor
U = Wind Speed
UA = o . ~ I ( u ) ' ' ~ ~
* ---
Significant Ht. (m)
Peak Spectral Period (s)
Min. Duration (min,hr)
Fetch Length (kilometers)
July 1,1995
Figure 873.2C Determining Design Wave

WAVE FORECASTING
Design Breaker Wave I
DATA NEEDS
Wind Speed
Wind Duration
I ADJUST%SPEED
SPM Pns. 3-24 thru 3-33 I
Select Design WindlDuration
Determine Fetch
-
(Duration Limited) (Fetch Limited)
I
I
UE
;
Lesser Wave Height
II
I
if < 0.6 m Wave
I I
1 if > 0.6 m Wave
1
ExamDle
By using hindcast methods, the significant wave if 1.5m-15m
SPM Figs. SPM Fig. 3-24
height (Hs) has been estimated at 1.2m with a 3 3-27 th 3-36
second period. Find the design wave height (Hd) for
the slope protection if the depth of water (d) is only
0.6 m and the nearshore slope (m) is 1:lO.
Solution
-
ds
-
-
0.6 m
2 2 = 0.007
WAVE FORECASTING
T~ (9.81 mls ) x (3 sec)

g
(From Graph) - Hdds = 1.4

Hb = 0.6 x 1.4= 0.8 m
Answer
Since the maximum breaker wave height, Hb, is IDESIGN WAVE, Hd 1
smaller than the significant deepwater wave height,
Hs, the design wave height Hd is 0.8 m.
T = Wave Period (SPM)
(6) Wave Run-up. An estimate of wave
run-up, in addition to design wave
height, may also be necessary to
establish the top elevation of
highway slope protection.
The following diagram, with some specific
references to the SPM, summarizes an Wave run-up is a function of the
overly simplified procedure that may be design wave height, the wave
used for highway purposes to estimate wind period, bank angle, and the rough-
generated waves and establish a design ness of the embankment protection
wave height for shore protection. material. For wave heights of 0.6 m
or less wave run-up can be estimated
by using Figure 873.2D and
appropriate correction factor. The
wave run-up height given on the
chart is for smooth concrete
pavement. Correction factors for
July 1,1995
@ Figure 873.2D
reducing the height of run-up for
Wave Run-up on Smooth other armor revetment materials are
provided in the table. This simple
Impermeable Slope method of estimating wave runup is
adequate for most highway projects.
The application of more detailed
procedures is rarely justified, but if
Point of Moxirnurn Runup needed they are provided in the U .S .
.Desian Water Level
Army Corps of Engineers manual,
Design of Coastal Revetments,
Seawalls, and Bulkheads.
R = Wove Runup Height (m)
(c) Littoral Processes. Littoral processes
Hd = Wove Height (rn) result from the interaction of winds,
@ = Bonk Angle with the Horizontol waves, currents, tides, and the
availability of sediment. The rates at
which sediment is supplied to and
removed from the shore may cause
excessive accretion or erosion that can
effect the structural integrity of shore
protection structures or functional
usefulness of a beach. The aim of good
shore protection design is to maintain a
stable shoreline where the volume of
sediment supplied to the shore balances
that which is removed.
Designers interested in a more complete
discussion on littoral processes should
consult the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers' Shore Protection Manual
SLOPE SURFACE PLACEMENT CORRECTION (SPM), Volume I, Chapter 4.
MATERIAL TYPE METHOD FACTOR
-- 873.3 Armor Protection
Concerte Pavement 1.OO
Concrete blocks fitted 0.90 ( I ) General. Armor is the artificial surfacing of
(Voids < 20%) bed, banks, shore or embankment to resist
erosion or scour. Armor devices can be
Concrete blocks fitted 0.70 flexible (self adjusting) or rigid.
(20% <Voids > 40%)
Concrete blocks fitted 1.50 (a) Flexible Types.
(40% <Voids > 60%) Rock slope protection (Standard
Gobi Blocks fitted 0.85 - 0.90 Plan B 13-2).
Grass -- 0.85 - 0.90
Rock riprap random 0.60 Broken concrete slope protection
(Standard Plan B 13-2).
(angular)
Rock riprap (round) random 0.70 Broken concrete, uncoursed.
Rock riprap (hand keyed 0.80
placd or keyed) Gabions.
Grouted rock -- 0.90 Precast concrete articulated blocks.
Wire enclosed -- 0.80
rockdgabions
July 1,1995
Various reticulated revetment (2) Bulkheads. The bulkhead types are

steep or vertical structures, like
@
systems.
retaining walls, that support natural
(b) Rigid Types. slo~esor constructed embankments
whkh include the following:
PCC grouted rock slope protection
(Standard Plan B 13-2). Gravity or pile supported
Sacked concrete slope protection concrete or masonry walls.
(Standard Plan B13-1). Crib walls
Concrete slope protection (Standard Sheet piling
Plan B13-1).
Sea Walls
Fabric-formed slope protection.
(d) General Design Criteria. In selecting the
Air-blown mortar (Standard Plan type of flexible or rigid armor protection
B13-1). to use the following characteristics are
important design considerations.
Soil cement slope protection.
(I) The lower limit of armor should be
Precast concrete cells -- filled. below anticipated scour or on
(c) Other Armor types: bedrock. If for any reason this is
not economically feasible, a
(1) Channel Liners and Vegetation. reasonable degree of security can be
Temporary channel lining can be obtained by placement of additional
used to promote vegetative growth in quantities of heavy rock at the toe
a drainage way or as protection prior which can settle vertically as scour
to the placement of permanent occurs.
armoring. This type of lining is
used where an ordinary seeding and (2) In the case of slope paving or any
mulch application would not be expensive revetment which might be
expected to withstand the force of seriously damaged by overtopping
the channel flow. In addition to the and subsequent erosion of
following, other suitable products of underlying embankment, extension
natural or synthetic materials are above design high water may be
available that may be used as warranted. The usual limit of
temporary or permanent channel extension for streambank protection
liners. above design high water is 0.3 to
0.6 m in unconstricted reaches and
Excelsior 0.6 to 1.0 m in constricted reaches.
Jute (3) The upstream terminal can be deter-
mined best by observation of
Paper mats existing conditions andlor by
Fiberglass roving measuring velocities along the bank.
Geosynthetic mats or cells The terminal should be located to
conform to outcroppings of erosion-
Pre-cast concrete blocks or resistant materials, trees, shrubs or
cells other indications of stability.
Brush layering In general, the upstream terminal on
Rock riprap in smaller stone bends in the stream will be some
sizes distance upstream from the point of
impingement or the beginning of
curve where the effect of erosion is
no longer damaging.
@
July 1,1995
@ (4) When possible the downstream ter-

minal should be made downstream
Local damage or loss is easily
repaired by the addition of rock
from the end of the curve and against where required.
outcroppings, erosion-resistant
materials, or returned securely into Construction is not complicated
the bank so as to prevent erosion by and no special equipment or
eddy currents and velocity changes construction practices are
occurring in the transition length. necessary.
(5) The encroachment of embankment Appearance is natural, and
into the stream channel must be usually acceptable in recreational
considered with respect to its effect areas.
on the conveyance of the stream and
possible damaging effect on If exposed to fresh water,
properties upstream due to vegetation may be induced to
backwater and downstream due to grow through the rocks adding
increased stream velocity or structural value to the
redirected stream flow. embankment material and
. , A smooth surface will accelerate ve-
(6) restoring natural roughness.
locity along the bank, requiring Additional thickness can be
additional protection at the provided at the toe to offset
downstream terminal. Rougher possible scour when it is not
surfaces tend to keep the thread of feasible to found it upon bedrock
the stream toward the center of the or below anticipated scour.
channel.
(7) Heavy-duty armor used in exposures Wave run-up is less than with
along the ocean shore may be smooth types (See Figure
influenced or dictated by economics, 873.2D).
or the feasibility of handling heavy
individual units. It is salvageable, may be
stockpiled and reused if
(2) Flexible Revetments. necessary.
(a) Streambank Rock Slope Protection. In designing the rock slope
(1) General Features. This kind of pro- protection for a given embankment
tection, commonly called riprap, the following determinations are to
consists of rock courses placed upon be made for the typical section.
the embankment or the natural slope Size of stone (may vary between
along a stream. Rock, as a slope
protection material, has a number of top and bottom).
desireable features which have led to Depth at which the stones are
its widespread application. founded (bottom of toe trench).
It is usually the most economical
type of revetment where stones of Elevation at the top of protection.
sufficient size and quality are
available, it also has the following Thickness of protection.
advantages: Need for geotextile and backing
It is flexible and is not impaired material.
nor weakened by slight Face slope.
movement of the embankment
resulting from settlement or other
minor adjustments.
July 1,1995
(a) Placement -- Two different The embankment fill slope is

methods of placement for rock usually determined from other
slope protection are allowed considerations such as the angle
under Section 72 of the Standard of repose for embankment
Specifications: Placement under material, or the normal 1:2
Method A requires considerable specified for high-standard
care, judgment, and precision roads. If the necessary size of
and is consequently more rock for the given exposure is
expensive than Method B. not locally available, considera-
Method A should be specified tion should be given to flattening
for heavy duty installations. of the embankment slope to
Under some circumstances the allow a smaller size stoie, or
costs of placing rock slope substitution of other types of
protection with refinement are protection. On high embank-
not justified and Method B ments, alternate sections on
placement can be specified. To several slopes should be
compensate for a partial loss and compared, practically and eco-
assure stability and a reasonably nomically; flatter slopes require
secure protection, the thickness smaller stones in thinner
is increased over the more sections, but at the expense of
precise Method A. longer slopes, a lower toe
elevation, increased embank-
(b) Foundation Treatment -- The ment, and perhaps additional
foundation excavation must right of way.
afford a stable base on bedrock (d) Rock Slope Protection Fabric
or extend below anticipated and Rock Backing -- Rock Slope
scour. protection fabric and/or rock
Terminals of revetments are backing can be used directly on
often destroyed by eddy currents the slope to prevent the erosion
and other turbulence because of of the underlying embankment
nonconformance with natural material or native material
banks. Terminals should be through the voids of the rock
secured by transitions to stable slope protection. They may be
bank formations, or the end of warranted where embankment
the revetment should be material is not cohesive, or
reinforced by returns of thick- where the slope protection is
ened edges. subject to wave action. They
(c) Embankment Considerations -- may not be necessary if the slope
Embankment material is not protection is graded from fine to
normally carried out over the coarse from embankment to
rock slope protection so that the water exposure as is generally
rock becomes part of the fill. the case with Method B place-
With this type of construction fill ment. With Method B place-
material can filter down through ment, most of the finer material
the voids of the large stones and will naturally settle to the bottom
that portion of the fill above the and coarser stones will work to
rocks could be lost. If it is the outside. Consult the District
necessary to carry embankment Hydraulics Engineer andlor the
material out over the rock slope District Materials Branch on the
protection a geotextile is required need for fabric or rock backing.
to prevent the loses of fill
material.
July 1, 1995
When fabric is used with rock Connect to natural bank, bridge

slope protection classes 112 T or abutments or adjoining
larger, a layer of rock backing is improvements with transitions
needed to anchor the fabric. designed to ease differentials in
Backing material must be sized alignment, grade, slope and
so that it will not work out roughness of banks.
through the voids of the large
stones overlaying it. For very Eliminate or ease local
large classes of protection with embayments and capes so as to
severe exposure it may be streamline the protected bank.
appropriate to use a smaller class Consider the effects of
of rock slope protection to backwater above constrictions,
perform the backing and bedding superelevations on bends, as
function. Determining the need well as tolerance of occasional
for fabric, rock backing, or overtopping.
multiple layers of rock slope
protection requires sound Not be placed on a slope steeper
engineering judgment in than 1:1.5. Flatter slopes (see
evaluating the character of the Figure 873.3A) use lighter
embankment or native material stones in a thinner section and
being protected, the slope rate of encourage overgrowth of vegeta-
the embankment, the relative tion, but may not be permissible
importance and risk of loss of in narrow channels.
the protected facility as well as
the cost of the protective works Use stone of adequate mass to
relative to the protected facility. resist erosion, derived from
Figure 873.3A or Table 873.3B.
Rock slope protection and rock
backing material stone sizes, Prevent loss of bank materials
gradings and quality require- through interstitial spaces of the
ments are contained in Section revetment. Rock slope
72-2.02 of the Standard Specifi- protection fabric and multiple
cations. layers of backing should be used
where appropriate.
(2) Streambank Protection Design. In
the lower reaches of larger rivers Rest on a good foundation on
wave action resulting from naviga- bedrock or extend below the
tion or wind blowing over long depth of probable scour. If
reaches may be much more serious questionable, use heavy bed
than velocity. A 0.6 m wave, for stones and provide a wide base
example, is more damaging than section with a reserve of material
direct impingement of a current to slough into local scour holes.
flowing at 3 mls. Reinforce critical zones on outer
Well designed streambank rock bends subject to impingement
slope protection should: attack, using heavier stones,
thicker section, and deeper toe.
Assure stability and compatibility
of the protected bank as an (a) Stone Size -- Where current
integral part of the channel as a velocity governs, rock size may
whole. The ideal for stability is be estimated by using the
a gently curved channel with its nomogragh, Figure 873.3A, and
outer bank rougher and tougher Table 873.3B.
than the inner bank.
July 1, 1995
The nomograph is derived from The practice of using an arbitrary

the following formula: height of freeboard as a factor of
safety is not logical. For
example, an arbitrary 0.6 m
freeboard may decrease the
probability of overtopping from
one that would be caused by a
Where: 50-yr flood to one that would be
sgr = specific gravity of stones. caused by a 60-yr flood in one
a = angle of face slope from the case, but from one that would be
horizontal, see Figure 873.3B. caused by a 50-yr flood to one
$ = 70" for broken rock. that would be caused by a 1000-
yr flood in another case.
W = Weight of minimum stone in Freeboard may be more
lbs.; 2/3 of stones should be generous along freeways, on
heavier.
V = Velocity of water in ftlsec.
bottleneck routes, on the outside
bends of channels, or around
NOTE: critical bridges.
The formula provided above, and the Design high water should be
nomograph in Figure 873.3A have not adjusted to the site based on
been converted to the Metric System. sound engineering judgement.
Where wave action is dominant, (b) Rock Slope Shore Protection.
design of rock slope protection (1) General Features. Rock slope pro-
should proceed as described for tection when used for shore
shore protection. protection, in addition to the general
(b) Design Height -- The top of rock advantages listed previously for
slope protection along a stream streambank rock slope protection,
bank should be carried to the reduces wave runup as compared to
elevation of the design high smooth types of protection.
water. The flood stage elevation (a) Method A placement is normally
adopted for design may be based specified for shore protection.
on an empirically derived (b) Foundation treatment in shore
frequency of recurrence protection may be controlled by
(probability of exceedance) or tidal action as well as excavation
historic high water marks. This difficulties and production will
stage may be exceeded during be limited to only two or three
infrequent floods, but toe or foundation rocks per tide
overtopping seldom damages a cycle. If toe rocks are not
well-designed pervious properly bedded, the subsequent
revetment. vertical adiustment mav be
Design high water should not be detrimental a to the prokction
based on an arbitrary storm above. Even though rock is self-
frequency alone, but should adjusting, the bearing of one
consider the cost of carrying the rock to another may be lost. It is
protection to this height, the often necessary to construct the
probable duration and damage if toe or foundation to an elevation
overtopped, and the importance approximating high tide in
of the facility. advance of embankment
construction to prevent erosion
of the embankment.
July 1,1995
Figure 873.3A
Nomograph of Stream-Bank Rock Slope Protection
8 ,. 8
C Y , C E i
\
\
\ .g" - sp.siflo gnrity of rock
\ \
\ \
\
\ \
\ \
\ \ Ton8
s
I I
Pound. \w = Vhlpht of r#lc \
I
5:I I
-
I l o t mI ; I l 8
~ l l l r 1j i3I -l ~ l l I~ \ Il 1~1 m
1 1 ;
1; I B
1 1 1
1
~d L m m 4 D O -
u f ;/I
~ ; " - _ * d ~ r h * p r ~ , I
PIW Ilm I
I /
I /
I /
/
I /
I /
I /
I / FalalbPOota. -
c
I I I
U
I # I t
G 1 5
I I
Table 873.38
Rock Slope Protection Design Guide
Mean PARALLEL FLOW ALONG TANGENT BANK IMPINGEMENT FLOW AGAINST CURVED BANK
Stream Bank Minimum Protection Placement Section Bank Minimum Protection Placement Section
Velocity Velocity Stone Class Method Thickness Velocity Stone Class Method Thickness
V, V, W W, T VB W W, T
fps fps lb AorB ft fps lb or T A or B ft
4.5 3 None 6 3 lb None
6 4 None 8 15 Facing B 1.8
7.5 5 1 None 10 57 114 ton B 3.3
9 6 3 None 12 170 114 ton B 3.3
10.5 7 7 Facing B 1.8 14 430 112 ton A 3.3
B 4.2
12 8 15 Facing B 1.8 16 950 1 ton A 4.2
B 5.3
13.5 9 30 Light B 2.5 18 1.0 T 2 ton A 5.3
15 10 57 114 ton B 3.3 20 1.8 4 ton A 6.7
18 12 170 114 ton B 3.3 24 5.5 8 ton A 8.3
21 14 430 112 ton A 3.3 28 13.7 Special
B 4.2
24 16 950 1 ton A 4.2 32 30.4 Special
B 5.3
Nrn:
.
1 All Values in Figure 873.3A and Table 873.3B are in U.S. Customary Units. Conversions to the S.I.
System are; 1 ft. = 0.305 m
1 Ib. = 0.454 kg
1 ton = 0.907 tonne
2. See Section 72 of the Standard Specifications for Gradations of the Protection Classes (W,) indicated.
July 1,1995
Figure 873.3C
Rock Slope Protection
\ - h
1:1.5 o r flatter
TYPICAL SECTION
Stream Bank Protection
(1) ROOK UOCKlng --/

Atlernote Mounded Toe
(1) RSP Fobrlc - --

A Origlnal Streorn Bed
1:l.S or flotter
Original Streorn Bed k1.5 r n d

rnin Below Scour Depth
Sloughing of To.
Final Streorn Bed ALTERNATIVE TOE
Notes:
(1) RSP Fabric
(1) If necessary. See text.
(2) Thickness " T from Table 873.3B.
(3) Face stone is determined from Figure 873.3D.
k 1 . 5 In+
(4) Bed stone is 50% to 100% heavier than face stone. rnin
Bed Rock
( 5 ) This is not a standard design. Dimensions
and details should be modified as required.
Tide
orrnol Beoch Line
- A KZV 1:l.S o r flatter

TYPICAL SECTION
Shore Protection
1 . 5
rnln
\ Below scour Depth
o r to Bed Rock
July 1, 1995
@ (2) Shore Protection Design.

(a) Stone Size -- For deep-water
waves that are shoaling as they
approach the protection the Where:
----.
required stone size may be design wave in feet, (See Index
determined by Using Chart B, Hd = 873.2).
Figure 873.3D.
NOTE:
The nomograph is &rived from The formula provided above, and the
the following formula: Nomograph in figure 873.3D have not
been converted to the metric system.
0.003 d E sg,. csc3 ((B - a) If in doubt whether waves

generated by fetch and wind
- .. velocity will be of sufficient size
Where: to be affected by shoaling, use
d = maximum depth in feet of water at
S
both charts and adopt the smaller
toe of the rock slope protection, value.
see Figure 873.3C.
sg-1 = specific gravity of stones (b) Dimensions -- Rock should be
founded in a toe trench dug to
= specific gravity of water (sea water
Sgw = 1.0265)
hard rock or keyed into soft
a = angle of face slope from the hori- rock. If bedrock is not within
zontal, see Figure 873.3C. reach, the toe should be carried
below the estimated depth of
e P = 70° for broken rock
W = minimum weight in tons of outside
stones
probable scour. If the scour
depth is questionable, additional
thickness of rock may be placed
NOTE: at the toe which will adjust and
The formula provided above, and the provide deeper support. In
Nomograph in figure 873.31) have not determining the elevation of the
been converted to the metric system. scoured beach line the designer
should observe conditions
In general, ds will be the differ- during the winter season, consult
ence between the elevation of the records, or ask persons who
scour line at the toe and the have a knowledge of past
maximum stillwater level. For conditions.
ocean shore, ds may be taken as Wave run-up is reduced by the
the distance from the scour line rough surface of rock slope
to mean sea level plus one-half protection. In order that the
the maximum tidal range. wash will not top the rock, it
If the deep-water waves reach should be carried up to an
the protection, the stone size may elevation of twice the maximum
be determined by using Chart A, depth of water (2ds) or to an
Figure 873.3D. The nomograph elevation equal to the maximum
is derived from the following depth of water plus the deep-
formula: water wave height (ds + Hd),
whichever is the lower. See
Figure 873.3C.
July 1.1995
Figure 873.30
Nornographs For Design of Rock Slope Shore Protection
I I
I
/I I I 1 1 1 I
2
I
-
I
-
N
/ 2 Y
/ F O C ~m ~ o p cat n
/
/ !$
/
/
/
B[E
IN
I ,b& /
I
/
/
pivot line
ina
/
/\ H = eight of rove in feat i?
/ \
R Z Z / C ! \ E m rn h m U) n N
I 1 ' 1 ' 1 L ' I
. ; , , , I I II
I I n
II '
P W \ ? n + n - 1 ' 1 I 1 I ' I
51
1 I I I
0 2
N N
6
-
O
Tonm
\ W Weight of mck
0 8 r a s
\ Pound*
\ k
\
\
\
\
DQ" = Spwific gravity of rock 2
a 3 3 RI
\
R s I!
I I I
$\
1 . 1 3 PJ
I /I I , 8 I ( I I I
z Y N
3 C
-
U)
/
/ Foce elope wt a
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
U d
J & I/ Phrot Ilne ~ 5 s
r l H H
4 gscl
dl = Deelgn depth In f n t z * s
0 0
1
0
I
r./
I/
I
'9' 1
.r
I
n
I
N
I
-
'
I 1 1 I IIIIII I
I' ' I ' I " I ' I ' I " I I I " I i
51 W 2
I
r
f j i a ! 8 N g " , N r
I Tone Poundm
W = Welght of rock
I
I
I
I
I 4
I '9" = spciflc grnvlty of mck
aI ;;
I
aI aI aI zI
July 1, 1995
Consideration should also be is of no value to the soundness

given to protecting the bank of the protection. Broken
above the rock slope protection concrete placed in horizontal
from splash and spray. courses is not self-adjusting but
is considered to be flexible since
Thickness of the protection must the individual pieces are not
be sufficient to accommodate the bonded together. Details of
largest stones. For typical coursed broken concrete slope
conditions the thickness required protection are shown on
for the various sizes are shown Standard Plan B 13-2.
on Table 873.3B. Except for
toes on questionable foundation, A good foundation on bedrock,
as explained above, additional or that extends below the depth
thickness will not compensate of probable scour, is essential to
for undersized stones. When stability regardless of the
properly constructed, the largest placement method.
stones will be on the outside, (d) Gabions. Gabion revetments
and if the wave forces displace consist of rectangular wire mesh
these, additional thickness will baskets filled with stone. Size
only add slightly to the time of and grade of stone shall be as
failure. As the lower portion of designated by the district
the slope protection is subjected materials department or
to the greater forces, it will usu- hydraulics department.
ally be economical to specify
larger stones in this portion and Gabions are formed by filling
somewhat smaller stones in the commercially fabricated and
upper portion. The important preassembled wire baskets with
factor in this economy is that a rock. There are two types of
thinner section may be used for gabions, wall type and mattress
the smaller stones. If the section type. In wall type the empty
is tapered from bottom to top, cells are positioned and filled in
the larger stones can be selected place to form walls in a stepped
from a single graded supply. fashion. Mattress type baskets
(c) Broken Concrete Slope are positioned on the slope and
Protection. Broken concrete filled. Wall type revetment is not
salvaged from demolished fully self adjusting but has some
structure or pavement is a flexibility. The mattress type is
suitable material for slope very flexible. For some
protection. Method B placement locations, gabions may be more
under Section 72 of the Standard aesthetically acceptable than rock
Specifications can be used if the riprap. Where larger stone sizes
size and shape of the broken are not readily available and the
concrete pieces available flow does not abrade the wire
approximate those of natural baskets, they may also be more
rock. Fairly uniform slabs or cost effective. The range of
other regular shapes can be hand maximum velocities recom-
placed on the slope in horizontal mended for use of gabions is
courses to form a substantial 3.0 mls for sustained flows and
revetment. This method of 4.5 d s for intermittent flows.
placement is expensive and Refer to HEC-11, Design of
requires judgement in selecting Riprap Revetment, Section
sizes and shapes to avoid filling 6.1.2, for further discussion on
of open spaces between pieces. the use of gabions for slope
Filling of voids with small pieces protection.
July 1,1995
(e) Articulated Precast Concrete.

This type of revetment consists
for further discussion on the use
of articulated concrete mat-
@
of vre-cast concrete blocks tresses.
which interlock with each other, (3) Rigid Revetments.
are attached to each other, or
butted together to form a (a) PCC Grouted Rock Slope Protection.
continuous-blanket or mat. A (1) General Features. This type of
number of block designs are revetment consists of rock slope
commercially available. They protection with outer voids filled
differ in shape and method of with PCC to form a monolithic
articulation, but share common armor. A typical section of this type
features of flexibility and rapid of installation is shown in Figure
installation. Most provide for 873.3E. It has application in areas
establishment of vegetation where rock of sufficient size for
within the revetment. ordinary rock slope protection is not
The permeable nature of these economically available, and in other
revetments permits free draining areas to reduce the quantity of rock.
of the embankment and their Grouting not only protects the stones
flexibility allows the mat to from the full force of high-velocity
adjust to minor changes in bank water but integrates a greater mass to
geometry. Pre-cast concrete resist its pressure.
block revetments may be
economically justified where Figure 873.3E
suitable rock for slope protection
is not readily available. They are
generally more aesthetically
pleasing than other types of
PCC Grouted Rock Slope 0
revetment, particularly after
Protection
vegetation has become
established.
Individual blocks are commonly
>< PCC Penetration (min)
joined together with cable or

synthetic fiber rope, to form
articulated block mattresses. PCC Grouted RSP
Pre-assembled in sections to fit
the site, the mattresses can be RSP
used on slopes up to 1:1.5 when
anchored at the top of the (2) *ed RSP
:tion
revetment to secure the system
against slippage.
Pre-cast block revetments that
are formed by butting individual
blocks end to end, with no
physical connection, should not ~ e ~ oScour
w ~ e p t h1
or to Bad Rock
be used on slopes steeper than
1:3. An engineering fabric is
Notes:
normally used on the slope to
prevent the erosion of the (1) Only if needed (see text).
underlying embankment through (2) If needed to relieve hydrostatic pressure.
the voids in the concrete blocks. Refer to Table 873.3B for section thickness.
Refer to HEC-11, Design of This is not a standard design. Dimensions and details should
Riprap Revetment, Section 6.2, be modified as required.
July 1, 1995
@ (2) Design Concepts. Grouting will

appreciably increase the cost per unit
conform to the provisions of
Standard Specifications section 90,
volume of stone, but the use of "Portland Cement Concrete."
smaller stones in PCC grouted rock Size and grading of stone and PCC
slope protection than in an equivalent penetration depth are provided in
protection using ungrouted stones Standard Specification 72-5.
permits a lesser thickness of
protection, which offsets to some (b) Sacked-Concrete Slope Protection. This
extent the cost of PCC. method of protection consists of facing
the embanhent with sacks filled witL
As this type of protection is rigid concrete. It is an expensive but much
without high strength, support by used type of revetment. Much hand
the embankment must be maintained. labor is required but it is simple to
Slopes steeper than the angle of construct and adaptable to almost any
repose of the embankment are risky, embankment contour. Economic justifi-
but with rocks grouted in place, little cation for this type of revetment often
is to be gained with slopes flatter depends upon the use of local pit-run
than 1:1.5. Precautions to prevent material for aggregate, which need not
undermining of embankment are conform to that ordinarily associated
particularly important. The PCC with structural concrete. Details of
grouted rock must be founded on sacked concrete slope protection are
solid rock or below the depth of shown on Standard Plan B 13-1.
~ossiblescour. Ends should be
brotected by tying into solid rock or Tensile strength is low and as there is no
forming smooth transitions with flexibility, the installation must depend
embankment subjected to lower almost entirely upon the stability of the
velocities. As a precaution, cutoff embankment for support and therefore
stubs may be provided as are used should not be placed on face slopes
with sacked PCC slope protection. much steeper than the angle of repose of
If the embankment material is the embankment material. Slopes
exposed at the top, freeboard is steeper than 1:l are rare; 1:1.5 is
warranted to prevent overtopping. common. The flatter the slope, the less
is the area of bond between sacks.
The volume of concrete required will From a construction standpoint it is not
be that necessary to fill voids. This practical to increase the area of bond
usually amounts to from 0.25 to between sacks; therefore for slopes as
0.33 times the volume of the stone to flat as 1:2 all sacks should be laid as
be grouted. headers rather than stretchers.
(3) Specifications. Quality specifica- Integrity of the revetment can be
tions for rock used in PCC grouted increased by embedding dowels in
rock slope protection are usually the adjoining sacks to reinforce intersack
same as for rock used in ordinary bond. A No. 10 deformed bar driven
rock slope protection. However, as through a top sack into the underlying
the rocks are protected by the sack while the concrete is still fresh is
concrete which surrounds them, effective. At cold joints, the first course
specifications for specific gravity of sacks should be impaled on projecting
and hardness may be lowered if bars that were driven into the last
necessary. The concrete used to fill previously placed course. The extra
the voids is normally 25 rnm strength may only be needed at the
maximum size aggregate, class B or perimeter of the revetment.
minor concrete. Exce~tfor freeze-
thaw testing of aggrigates, which Almost all failures of sacked concrete are
may be waived in the contract special a result of stream water eroding the
provisions, the concrete should
July 1,1995
embankment material from the bottom, only 75 to 150 mm, the cost on a
the ends, or the top. basis of area covered will usually be
The bottom should be founded on less than for sacked-concrete slope
bedrock or below the depth of possible protection. This is especially so
scour. In the case where streambed when sufficiently large quantities are
sands have normal specific gravity a involved and alignment is such as to
depth of 1.5 m below the flow line of warrant the use of mass production
the stream is common ~ractice. equipment such as slip-form pavers.
A
If the ends are not tied into rock or other Due to the rigidity of PCC slope
nonerosive material, cutoff returns are to paving, its foundation must be good
be provided and if the protection is long, and the embankment stable.
cutoff stubs are built at 10 m intervals, Although reinforcement will enable it
in order to prevent or retard a to bridge small settlements of the
progressive failure. embankment face, even moderate
movements could be disastrous.
Protection should be high enough to The toe must be on bedrock or
preclude overtopping. If the roadway extend below possible scour. When
grade is subject to flooding and the this is not feasible without costly
shoulder material does not contain suffi- underwater construction, rock or
cient rock to prevent erosion from the PCC grouted RSP have been used as
top, then pavement should be carried a foundation. A better but much
over the top of the slope protection in more expensive solution is to place
order to prevent water entering from this the toe on a PCC wall or piles.
direction Every precaution must be taken to
For good appearance, it is essential that exclude stream water from pervious
the sacks be placed in horizontal zones behind the slope paving. The
courses. If the foundation is irregular, light slabs will be lifted by compara-
corrective work such as placement of tively small hydrostatic pressures,
entrenched concrete or sacked concrete opening joints or cracks at other
is necessary to level up the foundation. points in a series of progressive
Refer to "Highways in the River failures leading to extensive or
Environment", Section 5.3.4, for further complete failure.
discussion on the use of sacked concrete Considering the severity of failure
slope protection. from bank erosion or hydrostatic
(c) Concrete Slope Paving. pressure after overtopping, 0.3 to
(1) General Features. This method of 0.6 m of freeboard above design
protection consists of paving the high water is recommended for this
embankment with portland cement type of revetment. Refer to HEC-
concrete. Details of concrete slope 11, Design of Riprap Revetment,
protection are shown on Standard Section 6.4, for further discussion
Plan B 13-1. Slope paving is used on the use of concrete slope paving.
only where flow is controlled and (d) Fabric Formed Protection. This method
will not over-top the protection. of protection uses sectionalized fabric
It is particularly adaptable to mattresses filled with a fine aggregate
locations where high-velocity flow is concrete as facing for embankment, river
not detrimental but desirable and the bank, and lake shore. Fabric formed
hydraulic efficiency of smooth slope paving is a relatively new and cost
surfaces is important. It has been effective alternative to conventional
used very little in shore protection. slope paving methods.
On a cubic meter basis the cost is A double-layered envelope of nylon,
high but as the thickness is generally polypropylene or other suitable synthetic
July 1.1995
fabric is laid on the area to be protected (e) Soil Cement Slope Protection. This
then filled. Filling consists of pumping kind of slope protection consists of
a fine aggregate concrete into the inplace constructing the outer limit of highway
fabric mat. Fabric mattresses are made embankments with compacted cement
in 50 to 300 mm thickness and in a treated material. Standard highway
variety of block sizes and configura- construction equipment may be used to
tions. place and compact soil cement slope
protection on 1:1.5 to 1:4 slopes.
Hydrostatic uplift pressure is relieved Where rock riprap material is not readily
through filter points or plastic weep available, soil cement slope protection
tubes inserted in the mats. A filter fabric may be the most economical alternative
is used under the mat when relief of type revetment. Soil cement is also well
hydrostatic pressure is necessary. suited for use in median ditches or other
wide drainage areas that cannot be
Table 873.3F vegetated.
Channel Linings A wide variety of selected on site soils
or local borrow can be used to make
Mean Thickness of Lining Minimum durable soil cement slope protection.
Velocity (mm) Reinforcement Any good sandy soil is generally
(mls) acceptable and depending on the quality
Sides Bottom of the soil, the percent cement will vary
from 7% to 14%. The actual percentage
Portland Cement Concrete must be determined by laboratory tests.
or Air Blown Mortar If requested, the District Materials
Engineer can provide information on the
quality of soil available and
recommended cement content.
welded wire
Fabric Either plant mixed or mixed in-place
methods may be used. Placed and
3 - 4.5 100 -125 125 -150 #15 Bars at compacted in horizontal layers, each
300 mm and
450 rnm centers layer 150 to 200 mm thick and wide
enough to be placed with standard
4.5or 150-200 175-200 #10Barsat highway construction equipment, will
more 300 mm centers result in a stair-step outer face.
both ways
Thickness of soil cement slope
protection is measured normal to the
A major advantage of this type revetment slope. A 0.3 m thickness is considered
is the ease of placement. It may be adequate for flow velocities up to
placed in the dry or underwater. The 3.5 rnls and is a practical minimum
fabric weave is such that it will restrain thickness where standard methods of
cement loss while permitting the release constructing highway embankments are
of excess mixing water which improves used. With variations in design or
the quality of the concrete. construction procedures, any desired
A secondary advantage is that sufficient thickness can be obtained. One such
silt and soil is often deposited in the variation is to simultaneously place and
mattress indentations to support compact the horizontal layers of soil
vegetation. As a result, the root systems cement facing with the embankment.
that develop help anchor the mattress. The relationship of facing thickness, t,
layer width, w, layer thickness and
Three most common types of fabric embankment slope is shown in Figure
formed mattress configurations are 873.3H.
shown in Figure 873.3G.
July 1,1995
Figure 873.3G
Grout Filled Fabric Mattresses
Filter Point Section - The 2 layers are woven together at

125 to 250 mm centers. Thickness varies from 50 to
150 mm depending on the spacing of the points of at-
tachment. The points of attachment serve as filter points
to relieve hydrostatic uplift. The finished revetment has
a deeply cobbled or quilted appearance.
Uniform Section - The 2 layers of fabric are joined to-

gether by interwoven tie cords. Thickness varies from
150 to 250 mm depending on the tie cord spacing. The
finshed revetment is of relatively uniform cross section
and has a cobbled appearance.
Articulated Block Section - The 2 layers of fabric ate

interwoven to form a pattern of rectangular blocks that
may vary in size and thickness. With this heavy duty
type, the 2 layers of fabric are interwoven to form a
pattern of relatively large rectangular shaped blocks.
Blocks of any reasonable dimensions of length, width,
and thickness desired can be fabricated. Block thickness
is controlled by spacer cords in the middle of each block.
In smaller sizes, such as 300 mm square or 250 x 500
mm rectangular shapes, the thickness is typically 100 to
150 mm. In large sizes, such as 600 mm square or 500
x 600 mm rectangular shapes, the thickness is typically
from 150 to 300 mm. The interweaving between blocks
serves as filter locations for relief of hydrostatic uplift
and as hinges. Cable or synthetic fiber rope threaded
between the fabric layers prior to filling, tie the blocks
together and permit articulation. The finished revetment
has a quilted appearance.
July 1,1995
No unusual construction practices or

Figure 873.3H special equipment are required.
Soil Cement Slope Protection Properly designed and constructed it

is virtually maintenance free.
Refer to "Highways in the River
Environment", Section 5.3.10, for
further discussion on the use of soil
cement slope protection.
(4) Bulkheads. A bulkhead is a steep or vertical
structure supporting a natural slope or
constructed embankment. As bank and
shore protection structures, bulkheads serve
to secure the bank against erosion as well as
retaining it against sliding. As a slope
protection structure, revetment design
principles are used, the only essential
difference being the steepness of the face
slope. As a retaining structure, conventional
design methods for retaining walls, cribs
and laterally loaded piles are used.
Example: Bulkheads are usually expensive, but may
Find the horizontal layer width for a 1:2 embankment slope
be economically justified in special cases
using a compacted layer thickness of 200 mm to provide a
where valuable riparian property or
0.3 m thickness normal to the slope. improvements are involved and foundation
conditions are not satisfactory for less
expensive types of slope protection. They
may be used for toe protection in combina-
tion with other revetment types of slope
Soil cement slope protection is to be protection. Some other considerations that
founded on nonerodible material or may justify the use of bulkheads include:
below the depth of possible scour to
ensure against undermining of the toe. Encroachment on a channel cannot
Consideration should be made to be tolerated.
providing cutoff stubs at the ends of the Retreat of highway alignment is not
installation to prevent undercutting by viable.
waves or current.
Right of Way is restricted.
In addition to economy, the following
are some of the other advantages to The force and direction of the stream
using soil cement revetments: can best be redirected by a vertical
structure.
Slight settlement or other minor
movement of the highway The foundation for bulkheads must be
embankment does not impair its positive and all terminals secure against
stability. erosive forces. The length of the structure
should be the minimum necessary, with
It presents a pleasing appearance, transitions to other less expensive types of
usually acceptable in recreational and slope protection when possible. Eddy
environmentally sensitive areas. currents can be extremely damaging at the
terminals and transitions. If overtopping of
No unusual design considerations the bulkheads is anticipated, suitable
are required. protection should be provided.
Along a stream bank, using a bulkhead pre-

sumes a channel section so constricted as to
mommended for use as protection
because of vulnerability to corrosion and
@
~rohibituse of a cheauer device on a natural abrasion.
hope. Velocity wifi be unnaturally high The design of crib walls is essentially a
along the face of the bulkhead, which must determination of line, foundation grade,
have a fairly smooth surface to avoid and height with special attention given to
compounding the restriction. The high potential scour and possible loss of
velocity will increase the threat of scour at backfill at the base and along the toe.
the toe and erosion at the downstream end. Design details for concrete crib walls are
Allowance must be made for these threats in shown on Standard Plans C7A through
selecting the type of foundation, grade of C7G. Concrete crib walls used as
footing, penetration of piling, transition, and bulkheads and exposed to salt water
anchorage at downstream end. Transitions require special provisions specifying the
at both ends may appropriately taper the use of coated rebars and special high
width of channel and slope of the bank. density concrete. Recommendations
Transition in roughness is desirable if from METS should be requested.
attainable. Refer to "Hiehwavs in the River
Environment", section "5.3. ldl , for further Design details for timber crib walls of
discussion on the use of bulkheads to dimensioned lumber are shown on
prevent streambank erosion or failure. Standard Plans C9A and C9B. Timber
Along a shore, use of a bulkhead presumes cribs of logs, notched to interlock at the
a steep lake or sea bed profile, such that contacts, may also be used. All
revetment on a 1: 1.5 or flatter slope would dimensioned lumber should be treated to
project into prohibitively deep water or resist decay.
permit intolerable wave runup. Such shores (c) Sheet Piling. Timber, concrete and steel
are generally rocky, offering good sheet piling are used for bulkheads that
foundation on residual reefs, but historic depend on deep penetration of
destruction of the overlying formation attests foundation materials for all or part of
to the hydraulic power of the sea to be their stability. High bulkheads are
resisted by an artificial replacement. The usually counterforted at upper levels
face of such a bulkhead must be designed to with batter piles or tie back systems to
absorb or dissipate as much as practical the deadmen. Any of the three materials is
shock of these forces. Designers should adaptable to sheet piling or a sheathed
consult Volume 11, U.S. Army Corps of system of post or column piles.
Engineers' Shore Protection Manual,
Chapter 6, for more complete information Excluding structural requirements,
and details on the use of bulkheads, design of pile bulkheads is essentially as
seawalls, and revetments along a shore. follows:
(a) Concrete or Masonry Walls. The Recognition of foundation condi-
expertise and coordination of several tions suitable to or demanding deep
engineering disciplines is required to penetration. Penetration of at least
accomplish the development of PS&E 4.5 m below scour level, or into soft
for concrete walls serving the dual rock, should be assured.
purpose of slope protection and support. Choice of material. Timber is
The Division of Structures is responsible suitable for very dry or very wet
for the structural integrity of all retaining climates, for other situations
walls, including bulkheads. economic comparison of preliminary
(b) Crib walls. Timber and concrete cribs designs and alternative materials
can be used for bulkheads in locations should be made.
where some flexibility is desirable or Determination of line and grade.
permissible. Metal cribs are limited to Fairly smooth transitions with
support of embankment and are not
July 1,1995
a protection to high-water level should

be provided.
mulching techniques will not withstand
erosive flow velocities. The designer
should recognize that flow velocity estimates
(5) Vegetation. Vegetation is the most natural and a particular soils resistance to erosion
method for stabilization of embankments are parameters that must be based on
and channel bank protection. It is relatively specific site conditions. Using arbitrarily
easy to maintain, visually attractive and selected values for design of vegetative
environmentally more desirable. The root slope protection without consultation and
system forms a binding network that helps verification from the Office of Landscape
hold the soil. Grass and woody plants Architecture is not recommended.
above ground provide resistance to the near However, a suggested starting point of
bank water flow causing it to lose much of reference is Table 862.2 in which the
its erosive energy. resistance of various unprotected soil
Erosion control and revegetation mats are classifications to flow velocities are given.
flexible three-dimensional mats or nets of Under near ideal conditions, ordinary
natural or synthetic material that protect soil seeding and mulching methods cannot
and seeds against water erosion. They reasonably be expected to withstand
permit vegetation growth through the web of sustained flow velocities above 1.2 d s . If
the mat material and are used as channel velocities are in excess of 1.2 d s , a lining
linings where ordinary seeding and maybe needed (See Table 873.31).
Table 873.31
Permissible Velocities for Flexible Channel Linings
a Permissible Velocity
Type of ini in^' (ds)
Intermittent Sustained
Flow Flow
Vegetation:
Bermuda Grass, uncut
Bermuda Grass, mowed or Crab Grass, uncut
Riprap:
Gravel, 25 mm
Gravel, 50 mm
Cobble, 75 mm
Cobble, 150 mm
Temporary:
Woven Paper Net
Jute Net
Fiberglass Roving
Straw with Net
Curled Wood Mat
Synthetic Mat 3.2 2.3
e N r n
1. Ref. HEC-15 & HDS #4
July 1,1995
Temporary channel liners are used to The degree of permeability is among the
establish vegetative growth in a drainage most important properties of control
way or as slope protection prior to the structures. An impermeable structure may
placement of a permanent armoring. Some deflect a current entirely, whereas a
typical temporary channel liners are: permeable structure may serve mainly to
reduce the strength of water velocity,
Straw currents or waves.
Excelsior Training systems of the retard and
Jute permeable jetty types are similar in that they
are usually extensive or multi-unit open
Wovenpaper structures like; piling, fencing, and unit
Vegetative and temporary channel liners are frames. They are dissimilar in function and
suitable for conditions of uniform flow and alignment, retards being parallel and groins
moderate shear stresses. oblique to the banks. The retard is a milder
remedy than jetty construction.
Permanent soil reinforcing mats and rock
riprap may serve the dual purpose of (a) Retard Types. A retard is a bank
temporary and permanent channel liner. protection structure designed to check
Some typical permanent channel liners are: riparian velocity and induce silting and
accretion. They are usually placed
Gravel or cobble size riprap parallel to the highway embankment or
Fiberglass roving erodible banks of channels on stable
gradients. Retards typically take the
Geosynthetic mats following forms of construction:
Polyethelene cells or grids Fencing - single or double lines
Gabion Mattresses
Composite designs are often used where Palisades - piles and netting
there are sustained low flows of high to Timber piling or pile bents
moderate velocities and intermediate high
water flows of low to moderate velocities. Steel or timber jacks
Brush layering is a permanent type of
erosion control technique that may also have Retards are applicable primarily on
application for channel protection, streams which meander to some extent
particularly as a composite design. Further within a mature valley. Typical uses
information on brush layering and fiberglass include the following:
roving methods and techniques are available
from METS. Protection at the toe of highway
embankments that encroach on a
Design procedures for determining suitable stream channel.
maximum conditions for vegetation,
temporary and permanent channel liners are Training and control to inhibit
given in Chapter IV, HEC-15, Design of erosion upstream and
Roadside Channels and Flexible Linings. downstream from stream
crossings.
873.4 Training Systems
Control of erosion redeposition
( I ) General. Training systems are structures, of material where progressive
usually within a channel, that act as embayments are creating a
countermeasures to control the direction, problem.
velocity, or depth of flowing water. As
shore protection, they control shoaling and (1) Fence Type. Fence-type structures
scour by deflecting the strength of currents are used as retards, permeable or
and waves. impermeable jetties, and as baffles.
July 1, 1995
These structures can be constructed order that heavy objects such

of various materials. as logs will pass over the top
during normal floods.
Fence type retards may be effective
on smaller streams and areas subject Piles must have sufficient
to infrequent attack, such as penetration to prevent loss
overflow areas. Single and double from scour or impact by
rows of various types of fencing floating debris or both. This is
have been used. The principal especially important for the
difference between fence retards and piles at the outer end of jetties.
ordinary wire fences is that the posts If scour is a problem, the pile
of retards must be driven sufficiently may be protected by a layer of
deep to avoid loss by scour. rock placed on the streambed.
Piles should be long enough to
Permeability can be varied in the penetrate below probable
design to fit the requirements of the scour, with penetration of a
location for single fences, the factor least 4.5 m in streams with
most readily varied is the pattern of sandy beds and velocities of
the wire mesh. For multiple fences, 3.0 to 4.5 mls.
the mesh pattern can be varied or the
space between fences can be filled to Ends of the system should be
any desired height. Making joined to the bank in order to
optimum use of local materials, this prevent parallel high-velocity
fill may be brush ballasted by rock, flow between the retard and the
or rock alone. bank. If the installation is
long, additional bank connec-
e (2) Piles and Palisades. Retards and

jetties may be of single, double, or
triple rows of piles with the outside
tions may be placed at
intervals.
Facing material should be
or upstream row faced with wire fastened to the upstream or
mesh fencing material, boards or channel side of the piling in
polymeric straps interwoven into a order that the force of the water
high-strength net. The facing adds and impact of debris will not
to the retarding effect and may trap be entirely on the fasteners.
light brush or debris to supplement
its purpose. This type retard is (3) Jacks and Tetrahedrons. Jacks and
particularly adapted to larger tetrahedrons are skeletal frames that
streams where the piles will can be used as retards or permeable
remain in the water. The number of jetties. Cables can be used to tie a
pile rows and amount of facing may number of similar units together in
be varied to control the deposition of longitudinal alignment and for
material. In leveed rivers it is often anchorage of key units to deadmen.
desirable to discourage accretion so Struts and wires are added to the
as to not constrict the channel but basic frames to increase impedance
provide sufficient retarding effect to to flow of water directly by their
prevent loss of a light bank own resistance and indirectly by the
protection such as vegetation or light debris they collect.
rock facing. Both devices serve best in
Typical design considerations meandering streams which carry
include: considerable bed load during flood
stages. Impedance of the stream
If the stream carries heavy along the string of units will cause
debris, the elevation of the top deposit of alluvium, especially at the
of the pile should be well crest and during the falling stage.
below the high-water level in Beds of such streams often scour on
the rising stage, undercutting the the upstream end to anchorage on the
units and causing their subsidence, downstream end beyond the area
often accompanied by rotation when under direct attack. Since erosion
one leg or side is undercut more than often progresses downstream, this
the other. Deposition of the falling possibility should be considered in
stage usually restores the former determining the planned length.
bed, partially or completely burying The top of a retard need not extend
the units. In that lowered and to the elevation of design high water.
rotated poition, they may still be In major rivers and streams where
completely effective in future floods. drift is large and heavy it is essential
Retards may be used alone or in that the retard be low enough to pass
combination with other types of debris over the top during stages of
slope protection. In combination high flow.
with a lighter type of armor they may For further information on retards
be more economical than a heavier refer to Section 5.4.3, "Highways in
type of protection. They can be used the River Environment".
as toe protection for other types of
slope protection where a good (b) Jetty Types. A jetty is an elongated
foundation is impractical because of -cial obstruction projecting into a
high water or extreme depth of poor stream or the sea from bank or shore to
material. control shoaling and scour by deflection
or redirection of currents and waves.
Where new embankment is placed
behind the retard consideration This classification may be subdivided
should be given to protecting the with respect to permeability.
slope to inhibit erosion until the Impermeable jetties being used to deflect
retard has had an opportunity to the stream and permeable jetties being
function. The slope protection used used not only to deflect the stream but to
should promote the establishment of permit some flow through the structure
a natural cover, such as discussed to minimize the formation of eddies
under Index 873.3(5), Vegetation. immediately downstream. Most jetty
Retards on tangent reaches of installations are permeable structures.
narrow channels may, by slowing Permeable jetties typically take the
the velocity on one side, cause an following forms of construction:
increase in velocity, on the other.
On wider reaches of a meandering Palisades -- piles and netting.
stream they may, by slowing a Single and double rows of timber-
rebounding high velocity thread, braced piling.
have a beneficial effect on the
opposite bank. Where the prime Steelortimberjacks.
purpose of the retard system is to
reduce stream bank velocity to Precast concrete, interlocking shapes
encourage deposition of material or hollow blocks.
intended to alter the channel Impermeablejetties typically take the fol-
alignment the effect on adjacent lowing forms of construction:
property must be assessed. Where
deposition of material is the primary Guide and spur dikes, earth or rock.
function, the service life of the PCC grouted riprap dikes.
installation is dependent on the
deposition rate and the ultimate Single and double lines of sheeting
establishment of a natural retard. or sheet piling (steel, timber or
The length of a retard system should concrete, framed and braced or on
extend from a secure anchorage on piling).
July 1,1995
Double fence, filled. economic length of bridge. At these

locations high water flows can cause
Log or timber cribs, filled. damaging eddy currents that scour away
Impermeable jetties in the form of fded abutment foundations and erode
fences and cribs have been used with approach embankments. The purose of
only limited success. Characteristic guide dikes is twofold. The first is to
performance of these is the development align flow from a wide floodplain
of an eddy current immediately toward the bridge opening. The second
downstream which attacks the bank and is to move the damaging eddy currents
often requires secondary protective from the approach roadway embankment
measures. to the upstream end of the dike.
Basic principles for permeable jetties are Guide banks are usually earthen
much the same as for retards, the embankment faced with rock slope
important difference being that they protection. Optimum shape and length
deflect the flow in addition to of guide dikes will be different for each
encouraging deposition. The preceding site. Field experience has shown that an
comment on retards should be elliptical shape with a major to minor
considered as related and applicable to axis ratio of 2.5:l is effective in
jetties when qualified by this basic reducing turbulence. The length is
difference. dependant on the ratio of flow diverted
from the flood plain to flow in the first
Permeable jetties are placed at an angle 30 m of waterway under the bridge. If
with the embankment and are more the use of another shape dike, such as a
applicable in meandering streams for the straight dike, is required for practical
purpose of directing or forcing the reasons more scour should be expected
current away from the embankment. at the upstream end of the dike. The
When the purpose is to deposit material bridge end will generally not be
and promote growth, the jetties are immediately threatened should a failure
considered to have fulfilled their occur at the upstream end of a guide
function and are expendable when this dike.
occurs.
They also encourage deposition of bed Figure 873.4A
material and growth of vegetation.
Retards build a narrow strip in front of
the embankment, where as permeable Bridge Abutment Guide Banks
jetties cover a wider area roughly
limited by the envelope of the outer
ends.
The relation between length and spacing
of jetties should approximate unity as a
general rule to assure complete
entrapment and retention of material.
The spacing can be increased if the
resulting scalloped effect is not
detrimental to the desired result.
(c) Guide DikesIBanks. Guide banks are
appendages to the highway embankment
at bridge abutments (Figure 873.4A).
They are smooth extensions of the fill
slope on the upstream side. Approach
embankments are frequently planned to
project into wide floodplains, to attain an
July 1, 1995
Toe dikes are sometimes needed Assistance from the U.S. Army Corp of
downstream of the bridge end to guide Engineers is necessary to adequately
flow away from the structure so that design a slope protection groin
redistribution in the flood plain will not installation. Designers should consult
cause erosion damage to the Volume 11, Chapter 6, Section VI, of the
embankment due to eddy currents. The Corps' Shore Protection Manual for a
shape of toe dikes is of less importance more complete discussion on groins.
than it is with upstream guide banks. Preliminary studies can be made by
using basic information and data
For further information on spur dike and available from USGS quadrangle sheets,
guide bank design procedures refer to USC & GS navigation charts,
Section 5.4, "Highways in the River hydrographic charts on currents for the
Environment". General design Northeast Pacific Ocean and aerial
considerations and guidance for photos of the area.
evaluating scour and stream stability at
highway bridges is contained in HEC- 18 For a groin to function satisfactorily,
and HEC-20. there must be littoral drift to supply and
replenish the beach between groins. The
(d) Groins. A groin is a relatively slender groins detain rather than retain the drift
barrier structure usually aligned to the and soon will be ineffective unless there
primary motion of water designed to trap is a steady source of replenishment. A
littoral drift, retard bank or shore new groin installation will starve the
erosion, or control movement of bed downcoast beach, temporarily at least,
load. and permanently if the supply of drift is
These devices are usually solid; meager. Reference is made to the Army
however, upon occasion to control the Corps of Engineers' Shore Protection
elevation of sediments they may be Manual, Volume 1, Chapter 4, for more
constructed with openings. Groins detailed information on the littoral
typically take the following forms of process.
construction: Factors pertinent to design include:
Rock mound. (1) Alignment. Factors which influence
alignment are effectiveness in
PCC grouted rock dike. detaining littoral drift, and self-
Sand filled plastic coated nylon protection of the groin against
bags. damage by wave action.
A field of groins acts as a series of
Single or double lines of sheet headlands, with beaches between
piling. each pair aligned in echelon, that is,
The primary use of groins is for ocean extending from outer end of the
shore protection. When used as stream downdrift groin to an intermediate
channel protection to retard bank erosion point on the updrift groin (Figure
and to control the movement of 873.4C) The offset in beach line at
streambed material they are normally of each groin is a function of spacing of
lighter construction than that required for groins, volume of littoral drift, slope
shore installation. of sea bed and strength of the sea,
varying measurably with the season.
In its simplest or basic form, a groin is a Length and spacing must be
spur structure extending outward from complementary to assure continuity
the shore over beach and shoal. A of beach in front of a highway
typical layout of a shore protection groin embankment.
installation is shown in Figure 873.4B.
July 1,1995
warrant shortening of the groin in

Figure 873.48 proportion to the cosine of the
obliquity (Fig. 873.4C).
Typical Groin Layout With Conformity of groin to direction of
Resultant Beach Configuration approach of the median sea provides
an optimum ratio of groin length to
spacing, and the groin is least
vulnerable to storm damage. Attack
on the groin will be longitudinal
during a median sea and oblique on
Roadway \- either side in other seas.
Figure 873.4C
Alignment of Groins to an Oblique
Sea Warrants Shortening
Proportionalto Cosine of Obliquity.
-
Wave Front
Drift
former k o c h line In equllibriurn
LONG GROINS WITHOUT REVETMENT I b 1
t I t
Wave Front
(2) Grade. The top of groins should be

SHORT GROINS WlTH LIGHT STONE parallel to the existing beach grade.
REVElUENT Sand may pass over a low barrier.
The top of the groin should be
Note:
established higher than the existing
"S"," L and "8"are determined by conditions at site.
beach, say 0.6 m as a minimum for
A series of parallel spurs normal to moderate exposure combined with
the beach extending seaward would an abundance of littoral drift, to
be correct for a littoral drift 1.5 m for severe exposure and
alternating upcoast and downcoast in deficiency of littoral drift.
equal measure. However, if drift is The shore end should be tapered
predominantly in one direction the upward to prevent attack of highway
median attack by waves contributes embankment by rip currents, and the
materially to the longshore current seaward end should be tapered
because of oblique approach. In that downward to match the side slope of
case the groin should be more the groin in order to diffuse the
effective if built oblique to the same direct attack of the sea on the end of
degree. Such an alignment will the groin.
July 1,1995
(3) Length and Spacing. The length of Face stone may be chosen one class
groin should equal or exceed the below the requirement for revetment
sum of the offset in shoreline at each by Chart A or B (Figure 873.3D).
groin plus the width of the beach Full mass stone should be specified
from low water (LW) to high water for bed stones, for the front face at
(HW) line (Figure 873.4C). The the outer end of the groin, and for
offset is approximately the product cap stones exposed to overrun.
of the groin spacing and the Core stones in wide groins may be
obliquity (in radians) of the smaller.
entrapped beach. The width of Width of groin at top should be at
beach is the product of the slope least 1.5 times the diameter of cap
factor and the range in stage. The stones, or wider if necessary for
relation can be formulated: operation of equipment. Side slopes
L = ab + rh, where should be 1:1.5 for optimum
L = Length of groin, (m) economy and ordinary stability. If
a = obliquity of entrapped beach this slope demands heavier stone
in radians, than is available, side slope can be
b = beach width between flattened or the cap and face stones
groins, (m) bound together with grout as shown
r = reciprocal of beach slope, in Figure 873.3E.
h = range in stage, (m) (e) Baffle. A baffle is a pier, vane, sill,
For example, with groins 120 m fence, wall or mound built on the bed of
apart, obliquity up to 20 degrees, on a stream to control, deflect, check or
a beach sloping 1: 10 with a tidal rage disturb the flow or to float on the surface
of 3 m, to dampen wave action.
Baffles typically take the following
forms of construction:
The same formula would have
required L = 118 m for 250 m Single or multiple lines of fence.
spacing, reducing the aggregate
length of groins but increasing the Drop Structures (gabions, rock,
depth of water at the outer ends and concrete, etc.).
the average cost per meter. For
some combination of length and Dikes of earth or rock.
spacing the total cost will be a
minimum, which should be sought Floating boom.
for economical design. These devices may vary in magnitude
If groins are too short, the attack of from a check dam on a small stream to a
the sea will still reach the highway system of training dikes or permeable
embankment with only some jetties for deflecting or directing flow.
reduction of energy. Some sites When using fences, palisades, or dikes
may justify a combination of short as deflectors along the more mature
groins with light revetment to valleys or meandering streams, the
accommodate this remaining energy. potential erosion to previously
unexposed areas, threat to adjacent
(4) Section. The typical section of a property, eddy currents and possibility
groin is shown in Figure 873.4D. of scour should all be assessed. When
The stone may be specified as a used as a collecting system to control
single class, or by designating and direct the flow to new or existing
classes to be used as bed, core, face drainage facilities or to bridge openings,
and cap stones. the alignment of the installation should
be developed as a series of curves and
July 1,1995
Figure 873.4D
Typical Stone Dike Groin Details
Slope parallel to existing beach

Shore slope protection
/- MHHW
\ Existing bcoch
ELEVATION
- 1
-
-
- 1 :1.5 slope
- I 0.7L
- 6
L
1-
- m
a
I
PLAN
f Cap stone
I
stone. Mass of rock
nds on exposure.
-Core rock
Bedstone
SECTON
SECTION - PCC GROUTED
@ This is not a standard design.

Dimensions and details should be modified as required.
July 1,1995
intervening tangents guiding the stream

through transitions to maintain smooth
assure that all necessary information is included
in the plans and specifications. It is a
@
and steady flow. The surface and comprehensive list for all types of protection.
curvature of the training device should Items pertinent to any particular type can be
be governed by the natural or modified selected readily and the rest ignored.
velocity. 1. Location of the planned work with respect
Drop structures or check dams are an to:
effective means of gradient control.
They may be constructed of rock, The highway.
gabions, concrete, timber, sacked
concrete, fded fences, sheet piling or The stream or shore.
combinations of any of the above. They Right of way.
are most suited to locations where bed
materials are relatively impervious 2. Datum control of the work, and relation of
otherwise underflow must be prevented that datum to gage datum on streams, and
by cutoffs. Refer to "Highways in the both MSL and MLLW on the shore.
River Environment", Section 5.4.8, for 3. A typical cross section indicating
further discussion on the use of drop dimensions, slopes, arrangement and
structures. connections.
Floating booms are effective protection 4. Quantity of materials (per meter, per
against the smaller wave actions protection unit, or per job).
common to lakes and tidal basins.
Anchorage is the prime structural 5. Relation of the foundation treatment with
consideration. respect to the existing ground.
873.5 Design Check List 6. Relation of the top of the proposed
protection to design high water (historic,
The designer should anticipate the more with date; or predicted, with frequency).
significant problems that are likely to occur 7. The limits of excavation and backfill as they
during the construction and maintenance of may affect measurement and payment.
channel and shore protection facilities. So far as
possible, the design should be adjusted to 8. Construction details such as weep holes,
eliminate or minimize those potential problems. rock slope protection fabrics, geocomposite
The logistics of the construction activity such as drains and associated materials.
access to the site, on-site storage of construction 9. Location and details of construction joints,
materials, time of year restrictions, cut-off stubs and end returns.
environmental concerns, and sequence of 10.Restrictions to the placement of
construction should be carefully considered reinforcement.
during the project design. The stream and
shoreline morphology and their response to 11.Connections and bracing for framing of
construction activities are an integral part of the timber or steel.
planning process. Communication between the 12. Splicing details for timber, pipe, rails and
designer and those responsible for construction structural shapes.
administration as well as maintenance are
important. 13. Anchorage details, particularly size, type,
Channel and shore protection facilities require location, and method of connection.
periodic maintenance inspection and repair. 14. Size, shape, and special requirements of
Where practicable, provisions should be made units such as precast concrete shapes and
in the facility design to provide access for other manufactured items.
inspection and maintenance.
15. Number and arrangement of cables and
The following check list has been prepared for details of fastening devices.
both the designer and reviewer. It will help
16. Size, mass per unit area, mesh spacing and restricted waterway. A floor or lining of
fastening details for wire-fabric or concrete, rock, etc., to protect a surface
geosynthetic materials. from erosion such as the pavement below
chutes, spillways, at the toes of dams, or
17. On timber pile construction the number of along the toe of bank protection.
piles per bent, number of bents, length of
piling, driving requirements, cut-off Armor. Artificial surfacing of bed, banks,
elevations, and framing details. shore or embankment to resist erosion or
scour.
18. On fence-type construction the number of
lines or rows of fence, spacing of lines, di- Arroyo. Waterway of an ephemeral stream
mensions of posts, details of bracing and deeply carved in rock or ancient alluvium.
anchorage ties, details of ties at end. Articulated. Made flexible by hinging par-
19.The details of gabions and the filling ticularly of small rigid slabs adapted to
material. revetment.
20. The size of articulated blocks, the placement Avulsion. (1) A forcible separation; also, a part
of steel, and construction details relating to tom off. (2) The sudden removal of land
fabrication. from the estate of one person to that of
another, as by a sudden change in a river,
2 1.The corrosion considerations that may the property thus separated continuing in the
dictate specialty concretes, coated original owner. A sudden shift in location
reinforcing, or other special requirements. of channel.
Topic 874 - Definitions Backing Layer. A layer of graded rock between
rock riprap and underlying engineering
The following glossary of terms are significant fabric or filter layer to prevent extrusion of
@ because of the divergent use of many words and
expressions pertinent to the field of highway
the soil or filter layer material through the
riprap.
drainage, erosion control, and channel and Backshore. The zone of the shore or beach
shore protection. The definitions given are not lying between the foreshore and the
necessarily those established by case law but coastline and acted upon by waves only
have been adopted because of their rational or during severe storms, especially when
prevalent usage and for consistency within the combined with exceptionally high water.
Department.
Backwater. An unnaturally high stage in stream
Derived forms are not separately defined when caused by obstruction or confinement of
the meaning should be clear from the basic flow, as by a dam, a bridge, or a levee. Its
form, such as alluvial and alluviation should be measure is the excess of unnatural over
implicit after alluvium is defined. natural stage, not the difference in stage -
Accretion. Outward growth of bank or shore upstream i d downstream from its cause.
sedimentation. Increase or extension of Bafle. A pier, vane, sill, fence, wall or mound
boundaries of land by action of natural built on the bed of a stream to parry, deflect,
forces. check or disturb the flow or to float on the
Aggradation. General and progressive raising surface to deflect or dampen cross currents
of a stream bed by deposition of sediment. or waves.
Modification of the earth's surface in the Bank. The lateral boundary of a stream
direction of uniformity of grade, or slope, confining water flow. The bank on the left
by deposition as in a river bed. side of a channel looking downstream is
Alluvium. Stream-borne materials deposited in called the left bank, etc.
and along a channel. Bank Protection. Revetment, or other armor
Apron. A lining of the bed of the channel protecting a bank of a stream from erosion,
upstream or downstream from a lined or includes devices used to deflect the forces of
erosion away from the bank.
July 1,1995
Bar. An elongated deposit of alluvium within a Breaker. A wave meeting a shore, reef, @
channel or across its mouth. sandbar, or rock and collapsing.
Barrier. A low dam or rack built to control flow Breakwater. A fixed or floating structure that
of debris. protects a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or
basin by intercepting waves.
Basin. (1) The surface of the area tributary to a
stream or lake. (2) Space above or below Bulkhead. A steep or vertical structure placed
ground capable of retaining or detaining on a bank, bluff, or embankment to retain or
water or debris. prevent sliding of the land and protect the
inland area against damage.
Bay. An indentation of bank or shore, in-
cluding erosional cuts and slipouts, not Bulking. The increase in volume of flow due to
necessarily large. air entrainment, debris, bedload, or
Beach. The zone of sedimentary material that
sediment in suspension.
extends landward from the low water line to Buoyancy. Uplift force on a submerged body
the place where there is marked change in equal to the mass of water displaced times
material or form, or to the line of permanent the acceleration of gravity.
vegetation (usually the effective limit of Canal. An artificial open channel.
storm waves). The seaward limit of a
beach, unless otherwise specified, is the Canyon. A large deep valley; also the sub-
mean low water line. A beach includes marine counterpart.
foreshore and backshore. Cap. Top layer of stone protective works.
Bed. The earth below any body of water, Capillarity. The attraction between water and
limited laterally by bank or shore. soil particles which cause water to move in
Bed b a d . Sediment that moves by rolling, any direction through the soil mass
sliding, or skipping along the bed and is regardless of gravitational forces.
essentially in contact with the stream bed. Causeway. A raised embankment or trestle over
Berm. (1) A bench or terrace between two swamp or overflow areas.
slopes. (2) A nearly horizontal part of the Cavitation. Erosion by suction, especially in the
beach or backshore formed at the high water partial vacuum of a divergingjet.
line by waves depositing material. Some
beaches have no berms, other have one or Celerity. Velocity of a moving wave, as dis-
several. tinguished from velocity of particles
Block. Precast prismatic unit for riprap oscillating in the wave.
structure. Channel. The space above the bed and between
Bluf. A high, steep bank composed of erodible
banks occupied by a stream.
materials. Check. A sill or weir in a channel to control
Boil. Turbulent break in a water surface by stage or velocity.
upwelling. ClifS. A high, steep face of rock; a precipice.
Boom. Floating log or similar element designed Cloudburst. Rain storm of great intensity
to dampen surface waves or control the usually over a small area for a short
movement of drift. duration.
Bore. A transient solitary wave in a narrow or Coast. (1) The strip of land, of indefmite width
converging channel advancing with a steep (up to several kilometers), that extends from
turbulent front; product of flash floods or in- the shoreline inland to the first major change
coming tides. in terrain features. (2) As a combining
Boulder. Largest rock transported by a stream
or rolled in the surf; arbitranilv heavier than
form, upcoast is northerly and downcoast I's
southerly. a
12 kg and larger than 200 m&
July 1,1995
Cobble. Rock smaller than a boulder and larger from flow at a depth that will give uniform
than gravel; arbitrarily 0.5 to 12 kg, or 75 to flow at critical depth; the slope of a conduit
200 rnm in diameter. which will produce critical flow.
Cone. Physiographic form of sediment deposit Critical Velocity. Mean velocity of flow when
washed from a gorge channel onto an open flow is at critical depth.
plain; a debris cone, also called an alluvial Current. Flow of water, both as a phenomenon
fan. and as a vector. Usually qualified by
Confluence. A junction of streams. adjectives like downward, littoral, tidal, etc.
to show relation to a pattern of movement.
Constriction. An obstruction narrowing a
waterway. Debris. Any material including floating woody
materials and other trash, suspended
Control. (1) A section or reach of an open sediment, or bed load moved by a flowing
conduit or stream channel which maintains a stream.
stable relationship between stage and
discharge. (2) For flood, erosion, debris, Degradation. General and progressive lowering
etc., remedial means or procedure restricting of the longitudinal profile of a channel by
damage to a tolerable level. erosion.
Conveyance. A measure of the water carrying Delta. System of channels thru an alluvial plain
capacity of a stream or channel. at the mouth of a stream.
Core. Central zone of dike, levee, rock groin, Deposit. An earth mass of particles settled or
jetty, etc. stranded from moving water or wind.
Corrasion. Erosion or scour by abrasion in Depth. Vertical distance, (1) from surface to
flowing water. bed of a body of water. (2) From crest or
@ Corrosion. Erosion by chemical action.
crown to invert of a conduit.
Design Discharge. The quantity of flow that is
Creek. A small stream, usually active. expected at a certain point as a result of a
Crest. (1) Peak of a wave or a flood. (2) Top design storm. Usually expressed as a rate
of a levee, dam, weir, spillway or other of flow in cubic meters per second.
water barrier or control. Design Flood. The peak discharge (when
Crib. An open-frame structure loaded with appropriate, the volume, stage, or wave
earth or stone ballast to act as a baffle in crest elevation) of the flood associated with
bank protection. the probability of exceedance selected for the
design of a highway encroachment in a
Critical Depth. (Depth at which specific energy FEMA flood plain. By federal definition,
is a minimum.) Depth of water in a conduit the highway will not be inundated by the
at which, under certain other conditions, the "design flood". See 23 CFR, Part 650,
maximum flow will occur. These other Subpart A, for definitions of "overtopping
conditions are; the conduit is on the critical flood" and "base flood."
slope with the water flowing in an open
channel or a conduit partially filled, for Design High Water. The flood stage or tide
which the velocity head equals one-half the crest elevation adopted for design of
hydraulic mean depth. drainage and bank protection structures.
(See Design Flood and High Water).
Critical Flow. That flow in open channels at
which the energy content of the fluid is at a Detritus Loose material such as; rock, sand,
minimum. Also, that flow which has a silt, and organic particles.
Froude number of one. Dike. (1) Usually an earthen bank alongside
Critical Slope. That slope at which the and parallel with a river or open channel to
maximum flow will occur at the minimum restrict overflow (See Levee). (2) An AC
velocity. The slope or grade that is exactly dike along the edge of a shoulder.
equal to the loss of head per meter resulting
July 1,1995
Ditch. Small artificial channel, usually unlined. Energy. Potential or kinetic, the latter being
Discharge. A volume of water flowing out of a expressed in the same unit (meters) as the
drainage structure or facility. Measured in former.
cubic meters per second. Entrance. The upstream approach transition to a
Dissipate. Expend or scatter harmlessly, as of constricted waterway.
energy of moving water. Ephemeral. Of brief duration, as the flow of a
Diversion. (1) The change in character, lo- stream in an arid region.
cation, direction, or quantity of flow of a Erosion. The wearing away of natural (earth)
natural drainage course (a deflection of flood and unnatural (embankment, slope
water is not a diversion). (2) Draft of water protection, structure, etc.) surfaces by the
from one channel to another. (3) action of natural forces, particularly moving
Interception of runoff by works which water and materials carried by it.
discharge it thru unnatural channels. Estuary. That portion of a river channel oc-
Downdrift. The direction of predominant cupied at times or in part by both sea and
movement of littoral materials. river flow in appreciable quantities. The
Drain. Conduit intercepting and discharging water usually has brackish characteristics.
surplus ground or surface water. Face. The outer layer of slope revetment.
Drainage. (1) The process of removing surplus Fan. A cone, but sometimes used to emphasize
ground or surface water by artificial means. definition of radial channels. Also reference
(2) The system by which the waters of an to spreading out of water or soils associated
area are removed. (3) The area from which with waters leaving a confined channel.
waters are drained; a drainage basin. Fetch. The unobstructed distance over water in
Drawdown. The difference in elevation be- which waves are generated by wind of
tween the water surface elevation at a relatively constant direction and speed.
constriction in a stream or conduit and the Filter. A porous article or mass (as of fabric or
elevation that would exist if the constriction even-graded mineral aggregate) through
were absent. Drawdown also occurs at which water will freely pass but which will
changes from mild to steep channel slopes
and weirs or vertical spillways. block the passage of soil particles.
-
Drif. (1) Floating or non-mineral burden of a Filter Fabric (RSP fabric). An engineering
stream. (2) Deviation from a normal course fabric (geotextile) placed between the
in a cross current, as in littoral drift. backfill and supporting or underlying soil
through which water will pass and soil
Drop. Controlled fall in a stream to dissipate particles are retained.
energy.
Filter Layer. A layer of even-graded rock
Dune. A sand wave of approximately triangular between rock riprap and underlying soil to
cross section (in a vertical plane in the di- prevent extrusion of the soil thru the riprap.
rection of flow) formed by moving water or
wind, with gentle upstream slope and steep Flood Stage. The elevation at which overflow
downstream slope and deposition on the of the natural banks of a stream begins to
downstream slope. run uncontrolled in the reach in which the
elevation is measured.
Ebb. Falling stage or outward flow, especially
of tides. Flood Waters. Former stream waters which
have escaped from a watercourse (and its
Eddy. Rotational flow around a vertical axis. overflow channel) and flow or stand over
Embankment. Earth structure above natural adjoining lands. They remain as such until
ground. they disappear from the surface by
Embayment. Indentation of bank or shore,
infiltration, evaporation, or return to a
natural watercourse. They do not become
0
particularly by progressive erosion. surface waters by mingling with such
July 1, 1995
@ waters, nor stream waters by eroding a

temporary channel.
Grouted. Bonded together with an inlay or
overlay of cement mortar.
Flow. A term used to define the movement of Guide Bank. An appendage to the highway
water, silt, sand, etc.; discharge; total embankment at or near a bridge abutment to
quantity carried by a stream. guide the stream through the bridge
opening.
Flow, steady. Flow at constant discharge.
Gulch. A relatively young, well-defined and
Flow, unsteady. Flow on rising or falling sharply cut erosional channel.
stages.
Gully. Diminutive of gulch.
Flow, varied. Flow in a channel with variable
section. Head. Represents an available force equivalent
to a certain depth of water. This is the
Foreshore. The part of the shore lying between motivating force in effecting the movement
the ordinary high water mark or upper limit of water. The height of water above any
of wave wash traversed by the runup and point or plane of reference. Used also in
return of waves and the water's edge at the various compound expressions, such as
low water. energy head, entrance head, friction head,
Freeboard. ( 1 ) The vertical distance between static head, pressure head, lost head, etc.
the level of the water surface usually corre- High Water. Maximum flood stage of stream or
sponding to the design flow and a point of lake; periodic crest stage of tide. Historic
interest such as a bridge beam, levee top or HW is stage recorded or otherwise known.
specific location on the roadway grade. (2)
The distance between the normal operating Hydraulic. Pertaining to water in motion and
level and the top of the sides of an open the mechanics of the motion.
conduit; the crest of a dam, etc., designed to Hydrographic. Pertaining to the measurement
allow for wave action, floating debris, or or study of bodies of water and associated
any other condition or emergency, without terrain.
overtopping the structure.
Hydrologic. Pertaining to the cyclic phenomena
Friction. Energy-dissipating conflict among of waters of the earth; successively as
turbulent water particles disturbed by precipitation, runoff, storage and
irregularities of channel surface. evaporation, and quantitatively as to
Gabion. A wire basket or cage filled with stone distribution and concentration.
and placed as, or as part of, a bank-pro- Hydrostatic. Pertaining to pressure by and
tection structure. within water due to gravitation acting thru
Gorge. A narrow deep valley with steep or depth.
vertical banks. Impinge. To strike and attack directly, as in
Grade. Elevation of bed or invert of a channel. curvilinear flow where the current does not
follow the curve but continues on tangent
Gradient. The rate of ascent or descent ex- into the bank on the outside of bend in the
pressed as a percent or as a decimal as channel.
determined by the ratio of the change in
elevation to the length. Isohyet. Line on a map connecting points of
equal precipitation.
Gravel. Rock larger than sand and smaller than
cobble, arbitrarily ranging in diameter from Isovel. Line on a diagram of a channel or
5 to 50 mrn. channel section connecting points of equal
velocity.
Groin. A fingerlike barrier structure usually
built perpendicular to the shoreline or Jack (or Jack Straw). Bank protection element
a oblique to primary motion of water, to trap
littoral drift, retard erosion of the shore, or
to control movement of bed material.
consisting of wire or cable strung on three
mutually perpendicular struts connected at
their centers.
July 1,1995
Jam. Wedged collection of drift in a con-

striction of a channel, such as a gorge or a
Mean Depth. For a stream at any stage, the
wetted normal section divided by the surface
@
bridge opening. width. Hydraulic mean depth.
Jet. An effluent stream from a restricted Meander. In connection with streams, a
channel, including a fast current thru a winding channel usually in an erodible,
slower stream. alluvial valley. A reverse or S-shaped curve
Jetty. An elongated, artificial obstruction or series of curves formed by erosion of the
projecting into a stream or the sea from bank concave bank, especially at the downstream
or shore to control shoaling and scour by end, shoals and bank erosions. Meandering
deflection of strength of currents and waves. is a stage in the migratory movement of the
channel, as a whole down the valley.
Jump. Sudden transition from supercritical Mesh. Woven wire or other filaments used
flow to the complementary subcritical flow, alone as revetment, or as retainer or
conserving momentum and dissipating container of masses of gravel or cobble.
energy; the hydraulic jump.
Kolk. Rotational flow about a horizontal axis, Nourishment. The process of replenishing a
induced by a reef and breaking the surface in beach. It may be brought about naturally,
a boil. by accretion due to the longshore transport,
or artificially, by the deposition of dredged
Lake. A water filled basin with restricted or no materials.
outlet. Includes reservoirs, tidal ponds and Outj4all. Discharge or point of discharge of a
playas. culvert or other closed conduit.
Levee. An embankment on or along the bank of Outwash. Debris transported from a restricted
a stream or lake to protect outer lowlands channel to an unrestricted area where it is
from inundation. (See Dike) deposited to form an alluvial or debris cone
Lining. Fbtective cover of the perimeter of a or fan.
channel. Overflow. Discharge of a stream outside its
Littoral. Pertaining to or along the shore, banks; the parallel channels carrying such
particularly to describe currents, deposits, discharge.
and drift. Peak Flow. Maximum momentary stage or
Littoral DriJt. The sedimentary material (sand) discharge of a stream in flood.
moved along the shoreline under the Pebble. Stone 10 to 75 mm in diameter,
influence of waves and currents. including coarse gravel and small cobble.
Littoral Transport. The movement of littoral
drift along the shoreline by waves and Permeable. Open to the passage of fluids, as
currents. Includes movement parallel for (1) pervious soils and (2) bank-
(longshore transport) and perpendicular (on- protection structures.
offshore transport) to the shore. Pier. Vertical support of a structure standing in
Longshore. Parallel to and near the shoreline. a stream or other body of water. Used in a
general sense to include bents and
Marginal. Within a borderland area; more abutments.
general and extensive than riparian.
Pile. A long, heavy timber or section of con-
Marsh. An area of soft, wet, or periodically crete or metal that is driven or jetted into the
submerged land, generally treeless and earth or bottom of a water body to serve as a
usually characterized by grasses and other structural support or protection.
low vegetation.
Plunge. Flow with a strong downward com-
Mature. Classification for streams which have ponent, as in outfall drops, overbank falls,
established flat gradients not subject to and surf attack on a beach.
further scour.
July 1,1995
Precipitation. Discharge of atmospheric Revetment. Bank protection to prevent erosion.

moisture as rain, snow or hail, measured Riparian. Pertaining to the banks of a stream.
in depth of fall or in terms of intensity
of fall in unit time. Riprap. A layer, facing, or protective mound of
rubble or stones randomly placed to prevent
Probability. The chance of occurrence or re- erosion, scour, or sloughing of a structure
currence of a specified event within a unit of or embankment; also, the stone used for this
time, commonly expressed in 3 ways. Thus purpose.
a 10-year flood has a chance of 0.1 per year
and is also called a 10%-chance flood. River. A large stream, usually active when any
streams are flowing in the region.
Rack. An open upright structure, such as a
debris rack. Rock. (1) Cobble, boulder or quarry stone as a
construction material. (2) Hard natural
Rainwash. The creep of soil lubricated by rain. mineral, in formation as in piles of talus.
Range. Difference between extremes, as for RSP Fabric. (See Filter Fabric).
stream or tide stage.
Rubble. Rough, irregular fragments of rock or
Rapids. Swift turbulent flow in a rough steep concrete.
reach.
RunofS. The surface waters that exceed the
Ravine. A valley larger than a gulch, smaller soil's infiltration rate and depression
than a canyon, and less bold in relief than a storage.
gulch or arroyo.
Runup. The rush of water up a beach or
Reach. The length of a channel uniform with structure, associated with the breaking of a
respect to discharge, depth, area, and slope. wave. The amount of runup is measured
e More generally, any length of a river or
drainage course.
according to the vertical height above still
water level that the rush of water reaches.
Recession. Retreat of shore or bank by pro- Sand. Granular soil coarser than silt and finer
gressive erosion. than gravel, ranging in diameter from 0.05
Reef. Generally, any solid projection from the
bed of a stream or other body of water. Scour. The result of erosive action of running
Regime. The system or order characteristic of a water, primarily in streams, excavating and
stream; its behavior with respect to velocity carrying away material from the bed and
and volume, form of and changes in banks. Wearing away by abrasive action.
channel, capacity to transport sediment, Sea. Ocean or other body of water larger than a
amount of material supplied for lake; state of agitation of any large body of
transportation, etc. water.
Repose. The stable slope of a bank or em- Seawall. A structure separating land and water
bankment, expressed as an angle or the ratio areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion
of horizontal to vertical projection. and other damage due to wave action. (See
Restriction. Artificial or natural control against bulkhead).
widening of a channel, with or without Sedimentation. Gravitational deposit of
construction. transported material in flowing or standing
Retard. Bank-protection structure designed to water.
check the riparian velocity and induce silting Seepage. Percolation of underground water
or accretion. thru the banks and into a stream or other
* Retrogression. Reversal of stream grading,

i.e., aggradation after degradation or vice
versa.
body of water.
July 1,1995
Seiche. A standing wave oscillation of an Stage. The elevation of a water surface above
enclosed waterbody that continues, its minimum; also above or below an
pendulum fashion, after the cessation of the established "low water" plane; hence above
originating force, which may have been or below any datum of reference; gage
either seismic or atmospheric. height.
Sheet Pile. A pile with a generally slender, flat Standing Wave. The motion of swiftly flowing
cross-section that is driven into ground or stream water, that resembles a wave, but is
bottom of a water body and meshed or formed by decelerating or diverging flow
interlocked with like members to form a wall that does not quite produce a hydraulic
or bulkhead. jump.
Shoal. A shallow region in flowing or standing Stone. Rock or rock-like material; a particle of
water, especially if made shallow by such material, in any size from pebble to the
deposition. largest quarried blocks.
Shore. The narrow strip of land in immediate Storage. Detention or retention of water for
contact with the water, including the zone future flow, naturally in channel and
between high and low water lines. See marginal soils or artificially in reservoirs.
backshore, foreshore, onshore, offshore, Storm. A disturbance of the ordinary, average
longshore, and nearshore. conditions of the atmosphere which, unless
Silt. (1) Water-Borne Sediment. Detritus specifically qualified, may include any or all
carried in suspension or deposited by meteorological disturbances, such as wind,
flowing water, ranging in diameter from rain, snow, hail, or thunder.
0.005 to 0.05 mm. The term is generally Strand. (1) To lodge on bars, banks, or
confined to fine earth, sand, or mud, but is overflow plain, as for drift. (2) Bar of
sometimes both suspended and bedload. (2) sediment connecting two regions of higher
Deposits of Water-Borne Material. As a ground.
reservoir, on a delta, or on floodplains.
-
Slide. Gravitational movement of an unstable Stream. Water flowing in a channel or conduit,
mass of earth from its natural position. ranging in size from small creeks to large
rivers.
Slipout. Gravitational movement of an unstable
mass of earth from its constructed position. Stream Waters. Former surface waters which
Applied to embankments and other man- have entered and now flow in a well defined
made earthworks. natural watercourse, together with other
waters reaching the stream by direct
Slope. (1) Gradient of a stream. (2) Inclination precipitation or rising from springs in bed or
of the face of an embankment, expressed as banks of the watercourse. They continue as
the ratio of horiontal to vertical projection. stream waters as long as they flow in the
(3) The face of an inclined embankment or watercourse, including overflow and
cut slope. In hydraulics it is expressed as multiple channels as well as the ordinary or
percent or in decimal form. low-water channel.
Slough. ( 1 ) Pronounced SLU. A side or Subsidence. General lowering of land surface
overflow channel in which water is by consolidation or removal of underlying
continually present. It is stagnant or slack; soil.
also a waterway in a tidal- marsh. (2)
Pronounced SLUFF. Slide or slipout of a Surf. The breaking of waves and swell on the
thin mantle of earth, especially in a series of foreshore and offshore shoals.
small movements. SurJace Waters. Surface waters are those which
Spur Dike. A structure or embankment have been precipitated on the land from the
projecting a short distance into a stream sky or forced to the surface in springs, and
from the bank and at an angle to deflect which have then spread over the surface of
flowing water away from critical areas. the ground without being collected into a
defmite body or channel. They appear as
July 1, 1995
puddles, sheet or overland flow, and rills, Training. Control of direction of currents.
and continue to be surface waters until they Transition. A relatively short reach or conduit
disappear from the surface by infiltration or leading from one waterway section to
evaporation, or until by overland or vagrant another of different width, shape, or slope.
flow thev reach well-defined water courses
or stan&ng bodies of water like lakes or Transport. To carry solid material in a stream in
seas. solution, suspension, saltation, or
Surge. A sudden swelling of discharge in
entrainment.
unsteady flow. Trough. Space between wave crests and the
Swamp. An area of shallow pondage or sat- water surface below it.
urated surface, the water being fresh or Turbulence. A state of flow wherein the water
acidic and the area usually covered with rank is agitated by cross-currents and eddies;
vegetation. opposed to a condition of flow that is quiet
Swell. Waves generated by a distant storm, and laminar.
usually regular and fully harmonic. Undercut. Erosion of the low part of a steep
Talus. Loose rocks and debris disintegrated bank so as to compromise stability of the
from a steep hill or cliff standing at repose upper part.
along the toe. Undertow. Current outward from a wave-
Terrace. Berm or bench-like earth embankment, swept shore carrying solid particles swept or
with a nearly level plain bounded by rising scoured from the beach or foreshore.
and falling slopes. Updrift. The direction opposite that of the
Tetrahedron. Bank protection element, basically predominant movement of littoral materials.
composed of 6 steel or concrete struts joined Uplifi. Upward hydrostatic pressure on base of
@ like the edges of a triangular pyramid, an impervious structure.
together with subdividing struts and tie Velocity. The rate of motion of objects or
wires or cables. particles, or of a stream of particles.
Tetrapod. Bank protection element, precast of
concrete, consisting of 4 legs joined at a Vernal Pools. Vernal pools are seasonally
central block, each leg making an angle of flooded landscape depressions that support
109.5 degrees with the other three, like rays distinctive (and many times rare) plant and
from the center of a tetrahedron to the center animal species adapted to periodic or
of each face. continuous inundation during the wet
season, and the absence of either ponded
Texture. Arrangement and interconnection of water or wet soil during the dry season.
surface and near-surface particles of terrain
or channel perimeter. Wash. Flood plain or active channel of an
ephemeral stream, usually in recent
Thalweg. The line following the lowest part of alluvium.
a valley, whether under water or not.
Usually the line following the deepest part Watercourse. A definite channel with bed and
of the bed or channel of a river. banks within which water flows, either
continuously or in season. A watercourse is
Thread. The central element of a current, continuous in the direction of flow and may
continuous along a stream. extend laterally beyond the definite banks to
Tide. The periodic rising and falling of the include overflow channels contiguous to the
ocean and connecting bodies of water that ordinary channel. The term does not include
results from gravitational attraction of the artifical channels such as canals and drains,
moon and sun acting on the rotating earth. except natural channels trained or restrained
by the works of man. Neither does it
Topping. The top layer on horizontal revet- include depressions or swales through
ments or rock structures; also capping or cap which surface or errant waters pass.
stones.
July 1, 1995
Watershed. The area that contributes surface

water runoff into a tributary system or water
course.
Waterway. (1) That portion of a watercourse
which is actually occupied by water. (2) A
navigable in land body of water.
Wave. (1) An oscillatory movement of water on
or near the surface of standing water in
which a succession of crests and troughs
advance while particles of water follow
cyclic paths without advancing. (2) Motion
of water in a flowing stream so as to
develop the surficial appearance of a wave.
Wave Height. The vertical distance between a
wave crest and the preceding trough.
Wave Length. The horizontal distance between
similar points on two successive waves (for
example, crest to crest or trough to trough),
measured in the direction of wave travel.
Wave Period. The time in which a wave crest
travels a distance equal to one wave length.
Can be measured as the time for two
successive wave crests to pass a fixed point.
Weephole. A hole in a wall, invert, apron,
lining, or other solid structure to relieve the
pressure of groundwater.
Weir. A low overflow dam or sill for mea-
suring, diverting, or checking flow.
Well. ( 1 ) Artificial excavation for withdrawal of
water from underground storage. (2)
Upward component of velocity in a stream.
Wetland. Those areas that are inundated or
saturated by surface or ground water at a
frequency and duration sufficient to support,
and that under normal circumstances do
support a prevalence of vegetation typically
adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.
Wetlands generally include swamps,
marshes, bogs, and similar areas.
Windbreak. Barrier fence or trees to break or
deflect the velocity of wind.
Windwave. A wave generated and propelled by
wind blowing along the water surface.
Young. Immature, said of a stream on a steep
gradient actively scouring its bed toward a
more stable grade.
CHAPTER 880 881.4 Economics

(Text later)
881.5 References
Topic 881 - General The following publications contain design
parameters and other useful information per-
-
Index 881.1 Introduction taining to the design and construction of an
infiltration drainage disposal system.
This section deals with the use of drainage basin
and drainage well infiltration systems for the Caltrans report, "Infiltration Drainage of
disposal of storm water runoff. Exclusive Highway Surface Water", July, 1980.
reliance on conventional storm drain systems for
disposal of roadway drainage, particularly in FHWA design guidelines manual,
rapidly growing urban areas, is often a problem. "Underground Disposal of Storm Water
In many regions, nature intended for surface Runoff '.
runoff to soak back into the earth and customary
disposal practices prevent it from doing so.
Where the terrain is flat and there are few natural
Topic 882 - Infiltration Systems
channels it can be unreasonably costly to
construct and maintain a conventional storm 882.1 Basins
drain system and outfall. Drainage basins and Where no other means of disposal exist, storm
drainage wells may offer a solution to that waters may be discharged into natural or
problem. excavated depressions and stored until dis-
sipated by infiltration and evaporation. After the
@ 881.2 Recharge Consideration ground has become saturated, there will be little
There are two major considerations entering into percolation during a storm and evaporation will
the design of drainage basin or drainage well be negligible until the rain stops. The only
infiltration systems. These are the quantity and significant computation is the capacity of the
the probable quality of the runoff to be handled. basin. Generally, stream waters should be
Obviously, the facility must be large enough to passed without storage, and only roadway
handle a specified volume associated with a drainage water be considered for temporary
frequency of runoff. The volume needed and storage.
the percolation rate of the surrounding soils will It is important, under some situations, to know
dictate the size of the underground disposal how long it will take the stored water to
system. There must also be an escapement dissipate after a storm. Percolation rate and
designed into the system allowing surface underground conditions should be determined.
overflow, or subsurface rise in the pressure The percolation rate can be improved in many
gradient. cases by ripping hardpan, loosening the soil, or
If the predicted, or measured, pollution installing drainage wells down to more pervious
population is too high, then primary, and pos- layers. In localities where long term ponding
sibly secondary treatment procedures are re- would be objectionable, extensive well systems
quired prior to turning the captured runoff into a or pumping may be required for final disposal.
recharge pond or injection well. Refer to Index
110.2 for further discussion on control of water 882.2 Trenches
pollution. (Text Later)
881.3 Maintenance Considerations
a (Text later)
July 1,1995
882.3 Wells
Drainage wells are gravel filled vertical drains
which filter and discharge storm water into
pervious substrata. A thorough investigation is
necessary to establish the existence, location,
and capacity of the pervious layers. The initial
cost of drainage wells is moderate, but their
capacity and service life may be impaired by
clogging. Silt and debris can create a
continuous maintenance expense where flows
carry excessive solids.
Where drainage wells have clogged, dry wells
have been used successfully, however frequent
cleaning is necessary. The well is lined with
cribbing or perforated casing and no gravel filler
is used. Covers must be designed for protection
of persons and vehicles, but must be removable
for easy maintenance.
-
Topic 883 Environmental
Considerations
(Text Later)
-
Topic 884 Legal
Considerations
884.1 General
Since the disposal of storm waters into water
bearing strata is restricted by law, the approval
of the local water pollution control authority is
required. Refer to Index 110.2 for information
on statutory regulations.
July 1, 1995
When a runoff related problem does manifest

CHAPTER 890 itself, there are several ways in which the
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT problem may ultimately be solved. Solutions to
such problems cost money, and the dollars
spent are normally public funds, while the
Topic 891 - General causative factors can often be traced to unwise,
privately-funded development. Some local
-
Index 891.1 Introduction agencies have enacted stringent control
regulations addressing all developments within
This section deals with the use of detention and their jurisdictions. A few prohibit any increase
retention storage and related pumping facilities in either total volume or peak discharge, while
for the disposal of storm water runoff. other jurisdictions have yet to recognize the
necessity for enacting control regulations at all.
891.2 Philosophy
See Indexes 803.2 and 803.3 for further
A drainage philosophy which has prevailed for discussion on cooperative agreements and up-
years is that surface waters should be grading of existing highway drainage facilities.
intercepted, collected, and disposed of as
rapidly as possible. The philosophy continues 891.3 Strategies
to be applied but can be considered neither
responsive nor adequate in much of today's There are various storm water management
rapidly developing world. Application of this strategies which may be used by developers and
philosophy has been recognized as a causative highway design engineers to obtain
factor in a number of runoff related damages to Caltrans' approval and a permit from the local
public and private property. Unwise handling agency to begin work. They vary from very
of excess runoff has resulted in downstream simple to very complex techniques depending
flooding, erosion, and sedimentation. upon specific conditions and regulatory
requirements which must be satisfied. These
The attitudes which created and helped to may include the following:
perpetuate drainage related problems are slowly
changing. To ignore, or to knowingly pass Retention Basins
along drainage related problems to another
individual or jurisdiction is no longer Detention Basins
acceptable. A new philosophy is evolving and
the umbrella term most often used to describe it Temporary Underground Storage
is storm water management.
Direct Injection Wells
Storm water management is the recognition of
adverse results associated with altered runoff Floodproofing Structures
and the solutions resulting from the cooperative
efforts of public agencies and the private sector Obtaining Flood Easements
to mitigate, abate, or reverse those adverse
results. 891.4 Type of System
Although most damages occur as a result of Storm water management techniques involving
moderate to rare runoff events, the need to be on-site and off-site storage may offer the
sensitive to virtually all actions which mod@ highway design engineer the more reasonable
volumes, times of peak discharge, erosion and and responsive solution to problems relative to
sediment transport, and pollution is incumbent the handling of excess runoff. The cooperation
upon some level of government. This is of other jurisdictions is generally a prerequisite
necessary since storm waters cross jurisdictional to applying these strategies and a cooperative
lines and those jurisdictions must cooperate for agreement is almost always necessary.
the general well-being of the public. The results
of poor storm water management may take years
to become fully apparent.
July 1,1995
By defmition, detained water contributes to

runoff and therefore detention ponds or basins
must have an outlet and outfall system (see
Index 816.4). A gravity outfall should be used
whenever feasible. Pumping should only be
used where there is no other practical way of
handling the excess runoff. See Topic 839 for
further discussion on pumping stations.
The Environmental Handbook contains

CHAPTER 900 guidelines and responsibilities for determining
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE scenic resources during the project development
process.
Topic 901 - General The Encroachment Permits Manual contains
procedures and guidelines for planting design
and administering planting by others, through
-
Index 901.1 Office of Landscape permits.
Architecture
The Construction Manual discusses materials
The Office of Landscape Architecture is re- and methods involved in planting and irrigation.
sponsible for the development of policies, It describes allowable options for materials and
programs, procedures, and standards for all work methods called for in the project
aspects of the Highway Planting, Safety specifications.
Roadside Rest Area, Roadside Enhancement,
Scenic Highway, Transportation Enhancement The Maintenance Manual contains instructions
Activities (TEA), Transportation Art, and Blue about the maintenance of roadside vegetation.
Star Memorial Highway programs and planting The Landscape Architecture Project Plan
in conjunction with Noise Abatement Features.- Standards booklet provides guidelines for the
This chapter provides mandatory, advisory and preparation of highway planting plans.
permissive standards as defined in Index 82.1. The Plant Setback and Spacing Guide contains
The Office of Project Planning and Design is minimum plant spacing and distances from
responsible for approving exceptions to all various elements within the highway right of
mandatory standards (Boldface type) and the way.
District Directors are responsible for approving
exceptions to all advisory standards (indicated The California Native Wildflower Checklist is a
-
by Underlining) as discussed in Index 82.2. All reference list of native species to assist
other guidance in this Chapter pertaining to the designers in selecting plants to conform to
design of planting and irrigation systems is the Federal wildflower requirements.
responsibility of the Office of Landscape The Water Conservation Deputy Directive (DD-
Architecture. Exceptions to this guidance may 13) explains the Department's policy and
be permitted with the approval of the Office of provides guidelines for the use of both potable
Landscape Architecture District Coordinator. and nonpotable water.
901.2 Cross References
Several highway landscape architectural terms
-
Topic 902 Highway Planting
are defined in Index 62.5 of this manual. Standards and Guidelines
The Project Development Procedures Manual 902.1 General
contains general definitions, policies, and
procedures concerning planting and This section provides standards and guidelines
conservation of vegetation and explains for the design of planting and irrigation
procedures and responsibilities for developing systems.
highway planting projects. The manual also Highway planting is vegetation placed for
includes guidelines for the Blue Star Memorial aesthetic, safety, environmental mitigation or
Highway and Transportation Art programs. erosion control purposes, and includes
The Roadside Vegetation Management necessary irrigation systems, inert materials,
Handbook provides reference information on mulches and appurtenances.
the design, installation, and management of In addition, highway planting is used to satisfy
Caltrans' roadside vegetation. the need for headlight glare reduction, fire
retardance, windbreak protection, or graffiti
reduction on retaining walls and noise barriers.
July 1.1995
( I ) Design Considerations. Planting and incorporate safety concepts that include,

irrigation systems should be designed to but are not limited to, the following:
achieve a balance between aesthetics, safety, Access - Provide access gates for
maintainability, cost-effectiveness, and maintenance personnel from local streets
resource conservation. Plantings should be and frontage roads. Provide paved
responsive to local community goals. maintenance pullout areas away from
(a) Aesthetics. Highway planting shall traffic on high volume highways and
integrate the facility with the adjacent other areas where access cannot be made
community or natural surroundings; from local streets and roads.
buffer objectionable views of the facility M.m. n.m Exposure to Traffic and
for adjacent homes, schools, parks, etc.; Reduce the need for Lane Closures -
soften visual impacts of large structures Locate irrigation system components
or graded slopes; screen objectionable or and, vegetation away from shoulder
distracting views; frame or enhance areas, gore areas, narrow island areas
good views; and provide visually between ramps and traveled way to
attractive interchanges as entrances to reduce the need for lane closures,
communities. pruning or other maintenance
Materials and planting compositions operations.
should be visually compatible with local Automated Irrigation - Use automated
indigenous plant communities or irrigation systems and remote control
surrounding landscape planting. devices to minimize worker exposure
Plantings should be designed according and allow for effective water
to the perspective of the viewer. For management.
example, compositions viewed by Median Planting - Median planting is
freeway motorists should be simplified, generally not permitted. Exceptions for
large scale, and linear. the planting of medians can be approved
Contour grading, with careful preserva- by the District Director if the planting
tion and enhancement of existing plants can be safely maintained.
and natural features should be integrated (c) Maintainability. Maintenance-intensive
into the overall composition. activities
. . . should be identified and
mumuzed by design. These activities
(b) Safety. Planting and irrigation facilities
shall be designed to ensure the safety of can be determined through field
both maintenance personnel and the observation and discussions with
public. maintenance personnel during project
development. Ongoing communication
To understand potential hazards to main- between designers, landscape special-
tenance personnel, designers should be ists, maintenance personnel, and
familiar with Chapter 8, "Protection of construction inspectors is required to
Workers", of the Maintenance Manual. ensure that maintenance concerns are
Selection and location of plants and addressed.
irrigation components shall be carefully Planting design shall reflect the goal of
considered to maintain sight distance and reduced pesticide use.
clear recovery zone setbacks. Planting
shall not interfere with the function of Adequate plant establishment and
safety features such as shoulders, irrigation test periods shall be provided.
barriers, guardrail, traffic or regulatory, (d) Cost-effectiveness. The design should
warning and guide signs nor with provide maximum benefit for the long
motorists' view of the road. term costs involved. Materials and
Highway planting projects, including methods specified should be commercial
highway planting restoration, shall quality and closely matched to the
project conditions.
July 1, 1995
@ (e) Resource Conservation. Conservation

measures such as the use of appropriate
provision of sight-distance for 60 krn/h. At
points within an interchange area where
plants, mulches, nonpotable water, ramp connections or channelization are
automated irrigation systems, remote provided, plantings shall be clear of the
irrigation control systems (RICS), rain shoulders and sight line shown in Figure
sensors, and moisture sensors will help 504.3A, Location of Ramp Intersections on
achieve this requirement. the Crossroad.
Highway planting should be able to Particular attention should be paid to
withstand roadside conditions and planting on the inside of curves, in
become established on limited water interchange loops, in median areas, on the
with minimal maintenance. Planting ends of ramps, and on cut slopes so that
designs shall account for life cycle costs shoulders are clear and designed sight
including the availability of resources for distances are retained.
maintenance. Sight distance setbacks restrict the height of
Trees and vegetation shall be preserved plants or the horizontal distance of plants
and protected to the maximum extent from the traveled way. Low growing plants
feasible during the planning, design and may be placed in front of the setbacks as
construction of transportation projects. long as the requirements for sight distance
are met as discussed in Index 201.6 and
902.2 Sight Distance and Clear illustrated in Figure 201.6. Taller growing
Recovery Zone Standards plants shall be placed beyond these
setbacks. In interchange areas, generally,
Sight distance and safety are of primary from the edge of traveled way, a 15 m
importance, and shall not be subordinated to setback within the loops is considered as the
aesthetics. Applicable minimum horizontal and sight distance setback for trees and shrubs
vertical sight distance standards are set forth in that will grow above a 0.5 m height.
Topic 201, Sight Distance.
Two types of safety setbacks affect the (2) Clear Recovery Zone. Recovery zone
placement of landscape elements: setbacks provide areas for errant vehicles to
regain control. The policy along freeways
To keep the continuous length of highway and expressways. including interchange
ahead visible to the driver (sight distance). areas. should be to strive for 12 m or more
To keep the clear recovery zone free of of clearance between the edge of traveled
physical obstructions. way and large trees. but with a minimum
clearance of 9 m. Special considerations
( I ) Sight Distance Setbacks. Sight distance should be given to providing additional
A
limits are measured from the edge of clearance in potential recovery areas. The 9-
traveled way to the outside edge of the meter distance is measured horizontally to
mature growth. Care shall be taken to the trunk of the tree. Large trees may be
ensure that future growth will not obstruct planted within the 9-meter limit where they
sight distance. will not constitute a fixed object; for
Proposed planting should maintain horizon- example, on cut slopes above a "retaining
tal and vertical sieht distance reauired by the wall or in areas behind guard railing which
desi~nspeed of the facility. In cases where, has been placed for reasons other than the
due to veometric restrictions. the existing tree planting.
facility does not provide 130 kmlh sight For setback purposes, large trees are defined
distance. no further reduction should be as plants which at maturity, or within 10
caused bv planting, years, have trunks 100 mm or greater in
For Interchanges, all planting shall provide diameter, measured 1.2 m above the
ramp and collector-distributor road sight ground. Small trees are those with smaller
distance equal to or greater than that required trunks or plants usually considered shrubs,
by the design speed criteria with a minimum but trained in tree form which would not
develop 100 mm diameter trunks within 10
July 1,1995
years. Examples of small trees are Western tolerances are questionable, the species
Redbud (Cercis occidentalis), Crape Myrtle should be avoided or used on a limited
(Lagerstroemia indica), Bottle Brush experimental basis. A small percentage of
(Callistemon sp.), and Oleander (Nerium untested but promising plant material is
oleander). permissible to expand future plant selection
and knowledge.
Exceptions to the 9-meter setback may also
be considered on cut slopes which are 1:2 or Trees generally recognized to be brittle
steeper and where ground cover will be should not be selected.
placed on the slopes and the trees cannot be Plants with edible or attractive fruits, berries
offset at least 9 m due to right of way or nuts should not be selected.
restrictions or physical restrictions such as
retaining walls. The minimum setback in All new and replacement planting must
these cases should be 7.5 m. include California native wildflowers as an
integral and permanent part of the planting
Offset distances greater than 9 m should be design. The Project Development
provided at locations such as on the outside Procedures Manual discusses wildflower
of horizontal curves, near ramp gores, at requirements.
points of congestion, or where evasive
maneuvers may be required. (3) Plant Location. When locating plants, the
mature size, form, and characteristics of the
Large trees should not be planted in species shall be considered, particularly for
unprotected areas of freeway or expressway safety of maintenance workers and the
medians with the possible exception of traveling public, and long term maintenance
separated roadways with medians of costs.
sufficient width to meet the setback
requirements for tree planting. Plants should be located so that pruning will
not be required. Trees must not be planted
902.3 Planting Guidelines under overhead utilities and structures.
( 1 ) Design Procedures. An overview of the Plants should be located so that they will not
design process is covered in the Project obscure existing billboards, or on-premise
Development Procedures Manual. business identification signs.
(2) Plant Selection. Plants should be tolerant of Plants with similar water requirements
local environmental conditions such as should be grouped for irrigation purposes.
temperature, soil, water quality, air quality, Plants with thorns or known to be
wind and have proven to be durable adjacent poisonous to humans and animals, (e.g.,
to highways and in transportation facilities. Rose, Oleander), should not be planted
California native plants should be adjacent to areas used for grazing animals,
incorporated into the design, taking into equestrian activities, with high public
account local plant communities and species exposure, and where children have access to
availability, to the maximum extent feasible. the planting. Designers should be aware of
Plants should have the proper growth rate, State and local restrictions on the planting of
longevity, size, and appearance for their certain species in or adjacent to specified
intended uses. Wherever feasible, trees areas.
should be used to create the main structure In areas subject to frost and snow, plantings
of the planting composition. should not be located where they will cast
A diversity of plant material should be shade and create patches of ice on vehicle or
chosen. Monoculture planting is pedestrian ways.
discouraged. (4) Trees Planted Abng Conventional
Only plants which will have the greatest Highways. Safety, sight distance
chance of survival if water were to become standards, environmental needs and
unavailable should be selected. Species maintainability are the primary concerns
must be suitable for the project site. If plant
July 1, 1995
when establishing the locations for tree areas of high seismic activity, the planting of
planting on conventional highways. vines on bridges is not permitted. There are
certain conditions such as low average daily
A minimum height clearance of 4.6 m from traffic, high redundancy in the substructure,
the pavement to the lower foliage of etc. where exceptions from Bridge
overhanging branches is necessary to Maintenance may be granted, after all risk
provide for the passage of trucks. The size, vs. benefit factors are considered, to plant
shape, and maturity of the tree should be vines.
considered when trimming is necessary to
maintain vertical clearances. Trees which 902.4 Irrigation Guidelines
will ultimately become very wide are
undesirable if their maintenance will cause ( I ) General. Irrigation systems shall be
interference with traffic flow. designed to conserve water, minimize
maintenance, minimize worker exposure to
See the Encroachment Permits Manual for traffic, and sustain the planting. The design
further information on trees. should be simple, efficient, and straightfor-
(5) Planting of Walls. If retaining walls or ward. Irrigation concepts utilized should
sound barriers are located within the clear conform to local water conservation goals.
recovery zone (see Index 902.2), plants may Whenever available, water sources should
be placed behind the walls and be allowed to be nonpotable, e.g ., reclaimed or untreated
grow over (or through) the wall, or plants water sources, consistent with quality and
may be placed in front of the wall, but they health standards, and the cost should be
must be behind a concrete safety shaped justified (see the Project Development
barrier. Plants are not permitted on concrete Procedures Manual for cost guidelines).
safety shaped barriers on the M i c side, Water quality should be considered when
a unless an exception is granted from the
Traffic Operations Program and all of the
following requirements are met:
selecting components and designing the
system.
Standard, commercially available compo-
(a) Only vines which have a natural nents should be used and special features
tendency to grow up onto noise barriers should not be specified unless they are
or retaining walls may be planted on the required to solve unique problems of the
traffic side of barriers. The vines must site.
readily adhere to the barriers. No
shrubs or ground cover will be allowed. Security measures, such as locking cabinets,
Vines such as Creeping Fig (Ficus enclosures and valve boxes should be
pumila) and Algerian Ivy (Hedera provided when components must be placed
canariensis) will not be allowed. near pedestrian areas.
(b) Plant basins must be depressed and Irrigation components, shall be positioned
minimal in size. Ground surface where they will not be damaged by normal
irregularities must be insignificant or plant growth. Potential damage from
nonexistent. pedestrians or vehicles should be considered
when selecting and locating all irrigation
(c) Each plant must be individually components.
irrigated.
(2) Valves and Sprinklers. Irrigation systems
The District Landscape Architect and should be designed for automatic operation.
Maintenance Units should be consulted When systems are temporary or will be used
when a wall is to be planted. The plants infrequently, manual, battery, solar or timer-
should not encroach onto the shoulder or operated valves may be used.
create sight distance problems.
Control valves shall be manifolded where
(6)Planting of Vines on Bridges - When the
a regular inspection of bridges and special
structures is required and where rapid visual
practical and a gate valve shall be provided.
Trees and shrubs shall be individually
inspection of these structures is required in watered.
July 1, 1995
Overhead irrigation systems, e.g., impact or and drainage should be designed in accordance
gear driven sprinklers, should be primarily with Chapters 600 and 800.
used for irrigating ground cover and
establishing native grasses. Overhead 903.2 General Notes
sprinklers may be used to irrigate trees
andlor shrubs when it can be shown life Safety roadside rest areas are to be constructed
cycle costs for this alternative are lower than on State highway right of way or if at an
costs for individual basin sprinklers. Work interchange, 0.5 krn maximum from a State
required for environmental mitigation and highway, and all the area involved is to be
rehabilitation of existing overhead systems considered as part of the State highway right of
is exempt from this cost analysis. way. Ingress and egress to rest areas should be
Sprinklers should be appropriate for local designed to the standards of the highway along
wind and soil conditions. Sprinklers which they are located as indicated in Index
adjacent to the roadway should be selected 107.1.
and placed to avoid spray on the roadway. Safety roadside rest areas should be designed to
(3) Controllers. Irrigation controllers shall be be functional, and aesthetic, economical and
easily accessible, protected from vehicular easy to maintain. Structures and facilities
traffic, and in an area with good lighting and should combine aesthetic principles with
visibility. Controllers shall not be located in functional requirements both as individual units
or near dense shrubbery or in the path of the and as related elements in the overall site plan.
spray of sprinklers. A unity of design should be expressed in all
elements of each facility regarding materials,
(4) Backflow Preventers. The use of reduced texture, color, form, and scale. The site plan is
pressure principle backflow devices are the joint responsibility of the Landscape
required for highway planting projects. Architect and Architect.
Master remote control valves should be used
at all pressured water sources directly The design of architectural structures such as
downstream of the backflow preventers. comfort stations, information display panels,
picnic tables, picnic table shelters, utility
structures, etc., will be done by the Division of
-
Topic 903 Safety Roadside Structures, Office of Structure Design (OSD).
The architect in OSD is responsible for the
Rest Area Standards and
Guidelines development of all architectural features within
the facility, including color and materials
coordination. OSD is responsible for advising
903.1 Minimum Standards the Resident Construction Engineer to obtain the
The following standards generally represent name of the paint manufacturer and paint color
minimum values. However, safety roadside numbers and forwarding the information to
rest area policies and standards are not District Maintenance for repairs.
inflexible. When in line with sound judgment, Topographic features should be preserved and
systems considerations and other valid existing trees and other natural vegetation
concerns, variations may be considered. To should be utilized wherever possible. Views
promote uniform practice on a statewide basis, should be considered in the selection and
standards lower than indicated herein may not development of the site. Provisions for
be used without approval from the Chief of the expansion of the various facilities and
Office of Landscape Architecture. The Office of circulation patterns should be considered.
Project Planning and Design (OPPD) is Safety roadside rest areas shall be designed to
responsible for approving nonstandard be accessible to all travelers and conform to the
geometric design standards as discussed in current Americans with Disabilities Act.
Topic 82 and Index 901.1. The OPPD's
Geometric Reviewer and Coordinator should be
involved in reviewing the geometric features of
safety roadside rest areas. Structural sections
July 1,1995
903.3 Function Scenic Value. Insofar as possible and

practical, safety roadside rest areas should
The Safety Roadside Rest Area System is be constructed where a scenic view is
intended to provide places where motorists may available. This, however, is a secondary
stop for short periods to rest and relax. consideration following the practical and
Facilities must be accessible, clean, and economic factors.
attractive. The objective is to provide facilities
which promote safe driving by encouraging the 903.5 Facilities and Features
motorist to rest when tired.
To provide functionally adequate safety roadside
903.4 Site Feasibility rest areas, the following facilities and features
should be included.
Specific site selection should be made on a basis
of the suitability of the site for development. ( I ) Size and Capacity. The size and capacity of
For this determination, the following items must parking areas, sewage and water systems
be considered and included in the Project and restrooms is determined by 20-year
Report: traffic requirements. A design designation
that expresses the basic factors which
( I ) Availability of Utilities. Water, sewage, control the design of a rest area should be
telephone, and electric service are required given in the Project Report and appear on
for all rest areas. A source of potable water, the typical section of all rest area projects.
commercial electric service, and telephone The following is an example of this
must be confirmed. The development of expression.
sewage and water systems must address
State and local agency regulations . ADT (2000) = 500
(2) Topography. The feasibility of construction ADT (2020) = 700
on a specific site requires careful evaluation. ADT - Peak Month (2020) = 1150
This includes:
DHV (2020) = 130
(a) Grade of slope and direction of slope of
the general area. Long Vehicles = 3 1%
(b) The history of flooding and grade Turnover = 3/Hour
relationship to high water line. PersonsNehicle = 2.2
(c) The number, type, size, and condition of Definitions:
trees and shrubs on the site; the amount
and kind of existing underbrush. ADT (2000)--The average daily traffic for
the current year using the rest area.
(d) Water courses, whether all-year or
intermittent. ADT (2020)--The average daily traffic for
the design year.
(e) Seismic data.
(f) Soil conditions, rock outcroppings, or
ADT Peak Month--The average daily
traffic for the peak month in the design
underlying strata. year using the rest area. Instead of the
(g) Wind conditions. peak month ADT, the average of six 3-
day holiday weekends may be
(h) The surrounding environment. Rest considered. This type of information
area development should fit the site is needed to ensure that an adequate
rather than attempting to change the site water supply and sewage system is
to fit a rest area. designed.
(3) Safety. Traffic ingress and egress in DHV--The design hourly volume of
relation to the highway and nearest vehicles in the design year.
interchanges, etc., is a prime consideration
in site location.
July 1,1995
Long Vehicles--The percent of trucks and structure at an approximate 2% grade, but

other vehicles which require long not less than 1% nor more than 3% on
parking spaces. paved areas. Parking area slopes parallel to
Turnover--The average length of time a direction of parking should not exceed 2%
vehicle stays in the rest area (20 in the truck area, nor 3% in the car area.
minutes) divided into 60 minutes. Cross slopes in either case should not
Round upward to highest whole exceed 4%. When entrance ramps exceed a
number. 6% grade, up or down, a transition area
between the end of the ramp and the parking
PersonsNehicle--The national average or other facility should be incorporated.
number of persons in the vehicle is General area grading should be shown on
2.2. plans by existing and proposed contour lines
The design should allow the parking area to of not more than 0.5-meter vertical intervals.
be expanded by 25% beyond the 20-year Pavement should be shown either by spot
design period. The master plans should grades (existing and proposed) or by a
indicate this future expansion. combination of spot grades and contour
Rest areas designed for freeways lines. Profiles and sections should be
shall have standard freeway exit and shown when grading intent is not clear by
entrance ramps (see Chapter 500). plan indications only. Building finish floor
Rest areas on expressways and conventional grades and all pads for architectural elements
highways should be designed with standard should be individually defined by spot
public road connections and median left turn grades. Changes in grade should be done
lanes (see Topic 405). smoothly and gradually without abrupt
edges or slopes.
Rest areas must not only be designed to ac- (3) Roads and Parking. Vehicular circulation
commodate the demand for parking spaces, must be simple, direct and obvious to the
but must have adequate water supply and a motorist. See Topic 403 for principles of
sewage system.
channelization. The minimum distance
(2) Grading. This is an important feature in between successive noses should be 180 m
making a rest area safe, functional, on exit ramps into rest areas. Vehicles
aesthetically pleasing, and economical. leaving the rest area should be oriented
Certain concepts are necessary to ensure that toward the exit and not confused into using
the grading is properly designed to the wrong ramp. Safety roadside rest areas
accomplish this. Generally, grading not on freeways must be designed with a
operations should be held to a minimum so public road connection. If the road will
as to disturb as little of a site as possible. ultimately be a freeway, the design should
Grading should be designed so that the take the ultimate location of structures and
slopes and grades developed follow the roads into consideration.
natural direction of slope of the area.
Parking areas must be well defined by
Cuts and fills close to existing trees to be means of striping and curbs in order to
saved should be avoided. When necessary, encourage orderly and proper parking, for
special treatment for the trees should be safety and efficiency. The curb angle points
incorporated. The District Landscape should be rounded. Large, paved areas
Architect will recommend such treatment as should be relieved by incorporating planting
necessary in these cases. Cuts and fills islands, which also help define the
should be shaped and rounded to conform to circulation pattern. A curvilinear parking
existing ground shapes. Grading should be area is more pleasing than a long, straight
done to ensure water flows away from parking lot, and is easier to use. Design
walkways or is taken care of by drainage plans should show pavement profiles, cross
boxes. sections and spot grades, indicating both
Areas around buildings, shelters, and table existing and proposed elevations.
slabs should be sloped away from the
July 1, 1995
a All roads and parking areas should be de-

signed to control vehicle traffic by the use of
Buildings are to be well lighted, both
interior and exterior. Comfort stations will
curbs or other barriers. The following be provided with flush-type toilet fixtures
comments relate to barriers: and a sewage disposal system.
(a) Service vehicles must be allowed access Basically, the size of comfort stations will
into the pedestrian area through rolled be determined by providing fixtures for each
curb or a removable barrier. sex based upon parking capacity. For men,
at least one-half of the total fixtures should
(b) It is most desirable to have only one type be urinals. Lavatories should be provided
of barrier throughout a development, on the basis of one per each two toilet
although economics will often suggest fixtures. The OSD will determine the exact
the use of two or more types. facilities to be provided. A minimum of 3
(c) Individuals with disabilities must be toilet fixtures including one that is handicap
afforded easy access into the rest area accessible for each sex will be provided.
without need to negotiate wheelchair or Diaper changing tables should be provided
crutches over a curb. Rest areas shall be in each comfort station.
barrier free and accessible to all Maintenance forces must be provided a
travelers. Accessibility means storage and utility area sufficient in size for
reasonable access to rest area facilities equipment and supplies needed to maintain
such as parking, picnic tables, the rest area.
walkways and comfort stations.
Drinking fountains with chilled water should
(d) Indiscriminate parking should be be provided in conjunction with the comfort
discouraged through the strategic station. Drinking fountains without chilled
r la cement of curbs and barriers.
a water may be provided elsewhere in the rest

-- ~
The basic lengths and widths for parking area.

spaces are as follows. See the Standard Heated-air drying units should be provided
Plans for disabled accessible parking for the drying of hands. A heating system
requirements. should be installed to eliminate freezing
Length (m) Width (m) damage to plumbing and provide minimum
human comfort levels.
Auto 6 3
Comfort stations should be located within
Trucks 21 4.5 90 m and at no time exceed 135 m from the
farthest parking space.
Road widths at entrances and exits from (5) Water Supply. Water systems will be de-
parking spaces depend upon the parking signed to be adequate in quantity and quality
angle and vehicle. Reference is made to for the projected use. The water supply
the booklet, "A Guide to Safety Rest system must be designed to handle the peak
Areas for the National System of flow required to furnish water to fixtures in
Interstate Highways," published by the comfort stations, plus the water
AASHTO. Truck turns should be used necessary to irrigate the landscaped areas. A
to verify road widths at entrances and source of potable water must be one of the
exits from parking spaces. The first considerations when selecting a site.
minimum width for two-way roads is Where there is no commercial source of
9.6 m. See Index 608.8 for the design water (nearby water district, city, etc.), then
of roadside rest pavements. a source must be developed. The OSD will
(4) Comfort Facilities. The architect in the OSD
make all the necessary arrangements with
the Office of Structure Materials (OSM) to
will consult with the District Landscape drill a test hole (or holes) on the proposed
Architect in regard to the design concept site upon notification. They will drill the
type and size of comfort station, and will hole and furnish a complete log of the test
perform the architectural design work. hole including electric log. It can then be
July 1, 1995
determined if there is adequate water

available, at what levels it is available, and
(9) Walks and Curbs. Walks should be wide
enough to handle pedestrian traffic at peak
a
what quality to expect. This information is hours. A 2.4-meter width is generally
absolutely necessary not only for the design suitable. They should also be wide enough
of the well, but to receive certification and to allow service vehicles to provide
site approval
-- from the FHWA. maintenance service to comfort stations.
(6)Sewage Facilities. Sewage facilities must be Steps should be avoided on walks wherever
designed to handle the peak sewage possible. A minimum width of 3.6 m
demand. A method of disposal of should be used immediately in front of
wastewater is one of the first priorities when comfort stations and in front of the row of
selecting a site. Where there is no means for parked cars where the heaviest pedestrian
on-site disposal, then a new site should be traffic is concentrated and where overhang
found. of front portion of cars project. Walks will
be constructed of concrete with non-skid
Waterborne sewage disposal systems will be surface. Locations of walks should allow
included as part of all new or upgraded Rest direct circulation to all facilities and should
Area projects; however, where rest areas are be easily understood by the pedestrian.
needed and no water is available, Ease and directness of circulation between
appropriate alternative technology may be parking area, comfort station, and picnic
utilized. area should generally determine the location
The OSD will make all necessary of walks. Curved or flowing lines fit most
arrangements with the OSM or District terrain more comfortably than straight
Materials Laboratory to conduct soil analysis walks.
and percolation tests. After completion of (10) Shelters. The quantity of shelters is relative
the testing, approval of the proposed sewage to the size of the site and shade trees. Other
treatment system by the Regional Water considerations in providing shelters are
Quality Control Board is obtained by the climatic conditions and anticipated picnic
OSD. This information and recommenda- usage. Orientation of shelters is determined
tion by the OSD is absolutely necessary not by the prevailing wind, sun, and access
only for the design of the system, but to from the parking area. Shelter locations
receive certification and site approval from should be studied relative to their appearance
the FHWA. from the parking area. The OSD is
Recreation vehicle sanitary stations (dump responsible for the development of the
facilities) may be provided at rest areas. The architectural design and proper orientation.
site being considered must be able to Tree planting is recommended adjacent to
shelters for additional shade and aesthetics.
provide
- -
for on-site or municipal disposal.
(11)Lighting. Rest areas are to be lighted.
(7) Telephones. Public telephones should be
provided which will allow calls to be made Location of light standards should be
without coins. A telephone within the designed to provide an overall light pattern,
maintenance storage area will be permitted if which considers the total effect of the
necessary to improve maintenance exterior lights of the comfort station, and
operations. any other lighting in the development of the
total pattern. Lighting plans are to be
(8) Picnic Tables and Benches. One table prepared by OSD.
should be provided for each five parking
stalls provided. Tables should be near or Use low brightness luminaires except for
adjacent to walkways and should be cut-off luminaires mounted 7.5 m or higher.
constructed on a concrete pad for ease of Coated (diffuse) lamps should be used with
maintenance. Pads should be slightly all prismatic lenses.
elevated and sloped at 1% for proper Average illumination should be 5 Ix in the
drainage. Separate benches with backs zone between the building and the auto
should be provided as needed. parking area and all crosswalks, and 2 to
3 Ix elsewhere. Strong shadows should be
July 1, 1995
avoided, particularly along walkways and at should be dependent on location, use, cost,
the building. and availability.
High pressure sodium (HPS) lamps should Planting should be used to screen out ob-
be specified on new projects for all exterior jectionable views, provide shade, wind
fixtures except those attached to buildings. screens, erosion control, to provide a break
in large paved areas, and to create a pleasant
Walkway lights should generally be 3.6 m setting for the entire rest area. Planting
to 4.2 m high. Truck parking area lights should not be used to screen out the rest
should generally be 7.5 m to 9 m for cut-off areas from easy view of the highway. This
luminaires, 4.5 m to 6 m for other types. view should be left reasonably open for ease
Type and color of luminaires and poles of policing.
should be compatible with the architectural
elements and coordinated by the architect in Irrigation systems must be included
the OSD. whenever planting is a part of the project.
Adequate lighting should be included inside (14 ) Informution Displays, Department of
the comfort station to provide a reasonably Rehabilitation Vending Facilities, Agricul-
uniform pattern. Illumination should be at tural Displays, and Traveler Informution
least 22 lx everywhere, including the Displays. Structural material, color, and
entrance, with 160 lx at the sink. Lights design should relate to, or may be part of,
should be controlled by an automatic switch other structures and facilities-within the rest
with a manual bypass. area. The OSD will be responsible for the
architectural design of these features. The
(12) Trash Receptacles. Concrete-type trash District Landscape Architect will be
receptacles of 110 L maximum capacity responsible for site review and approval.
- should be used for rest areas. The
0 following is relative to type and location of
these units.
The Right of Way Program determines the
information which should be displayed.
Displays should be lighted with a &um
(a) Units should include a disposable plastic width of 3 m of paving provided in front of
liner that can be conveniently lifted by the displays for pedestrian circulation.
maintenance personnel. Displays should usually be built into the
(b) Units should be located near parking comfort facility. Map displays should also
areas, comfort stations, and along major be provided adjacent to the parking area at
walks. One unit should be provided the first roadside rest areas on major routes
near and for two picnic tables. It is leading into the four large metropolitan
desirable that each unit be accessible to areas.
service vehicles, and that each be set on The Right of Way Program is responsible
a concrete pad. Total number should for the development of policies, operating
equal one-half the number of parking procedures, standards and administration for
spaces. Consideration should be given these types of uses. The Program will
to providing facilities for the temporary coordinate their activities including
storage of trash. newspaper vending with the Ofice of
(13) Planting and Irrigation. The District Landscape Architecture, District Landscape
Landscape Architect will prepare the Architect and other units so that the
planting and irrigation plans. proposed uses are consistent with the
Planting may consist of trees, shrubs, Department's overall plan for safety
ground covers, or turf lawns. California roadside rest areas.
native plants should be incorporated into the (15) Vending Machines and Public Informution
design, taking into account local plant Displays. Designers should be familiar with
a communities and species availability, to the

maximum extent feasible. Trees should be
planted to provide shade within the various
the provisions of Subchapter 20, Chapter 2
of the California Administrative Code,
"Permissible Activity and Use of Safety
use areas. The size and variety of the trees Roadside Rest Areas and Vista Points In and
July 1,1995
Along California State Highways". The will not stick to shoes or be too abrasive to
designer should adequately consider and the pet's feet. Appropriate signs should be
plan for uses and facilities that may provided to direct users to the pet area.
reasonably be anticipated. Fencing of pet runs is not generally required
nor appropriate.
(16)Flagpoles. Flagpoles are not to be included
as a feature of rest areas. (22) Other Activities and Uses. The Chief
Landscape Architect is responsible for the
(17) Fencing. Generally, fencing should be following: coordinating rest area joint
constructed only for access control, traffic development and privatization efforts; and
control, or safety purposes. Where fencing authorizing placement of vending machines
is necessary between the highway and the in rest areas. Preference is given to vendors
rest area, it should be as unobtrusive as operating under the Business Enterprise
possible and should not exceed 1.2 m in Program for the Blind administered by the
height. Around the perimeter of the rest area Department of Rehabilitation.
development, any fencing required should
also be unobtrusive, and of minimum height
and design to accomplish the required
function. Care must be exercised in
-
Topic 904 Vista Point
Standards and Guidelines
determining the type and location of
proposed fencing. 904.1 General
(18) Signs. Directional signs for traffic cir- New vista points should be considered during
culation should be included, but only when planning and design of new alignments for
necessary for control and safety. Standard inclusion with the highway contract (see Index
regulatory and warning signs should be 109.3). Vista points may also be provided on
used on entrance and exit ramps. Area existing routes. Existing vista points should be
identification signs should be provided. periodically inspected for needed restoration or
Number of signs should be kept at a upgrading.
minimum. Pedestrian signs should relate to
other elements within the rest area and be The District Landscape Architect is responsible
determined by OSD. for approving site selection, concept, and design
for all areas to be signed as vista points. The
(19) Hose Bibbs (in Valve Boxes). Hose bibbs Office of Project Planning and Design is
should always be provided for ease of responsible for geometric approval. For
maintenance and for cleanup purposes. approval of standards lower than indicated
They should be provided at 30-meter herein, see Index 82.1. Structural sections and
maximum intervals along walkways and drainage should be designed in accordance with
within 15 m of each picnic table. Chapters 600 and 800.
(20) Faucetsfor Drinking Water. They should Vista points shall be designed to be accessible to
be located adjacent to the parking area, each all travelers and conform to the current
shelter, or near each table area. The valves Americans with Disabilities Act.
should be self closing with no hose threads.
Sufficient drainage should be provided to 904.2 Site Selection
prevent ponding of water. Drainage to
waste water treatment plant should be Site selection is based on the following criteria:
considered. (1) Quality. A site should have views and
(21) Pet Areas. A conveniently located pet run scenery of outstanding merit or beauty.
area or areas should be provided at each Locations on designated State scenic
facility. Pet areas should be located away highways or in areas of historical or
from picnic facilities and high-use pedestrian environmental significance should be given
areas, but should be accessible without special emphasis. A site should provide the
requiring users to cross turf or dirt. Pet best viewing opportunities compared to
areas should be provided with a suitable other potential locations within the vicinity.
surface, normally a granular material, which
July 1,1995
(2) Compatibility. A site should be located on (4) Interpretive Displays. An interpretive

State highway right of way or on right of display should be provided within the
way secured by easement or agreement with pedestrian area of each vista point. The
another public agency. A site should be display should be appropriate to the site,
obtainable without condemnation. Sites on both in design and content. Display
or adjacent to developed property or structures should not overwhelm or
property where development is anticipated dominate the site, and they should be placed
should be avoided. at the proper location for viewing the
( 3 ) Accessibility. A site must be accessible attraction.
from a State highway or intersecting road. Information should pertain to local envi-
A site must have adequate sight distance for ronmental, ecological, and historical
safe access. features. It should interpret the features
(4) Accommodation. A site must be of ade- being viewed to inform and educate the
quate size to accommodate the necessary public.
features and facilities. However, Historical plaques, monuments, vicinity
development of a site shall not detract from maps, and directions to other public facilities
the scenic quality of the area. Adequate are examples of other appropriate
space should be available for earth informational items.
mounding and planting to minimize the (5) Vending Machines and Public Infomtion
visual impact of larger facilities. Adequate Displays. Designers should be familiar with
space for future expansion is desirable. the provisions of Subchapter 20, Chapter 2
904.3 Design Features and Facilities of the California Administrative Code,
"Permissible Activity and Use of Safety
( I ) Road Connections. The design of Roadside Rest Areas and Vista Points In and
connections to vista ~ointsshould be in Along California State Highways". The
accordance with Index 107.1. Vista designer should adequately consider and
points designed for freeways shall plan for uses and facilities that may
have standard freeway exit and reasonably be anticipated.
entrance ramps (see Chapter 500). (6)Sanitary Facilities. Comfort stations are
( 2 ) Parking. Paved parking areas should be usually not provided. Exceptions must be
provided. Parking capacity should be based approved by the Chief Landscape Architect.
on an analysis of current traffic data.
However, at least five vehicle spaces should (7) Water. Potable water may be provided at a
be provided. Parking should not exceed reasonable cost. Nonpotable water should
0.025 times the DHV or 50 spaces, not be provided in a vista point.
whichever, is less. Parking stalls should be (8) Trash Receptacles. Trash receptacles should
delineated by striping. Approximately one- be provided in each vista point. As a guide,
quarter to one-third of the spaces should be one receptacle should be provided for every
allocated to larger vehicles (cars with four cars, but a minimum of two receptacles
trailers, recreational vehicles, and buses). should be provided per vista point.
Geometrics should be such that all types of Dumpsters should not be located at a vista
vehicles entering the vista point can safely point.
negotiate and exit the facility.
(9) Signs. Directional, regulatory, and warning
(3) Pedestrian Areas. Vista points should signs must conform to the Traffic Manual.
provide a safe place where motorists can
observe the view from outside their (10) Planting. Existing vegetation, rock out-
vehicles. Walkways may be provided cropping~,and other natural features should
within the viewing area. This space must be be conserved and highlighted. Removal or
a accessible to the handicapped and

inaccessible to vehicles.
pruning of existing plants to frame the view
should be held to a minimum and be directed
by the District Landscape Architect. Earth
mounding and contour grading may be
July 1,1995
employed to restore and naturalize the site.

Planting, including erosion control, should
be provided to revegetate graded areas.
Plants requiring permanent irrigation should
be avoided.
(11) Barriers. Railings, bollards, or other
appropriate barriers should be used to
protect pedestrians, and discourage entry
into sensitive or hazardous areas.
The design of such barriers should be
sensitive to pedestrian scale and reflect the
scenic character of the site.
(12) Other Features. Benches, telephones, and
viewing machines are optional items. Picnic
tables are not be included in vista points.
In general, the inclusion of items which do
not either facilitate the viewing of the scenic
attraction or blend the vista point into its
surroundings should be avoided.
m- BIKEWAY
CHAPTER
PLANNING AND
1000 (h) Section 890.6 - 890.8 -- Caltrans and
local agencies to develop design criteria
and symbols for signs, markers, and
DESIGN traffic control devices for bikeways and
-
Topic 1001 General
roadways where bicycle travel is
permitted.
Information (i) Section 891 -- Local agencies must
comply with design criteria and uniform
-
Index 1001.1 Definitions symbols.
"Bikeway" means all facilities that provide (j) Section 892 -- Use of abandoned right-
primarily for bicycle travel. of-way as a nonmotorized facility.
(1) Class I Bikeway (Bike Path). Provides a
completely separated right of way for the 1001.3 Vehicle Code References -
exclusive use of bicycles and pedestrians Bicycle Operation
with crossflow minimized. (a) Section 21200 -- Bicyclist's rights and
(2) Class I1 Bikeway (Bike Lane). Provides a responsibilities for traveling on
striped lane for one-way bike travel on a highways.
street or highway. (b) Section 21202 -- Bicyclist's position on
(3) Class I11 Bikeway (Bike Route). Provides roadways when traveling slower than
for shared use with pedestrian or motor the normal traffic speed.
vehicle traffic. (c) Section 21206 -- Allows local agencies
to regulate operation of bicycles on
1001.2 Streets and Highways Code pedestrian or bicycle facilities.
- -
References Chapter 8 Nonmotorized
(d) Section 21207 -- Allows local agencies
Transportation
to establish bike lanes on non-state
(a) Section 887 -- Definition of highways.
nonmotorized facility.
(e) Section 21207.5 -- Prohibits motorized
(b) Section 887.6 -- Agreements with local bicycles on bike paths or bike lanes.
agencies to construct and maintain
nonmotorized facilities. (f) Section 21208 -- Specifies permitted
movements by bicyclists from bike
(c) Section 887.8 -- Payment for lanes.
construction and maintenance of
nonmotorized facilities approximately (g) Section 21209 -- Specifies permitted
paralleling state highways. movements by motorists in bike lanes.
(d) Section 888 -- Severance of existing (h) Section 21209 -- Prohibits bicycle
major nonmotorized route by freeway parking on sidewalks unless pedestrians
construction. have an adequate path.
(e) Section 888.2 -- Incorporation of non- (i) Section 2 1210 -- Prohibits impeding or
motorized facilities in the design of obstruction of bicyclists on bike paths.
freeways. (j) Section 21212 -- Requires a bicyclist
(f) Section 888.4 -- Requires Caltrans to under 18 years of age to wear an
budget not less than $360,000 annually approved helmet.
for nonmotorized facilities used in (k) Section 21717 -- Requires a motorist to
conjunction with the state highway drive in a bike lane prior to making a
system. turn.
(9) Section 890.4 -- Class I, 11, and I11 (1) Section 21960 -- Use of freeway
bike-way definitions. shoulders by bicyclists.
Topic 1002 - General Planning route street as compared with the majority of
cross streets, and installation of bicycle-
Criteria sensitive loop detectors at signalized
intersections.
1002.1 Introduction
Bicycle travel can be enhanced by improved 1002.3 The Decision to Develop
maintenance and by upgrading existing roads Bikeways
used regularly by bicyclists, regardless of The decision to develop bikeways should be
whether or not bikeways are designated. This made with the knowledge that bikeways are not
effort requires increased attention to the right- the solution to all bicycle-related problems.
hand portion of roadways where bicyclists are Many of the common problems are related to
expected to ride. On new construction, and improper bicyclist and motorist behavior and
major reconstruction projects, adequate width can only be corrected through effective educa-
should be provided to permit shared use by tion and enforcement programs. The develop-
motorists and bicyclists. On resurfacing ment of well conceived bikeways can have a
projects, the entire paved shoulder and positive effect on bicyclist and motorist behav-
traveled way shall be resurfaced. When ior. Conversely, poorly conceived bikeways
adding lanes or turn pockets, a mini- can be counterproductive to education and en-
mum 1.2 m shoulder shall be provided forcement programs.
(see Topic 405 and Table 302.1). When
feasible, a wider shoulder should be considered. 1002.4 Selection of the Type of
When placing a roadway edge stripe, sufficient Facility
room outside the stripe should be provided for
bicyclists. When considering the restriping of The type of facility to select in meeting the
roadways for more traffic lanes, the impact on bicvcle need is de~endenton maw factors. but
bicycle travel should be assessed. Bicycle and
pedestrian traffic through construction zones
should be addressed in the project development
th&following applkations are the most cokmon
for each type.
( I ) Shared Roadway (No Bikeway Designu-
-m
process. These efforts, to preserve or improve tion). Most bicycle travel in the State now
an area for bicyclists to ride, can benefit occurs on streets and highways without
motorists as well as bicyclists. bikeway designations. This probably will
be true in the future as well. In some
1002.2 The Role of Bikeways instances, entire street systems may be fully
Bikeways are one element of an effort to adequate for safe and efficient bicycle travel,
improve bicycling safety and convenience - and signing and striping for bicycle use may
either to help accommodate motor vehicle and be unnecessary. In other cases, routes may
bicycle traffic on shared roadways, or to be unsuitable for bicycle travel, and it would
complement the road system to meet needs not be inappropriate to encourage additional bi-
adequately met by roads. cycle travel by designating the routes as
bikeways. Finally, routes may not be along
Off-street bikeways in exclusive corridors can high bicycle demand corridors, and it would
be effective in providing new recreational be inappropriate to designate bikeways re-
opportunities, or in some instances, desirable gardless of roadway conditions (e.g., on
commuter routes. They can also be used to minor residential streets).
close gaps where barriers exist to bicycle travel
(e.g., river crossing). On-street bikeways can Many rural highways are used by touring
serve to enhance safety and convenience, espe- bicyclists for intercity and recreational
cially if other commitments are made in con- travel. In most cases, it would be
junction with establishment of bikeways, such inappropriate to designate the highways as
as: elimination of parking or increasing roadway bikeways because of the limited use and the
lack of continuity with other bike routes.
width, elimination of surface irregularities and
roadway obstacles, frequent street sweeping,
establishing intersection priority on the bike
However, the development and maintenance
of 1.2 m paved roadway shoulders with a
standard 100 rnm edge stripe can
-a
July 1,1995
significantly improve the safety and If bicycle travel is to be controlled by

convenience for bicyclists and motorists delineation, special efforts should be made
along such routes. to assure that high levels of service are
provided with these lanes.
(2) Class I Bikeway (Bike Path). Generally,
bike paths should be used to serve corridors In selecting appropriate streets for bike
not served by streets and highways or where lanes, location criteria discussed in the next
wide right of way exists, permitting such section should be considered.
facilities to be constructed away from the (4) Class III Bikeway (Bike Route). Bike
influence of parallel streets. Bike paths routes are shared facilities which serve either
should offer opportunities not provided by to:
the road system. They can either provide a
recreational opportunity, or in some (a) Provide continuity to other bicycle facili-
instances, can serve as direct high-speed ties (usually Class 11bikeways); or
commute routes if cross flow by motor (b) Designate preferred routes through high
vehicles can be minimized. The most demand corridors.
common applications are along rivers, ocean
fronts, canals, utility right of way, As with bike lanes, designation of bike
abandoned railroad right of way, within routes should indicate to bicyclists that there
college campuses, or within and between are particular advantages to using these
parks. There may also be situations where routes as compared with alternative routes.
such facilities can be provided as part of This means that responsible agencies have
planned developments. Another common taken actions to assure that these routes are
application of Class I facilities is to close suitable as shared routes and will be
gaps to bicycle travel caused by construction maintained in a manner consistent with the
a of freeways or because of the existence of

natural barriers (rivers, mountains, etc.).
(3) Class 11 Bikeway (Bike Lane). Bike lanes
needs of bicyclists. Normally, bike routes
are shared with motor vehicles. The use of
sidewalks as Class 111 bikeways is strongly
are established along streets in corridors discouraged.
where there is significant bicycle demand, It is emphasized that the designation of
and where there are distinct needs that can bikeways as Class I, II and 111should not be
be served by them. The purpose should be construed as a hierarchy of bikeways; that
to improve conditions for bicyclists in the one is better than the other. Each class of
corridors. Bike lanes are intended to bikeway has its appropriate application.
delineate the right of way assigned to In selecting the proper facility, an overriding
bicyclists and motorists and to provide for concern is to assure that the proposed
more predictable movements by each. But a facility will not encourage or require bicy-
more important reason for constructing bike clists or motorists to operate in a manner that
lanes is to better accommodate bicyclists is inconsistent with the rules of the road.
through corridors where insufficient room
exists for safe bicycling on existing streets. An important consideration in selecting the
This can be accomplished by reducing the type of facility is continuity. Alternating
number of lanes, or prohibiting parking on segments of Class I and Class 11 (or Class
given streets in order to delineate bike lanes. 111) bikeways along a route are generally
In addition, other things can be done on bike incompatible, as street crossings by
lane streets to improve the situation for bicyclists are required when the route
bicyclists, that might not be possible on all changes character. Also, wrong-way
streets (e.g., improvements to the surface, bicycle travel will occur on the street beyond
augmented sweeping programs, special the ends of bike paths because of the
signal facilities, etc.). Generally, stripes inconvenience of having to cross the street.
a alone will not measurably enhance

bicycling.
July 1,1995
Where heavy bicycle volumes are anticipated

Topic 1003 - Design Criteria andlor significant pedestrian traffic is
expected, the paved width of a two-way
1003.1 Class I Bikeways path should be greater than 2.4 m,
preferably 3.6 m or more. Another
Class I bikeways (bike paths) are facilities with important factor to consider in determining
exclusive right of way, with cross flows by the appropriate width is that bicyclists will
motorists minimized. Section 890.4 of the tend to ride side by side on bike paths,
Streets and Highways Code describes Class I necessitating more width for safe use.
bikeways as serving "the exclusive use of bi-
cycles and pedestrians". However, experience Experience has shown that paved paths less
has shown that if significant pedestrian use is than 3.6 m wide sometimes break up along
anticipated, separate facilities for pedestrians are the edge as a result of loads from main-
necessary to minimize conflicts. Dual use by tenance vehicles.
pedestrians and bicycles is undesirable, and the Where equestrians are expected, a separate
two should be separated wherever possible. facility should be provided.
Sidewalk facilities are not considered Class I (2) Clearance to Obstructions. A minimum
facilities because they are primarily intended to 0.6 m horizontal clearance to
serve pedestrians, generally cannot meet the obstructions shall be provided adja-
design standards for Class I bikeways, and do cent to the pavement (see Figure
not minimize motorist cross flows. See Index 1003.1A). A 1.0 m clearance is
1003.3 for discussion relative to sidewalk bike- recommended. Where the paved width is
ways. wider than the minimum required, the clear-
By State law, motorized bicycles ("mopeds") ance may be reduced accordingly; however,
are prohibited on bike paths unless authorized an adequate clearance is desirable regardless
by ordinance or approval of the agency having of the paved width. If a wide path is paved
jurisdiction over the path. Likewise, all motor contiguous with a continuous fixed object
vehicles are prohibited from bike paths. These (e.g., block wall), a 100 mm white edge
prohibitions can be strengthened by signing. stripe, 0.3 m from the fixed object, is
recommended to minimize the likelihood of
( I ) Widths. The minimum paved width a bicyclist hitting it. The clear width on
for a two-way bike path shall be structures between railings shall be
2.4 m. The minimum paved width not less than 2.4 m. It is desirable that
for a one-way bike path shall be 1.5 the clear width of structures be equal to the
m. A minimum 0.6 m wide graded minimum clear width of the path (i.e.,
area shall be provided adjacent to the 3.6 m).
pavement (see Figure 1003.1A). A
1.0 m graded area is recommended to The vertical clearance to obstruc-
provide clearance from poles, trees, walls, tions across the clear width of the
fences, guardrails, or other lateral path shall be a minimum of 2.5 m.
obstructions. A wider graded area can also Where practical, a vertical clearance of 3 m
serve as a jogging path. Where the paved is desirable.
width is wider than the minimum required, (3) Striping and Signing. A yellow centerline
the graded area may be reduced accordingly; stripe may be used to separate opposing
however, the graded area is a desirable directions of travel. A centerline stripe is
feature regardless of the paved width. particularly beneficial in the following cir-
Development of a one-way bike path should cumstances:
be undertaken only after careful considera-
tion due to the problems of enforcing one- (a) Where there is heavy use;
way operation and the difficulties in (b) On curves with restricted sight distance;
maintaining a path of restricted width.
July 1,1995
0 Figure 1003.1A
Figure 1003.1 B
Typical Cross Section of Bike

Path Along Highway
7 0.6 m GradedArea (Min.) 7
NOTE: See Index 1003.1(5). U One - Way: 1.5 m Minimum Width

nRo - Way 2.4 m Minimum
July 1,1995
(c) Where the path is unlighted and night- (5) Separation Between Bike Paths and
time riding is expected. (Refer to Topic Highways. A wide separation is
1004 for signing and striping details.) recommended between bike paths and
(4) Intersections with Highways. Intersections adjacent highways (see Figure 1003.1B).
are a prime consideration in bike path de- Bike paths closer than 1.5 m from
sign. If alternate locations for a bike path the edge of the shoulder shall
are available, the one with the most include a physical barrier to prevent
favorable intersection conditions should be bicyclists from encroaching onto the
selected. highway. Bike paths within the
clear recovery zone of freeways
Where motor vehicle cross traffic and bi- shall include a physical barrier
cycle traffic is heavy, grade separations are separation. Suitable barriers could in-
desirable to eliminate intersection conflicts. clude chain link fences or dense shrubs.
Where grade separations are not feasible, Low barriers (e.g., dikes, raised traffic
assignment of right of way by traffic signals bars) next to a highway are not recom-
should be considered. Where traffic is not mended because bicyclists could fall over
heavy, stop or yield signs for bicyclists may them and into oncoming automobile traffic.
suffice. In instances where there is danger of mo-
Bicycle path intersections and approaches torists encroaching into the bike path, a
should be on relatively flat grades. positive barrier (e.g., concrete barrier, steel
Stopping sight distances at intersections guardrailing) should be provided. See
should be checked and adequate warning Index 1003.6 for criteria relative to bike
should be given to permit bicyclists to stop paths carried over highway bridges.
before reaching the intersection, especially Bike paths immediately adjacent to streets
on downgrades. and highways are not recommended. They
When crossing an arterial street, the cross- should not be considered a substitute for the
ing should either occur at the pedestrian street, because many bicyclists will find it
crossing, where motorists can be expected less convenient to ride on these types of
to stop, or at a location completely out of the facilities as compared with the streets,
influence of any intersection to wrmit particularly for utility trips.
adequate opport&ty for bicyclists io see (6)Bike Paths in the Median of Highways. As
turning vehicles. When crossing at a general rule, bike paths in the median of
midblock locations, right of way should be highways are not recommended because
assigned by devices such as yield signs, they require movements contrary to normal
stop signs, or traffic signals which can be rules of the road. Specific problems with
activated by bicyclists. Even when crossing such facilities include:
within or adjacent to the pedestrian crossing,
stop or yield signs for bicyclists should be (a) Bicyclist right turns from the center of
placed to minimize potential for conflict roadways are unnatural for bicyclists
resulting from turning autos. Where bike and confusing to motorists.
path stop or yield signs are visible to (b) Proper bicyclist movements through
approaching motor vehicle traffic, they intersections with signals are unclear.
should be shielded to avoid confusion. In (c) Left-turning motorists must cross one
some cases, Bike Xing signs may be placed direction of motor vehicle traffic and two
in advance of the crossing to alert motorists. directions of bicycle traffic, which in-
Ramps should be installed in the curbs, to creases conflicts.
preserve the utility of the bike path. Ramps (d) Where intersections are infrequent, bicy-
should be the same width as the bicycle clists will enter or exit bike paths at mid-
paths. Curb cuts and ramps should provide block.
a smooth transition between the bicycle
paths and the roadway. (e) Where medians are landscaped, visual
relationships between bicyclists and
motorists at intersections are impaired.
July 1, 1995
a For the above reasons, bike paths in the

median of highways should be considered
minimum superelevation rate of 2% will be
adequate for most conditions and will
only when the above problems can be simplify construction. Superelevation rates
avoided. Bike paths shall not be steeper than 5 percent should be avoided on
designed in the medians of freeways bike paths expected to have adult tricycle
or expressways. traffic.
(7) Design Speed. The proper design speed for The coefficient of friction depends upon
a bike path is dependent on the expected speed; surface type, roughness, and
type of use and on the terrain. The condition; tire type and condtion; and
minimum design speed for bike whether the surface is wet or dry. Friction
paths shall be 40 kmlh except as factors used for design should be selected
noted in Table 1003.1. based upon the point at which centrifugal
force causes the bicyclist to recognize a
Table 1003.1 feeling of discomfort and instinctively act to
avoid higher speed. Extrapolating from
values used in highway design, design
Bike Path Design Speeds friction factors for paved bicycle paths can
be assumed to vary from 0.3 1 at 20 km/h to
Type of Facility Design Speed 0.21 at 50 krn/h. Although there is no data
(kmk) available for unpaved surfaces, it is
suggested that friction factors be reduced by
Bike Paths with Mopeds Prohibited 40 50 percent to allow a sufficient margin of
Bike Paths with Mopeds Permitted 50 safety.
Bike Paths on Long Downgrades 50 The minimum radius of curvature can be
(steeper than 4 1 , and longer than selected from Figure 1003.1C. When curve
150 m) radii smaller than those shown in Figure
1003.1C must be used on bicycle paths
because of right of way, topographical or
Installation of "speed bumps" or other considerations, standard curve
other similar surface obstructions, warning signs and supplemental pavement
intended to cause bicyclists to slow markings should be installed. The negative
down in advance of intersections or effects of nonstandard curves can also be
other geometric constraints, shall partially offset by widening the pavement
not be used. These devices cannot through the curves.
compensate for improper design. (9) Stopping Sight Distance. To provide
(8)Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation. bicyclists with an opportunity to see and
The minimum radius of curvature negotiable react to the unexpected, a bicycle path
by a bicycle is a function of the should be designed with adequate stopping
superelevation rate of the bicycle path sight distances. The distance required to
surface, the coefficient of friction between bring a bicycle to a full controlled stop is a
the bicycle tires and the bicycle path surface, function of the bicyclist's perception and
and the speed of the bicycle. brake reaction time, the initial speed of the
bicycle, the coefficient of friction between
For most bicycle path applications the the tires and the pavement, and the braking
superelevation rate will vary from a ability of the bicycle.
minimum of 2 percent (the minimum
necessary to encourage adequate drainage) Figure 1003.1D indicates the minimum
to a maximum of approximately 5 percent stopping sight distances for various design
(beyond which maneuvering difficulties by speeds and grades. For two-way bike
slow bicyclists and adult tricyclists might be paths, the descending direction, that is,
expected). A straight 2% cross slope is where "G" is negative, will control the
recommended on tangent sections. The design.
(1O)Length of Crest Vertical Curves. Figure same manner as a highway, with consider-
1003.1E indicates the minimum lengths of ation given to the quality of the basement
crest vertical curves for varying design soil and the anticipated loads the bikeway
speeds. will experience. It is important to construct
(11)Lateral Clearme on Horizontal Curves. and maintain a smooth riding surface with
Figure 1003.1F indicates the minimum skid resistant qualities. Principal loads will
clearances to line of sight obstructions for normally be from maintenance and
horizontal curves. The required lateral emergency vehicles. Expansive soil should
clearance is obtained by entering Figure be given special consideration and will
1003.1F with the stopping sight distance probably require a special structural section.
from Figure 1003.1D and the proposed A minimum pavement thickness of 50 mrn
horizontal curve radius. of asphalt concrete is recommended. Type
"A" or "B" asphalt concrete (as described in
Bicyclists frequently ride abreast of each Department of Transportation Standard
other on bicycle paths, and on narrow Specifications), with 12.5 mm maximum
bicycle paths, bicyclists have a tendency to aggregate and medium grading is rec-
ride near the middle of the path. For these ommended. Consideration should be given
reasons, and because of the serious to increasing the asphalt content to provide
consequences of a head on bicycle accident, increased pavement life. Consideration
lateral clearances on horizontal curves should also be given to sterilization of
should be calculated based on the sum of the basement soil to preclude possible weed
stopping sight distances for bicyclists growth through the pavement.
traveling in opposite directions around the At unpaved highway or driveway crossings
curve. Where this is not possible or of bicycle paths, the highway or driveway
feasible, consideration should be given to should be paved a minimum of 3 m on each
widening the path through the curve,
installing a yellow center stripe, installing a
curve ahead warning sign, or some
side of the crossing to reduce the amount of
gravel being scattered along the path by
motor vehicles. The pavement structure at
a
combination of these alternatives. the crossing should be adequate to sustain
(12)Grades. Bike paths generally attract less the expected loading at that location.
skilled bicyclists, so it is important to avoid (14)Drainage. For proper drainage, the surface
steep grades in their design. Bicyclists not of a bike path should have a cross slope of
physically conditioned will be unable to 2%. Sloping in one direction usually
negotiate long, steep uphill grades. Since simplifies longitudinal drainage design and
novice bicyclists often ride poorly surface construction, and accordingly is the
maintained bicycles, long downgrades can preferred practice. Ordinarily, surface
cause problems. For these reasons, bike drainage from the path will be adequately
paths with long, steep grades will generally dissipated as it flows down the gently
receive very little use. The maximum grade sloping shoulder. However, when a bike
rate recommended for bike paths is 5%. It path is constructed on the side of a hill, a
is desirable that sustained grades be limited drainage ditch of suitable dimensions may
to 2% if a wide range of riders is to be be necessary on the uphill side to intercept
accommodated. Steeper grades can be the hillside drainage. Where necessary,
tolerated for short segments (e.g., up to catch basins with drains should be provided
about 150 m). Where steeper grades are to carry intercepted water across the path.
necessitated, the design speed should be Such ditches should be designed in such a
increased and additional width should be way that no undue obstacle is presented to
provided for maneuverability. bicyclists.
(13)Structural Section. The structural section of Culverts or bridges are necessarv where a
a bike path should be designed in the bike path crosseca drainage cha&el.
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.1C
Curve Radii & Superelevations

v2
where,
R = Minimum radius of curvature (m),
V = Design Speed ( M ) ,
e = Rate of bikeway superelevation,percent
f = Coefficient of friction
Design Speed-V Friction Factor-f Superelevatione Minimum Radius-R
( M I (%I (m)
20 0.3 1 2 10
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.1 D
Stopping Sight Distance
Grade (%)
Descend ------
Ascend
Where : S = stopping sight, m
V = velocity, kmlh
f = coefficient of friction (use 0.25)
G = grade, mlm (riselrun)
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.1 E
Stopping Sight Distances for Crest

Vertical Curves
L= 2 5 - g j ~ when S > L Double line represents S=L
A L = Min. length of vertical curve - meters
L =s
450
when S < L A = Algebraic grade difference-%
S = Stopping sight distance - meters
Height of cyclist eye - 1400 mm V = Design speed krnlh (Refer to Figure
Height of object - 100 rnm 1003.1D to determine "V",after "S" is
determined.
GIVEN "A" AND "L"; FIND "S"
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.1 E
Stopping Sight Distances for Crest
Vertical Curves
(continued)
GIVEN "A" AND "St> FIND "L"

July 1.1995
Figure 1003.1F
Lateral Clearances on Horizontal
Curves
Sight distonce (S) measured olong this line
7 S = Sight distance in meters.
R = Rodius o f Q of lane in meters.
= Distonce from Q of lone in meters.
V = Design speed for S in km/h.
(Refer t o Figure 1003.10 to determine
"V, after "S' is determined.)
Angle is expressed in degrees
Formulo applies only when

S is equol t o or less than
length of curve.
Line of sight is 600 m m obove Q inside

lane at point of obstruction.
GIVEN "R" AND "Sf'; FIND "mu
S=10 m S=20 m S=30 m S=40 m S=50 S=60 m S=70 m S=80 m S=90 m S=100 n S=110 m
m , m m m m m m m m m m
R (m) meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters
25 0.50 1.97 4.37 7.58 11.49 15.94 20.75 25.73 30.68 35.41 39.72
50 0.25 1.00 2.23 3.95 6.12 8.73 11.76 15.17 18.92 22.99 27.32
75 0.17 0.67 1.50 2.65 4.13 5.92 8.02 10.42 13.10 16.06 19.28
100 0.12 0.50 1.12 1.99 3.11 4.47 6.06 7.90 9.96 12.24 14.75
125 0.10 0.40 0.90 1.60 2.49 3.58 4.87 6.35 8.01 9.87 11.91
150 0.08 0.33 0.75 1.33 2.08 2.99 4.07 5.30 6.70 8.26 9.97
175 0.07 0.29 0.64 1.14 1.78 2.57 3.49 4.55 5.75 7.10 8.57
200 0.06 0.25 0.56 1.00 1.56 2.25 3.06 3.99 5.04 6.22 7.52
225 0.06 0.22 0.50 0.89 1.39 2.00 2.72 3.55 4.49 5.53 6.69
250 0.05 0.20 0.45 0.80 1.25 1.80 2.45 3.19 4.04 4.98 6.03
275 0.05 0.18 0.41 0.73 1.14 1.63 2.22 2.90 3.67 4.53 5.48
300 0.04 0.17 0.37 0.67 1.04 1.50 2.04 2.66 3.37 4.16 5.03
350 0.04 0.14 0.32 0.57 0.89 1.29 1.75 2.28 2.89 3.57 4.31
400 0.03 0.13 0.28 0.50 0.78 1.12 1.53 2.00 2.53 3.12 3.78
500 0.03 0.10 0.23 0.40 0.62 0.90 1.22 1.60 2.02 2.50 3.02
600 0.02 0.08 0.19 0.33 0.52 0.75 1.02 1.33 1.69 2.08 2.52
700 0.02 0.07 0.16 0.29 0.45 0.64 0.87 1.14 1.45 1.79 2.16
800 0.02 0.06 0.14 0.25 0.39 0.56 0.77 1.00 1.27 1.56 1.89
900 0.01 0.06 0.13 0.22 0.35 0.50 0.68 0.89 1.12 1.39 1.68
1000 0.01 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.45 0.61 0.80 1.01 1.25 1.51
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.1 F
Lateral Clearances on Horizontal Curves

(continued)
GIVEN "R" AND "m"; FIND "S"
m = 1 m = 2 m = 3 m = 4 m = 5 m = 6 m = 7 m = 8 m = 9 m = l O m =11
meter meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters meters
(m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m) S (m)
25 14.19 20.13 24.74 28.67 32.17 35.37 38.35 41.15 43.81 46.36 48.82
50 20.03 28.38 34.81 40.27 45.10 49.49 53.55 57.35 60.93 64.35 67.61
75 24.52 34.72 42.57 49.21 55.08 60.40 65.32 69.91 74.23 78.34 82.26
100 28.31 40.06 49.11 56.75 63.51 69.63 75.27 80.54 85.50 90.20 94.68
125 31.64 44.78 54.88 63.41 70.94 77.77 84.06 89.92 95.44 100.67 105.66
150 34.66 49.04 60.10 69.43 77.67 85.13 92.00 98.41 104.44 110.15 115.60
175 37.43 52.96 64.90 74.97 83.86 91.91 99.32 106.23 112.73 118.88 124.75
200 40.01 56.61 69.36 80.13 89.62 98.22 106.13 113.51 120.45 127.01 133.27
225 42.44 60.04 73.56 84.97 95.04 104.15 112.53 120.35 127.70 134.66 141.28
250 44.73 63.28 77.53 89.56 100.16 109.76 118.59 126.82 134.56 141.89 148.86
275 46.91 66.37 81.31 93.92 105.03 115.09 124.35 132.98 141.09 148.77 156.08
300 49.00 69.32 84.92 98.08 109.69 120.19 129.86 138.86 147.33 155.34 162.97
350 52.92 74.86 91.71 105.92 118.45 129.79 140.22 149.94 159.08 167.72 175.95
400 56.58 80.03 98.03 113.22 126.61 138.73 149.87 160.26 170.01 179.25 188.04
500 63.25 89.47 109.59 126.57 141.53 155.06 167.52 179.11 190.01 200.32 210.13
600 69.29 98.00 120.04 138.63 155.02 169.83 183.47 196.16 208.09 219.38 230.12
700 74.84 105.85 129.65 149.73 167.42 183.42 198.14 211.85 224.72 236.91 248.50
800 80.00 113.15 138.60 160.05 178.97 196.07 211.80 226.45 240.21 253.23 265.62
900 84.85 120.01 147.00 169.76 189.81 207.95 224.63 240.16 254.75 268.56 281.69
1000 89.44 126.50 154.95 178.93 200.07 219.18 236.76 253.13 268.51 283.06 296.90
July 1,1995
(15)BarrierPosts. It may be necessary to install considered through underpasses or tunnels,

barrier posts at entrances to bike paths to and when nighttime security could be a
prevent motor vehicles from entering. problem.
When locating such installations, care Depending on the location, average main-
should be taken to assure that barriers are tained horizontal illumination levels of 5 lux
well marked and visible to bicyclists, day or to 22 lux should be considered. Where
night (i.e., install reflectors or reflectorized special security problems exist, higher
tape). illumination levels may be considered.
Striping an envelope around the barriers is Light standards (poles) should meet the
recommended (see Figure 1003.1G). If recommended horizontal and vertical clear-
sight distance is limited, special advance ances. Luminaires and standards should be
warning signs or painted pavement at a scale appropriate for a pedestrian or
warnings should be provided. Where more bicycle path.
than one post is necessary, a 1.5 m spacing
should be used to permit passage of bicycle- 1003.2 Class I1 Bikeways
towed trailers, adult tricycles, and to assure
adequate room for safe bicycle passage Class I1 bikeways (bike lanes) for preferential
without dismounting. Barrier post use by bicycles are established within the paved
installations should be designed so they are area of highways. Bike lane stripes are intended
removable to permit entrance by emergency to promote an orderly flow of traffic, by
and service vehicles. establishing specific lines of demarcation be-
tween areas reserved for bicycles and lanes to be
Generally, barrier configurations that pre- occupied by motor vehicles. This effect is
clude entry by motorcycles present safety supported by bike lane signs and pavement
and convenience problems for bicyclists. markings. Bike lane stripes can increase bicy-
Such devices should be used only where clists' confidence that motorists will not stray
@ extreme problems are encountered. into their path of travel if they remain within the
bike lane. Likewise, with more certainty as to
Figure 1003.16 where bicyclists will be, passing motorists are
less apt to swerve toward opposing traffic in
making certain they will not hit bicyclists.
Barrier Post Striping
Class I1 bike lanes shall be one-way
'-1 3 4
/ Post
facilities. Two-way bike lanes (or bike paths
that are contiguous to the roadway) are not
permitted, as such facilities have proved
unsatisfactory and promote riding against the
flow of motor vehicle traffic.
( I ) Widths. Typical Class I1 bikeway con-
figurations are illustrated in Figure 1003.2A
I
and are described below:
100 mm Yellow stripe
(a) Figure 1003.2A-(1) depicts bike lanes
on an urban type curbed street where
(16) Lighting. Fixed-source lighting reduces parking stalls (or continuous parking
conflicts along paths and at intersections. In stripes) are marked. Bike lanes are
addition, lighting allows the bicyclist to see located between the parking area and the
the bicycle path direction, surface traffic lanes. As indicated, 1.5 m
conditions, and obstacles. Lighting for shall be the minimum width of
bicycle paths is important and should be bike lane where parking stalls are
considered where riding at night is expected, marked. If parking volume is
such as bicycle paths serving college substantial or turnover high, an
students or commuters, and at highway additional 0.3 m to 0.6 m of width is
intersections. Lighting should also be desirable.
July 1,1995
Bike lanes shall not be placed to 2.4 m to provide forgreater safety.

between the parking area and the 2.4 m bike lanes can also serve as emer-
curb. Such facilities increase the gency parking areas for disabled
conflict between bicyclists and opening vehicles.
car doors and reduce visibility at
intersections. Also, they prevent bicy- Striping bike lanes next to curbs
clists from leaving the bike lane to turn where parking is prohibited only
left and cannot be effectively maintained. during certain hours shall be
done only in conjunction with
(b) Figure 1003.2A-(2) depicts bike lanes special signing to designate the
on an urban-type curbed street, where hours bike lanes are to be
parking is permitted, but without effective. Since the Vehicle Code
parking stripe or stall marking. Bike requires bicyclists to ride in bike lanes
lanes are established in conjunction with where provided (except under certain
the parking areas. As indicated, 3.3 m conditions), proper signing is necessary
or 3.6 m (depending on the type to inform bicyclists that they are required
of curb) shall be the minimum to ride in bike lanes only during the
width of the bike lane where course of the parking prohibition. This
parking is permitted. This type of type of bike lane should be considered
lane is satisfacory where parking is not only if the vast majority of bicycle travel
extensive and where turnover of parked would occur during the hours of the
cars is infrequent. However, if parking parking prohibition, and only if there is
is substantial, turnover of parked cars is a firm commitment to enforce the
high, truck traffic is substantial, or if parking prohibition. Because of the
vehicle speeds exceed 55 kmlh, obvious complications, this type of bike
additional width is recommended. lane is not encouraged for general
(c) Figure 1003.2A-(3) depicts bike lanes application.
along the outer portions of an urban type Figure 1003.2A(4) depicts bike lanes on
curbed street, where parking is prohib- a highway without curbs and gutters.
ited. This is generally the most desirable This location is in an undeveloped area
configuration for bike lanes, as it elimi- where infrequent parking is handled off
nates potential conflicts resulting from the pavement. This can be accomplished
auto parking (e.g., opening car doors). by supplementing the bike lane signing
As indicated, if no gutter exists, with R25 (park off pavement) signs, or
the minimum bike lane width R26 (no parking) signs. Minimum
shall be 1.2 m. With a normal widths shall be as shown. Addi-
600 mm gutter, the minimum bike tional width is desirable, particularly
lane width shall be 1.5 m The where motor vehicle speeds exceed
intent is to provide a minimum 1.2 m 55 knYb.
wide bike l h e , but with at least 0.9 m
between the traffic lane and the longi- The typical traffic lane width next to a
tudinal joint at the concrete gutter, since bike lane is 3.6 m. Lane widths nar-
the gutter reduces the effective width of rower than 3.6 m must receive approval
the bike lane for two reasons. First, the as discussed in Index 82.2. There are
longitudinal joint may not always be situations where it may be necessary to
smooth, and may be difficult to ride reduce the width of the traffic lanes in
along. Secondly, the gutter does not order to stripe bike lanes. In determin-
provide a suitable surface for bicycle ing the appropriateness of narrower
travel. Where gutters are wide (say, traffic lanes, consideration should be
1.2 m), an additional 0.9 m must be given to factors such as motor vehicle
provided because bicyclists should not speeds, truck volumes, alignment, and
be expected to ride in the gutter. sight distance. Where favorable condi-
Wherever possible, the width of bike tions exist, traffic lanes of 3.3 m may be
lanes should be increased to 1.8 m feasible.
July 1. 1995
@ Bike lanes are not advisable on long,

steep downgrades, where bicycle speeds
(3) Intersection Design. Most auto~bicycle
accidents occur at intersections. For this
greater than 50 km/h are expected. As reason, bikeway design at intersections
grades increase, downhill bicycle speeds should be accomplished in a manner that
will increase, which increases the will minimize confusion by motorists and
problem of riding near the edge of the bicyclists, and will permit both to operate in
roadway. In such situations, bicycle accordance with the normal rules of the
speeds can approach those of motor road.
vehicles, and experienced bicyclists will Figure 1003.2B illustrates a typical inter-
generally move into the motor vehicle section of multilane streets, with bike lanes
lanes to increase sight distance and on all approaches. Some common move-
maneuverability. If bike lanes are to be ments of motor vehicles and bicycles are
striped, additional width should be shown. A prevalent type of accident
provided to accommodate higher bicycle involves straight-through bicycle traffic and
speeds. right-turning motorists. Left-turning bicy-
If the bike lanes are to be located on one- clists also have problems, as the bike lane is
way streets, they should be placed on on the right side of the street, and bicyclists
the right side of the street. Bike lanes on have to cross the path of cars traveling in
the left side would cause bicyclists and both directions. Some bicyclists are profi-
motorists to undertake crossing cient enough to merge across one or more
maneuvers in making left turns onto a lanes of traffic, to use the inside lane or left-
two-way street. turn lane provided for motor vehicles.
However, there are many who do not feel
(2) Striping and Signing. Details for striping comfortable making this maneuver. They
and signing of bike lanes are included under
e Topic 1004.
Raised barriers (e.g., raised traffic
have the option of making a two-legged left
turn by riding along a course similar to that
followed by pedestrians, as shown in the
bars and asphalt concrete dikes) or diagram. Young children will often prefer
raised pavement markers shall not be to dismount and change directions by
used to delineate bike lanes. Raised waking their bike in the crosswalk.
barriers prevent motorists from merging into
bike lanes before making right turns, as At intersections where there is a bike lane
required by the Vehicle Code, and restrict and traffic-actuated signal, installation of
the movement of bicyclists desiring to enter bicycle-sensitive detectors within the bike
or exit bike lanes. They also impede routine lane is desirable. Push button detectors are
maintenance. Raised pavement markers not as satisfactory as those located in the
increase the difficulty for bicyclists when pavement because the cyclist must stop to
entering or exiting bike lanes, and dis- actuate the push button. It is also desirable
courage motorists from merging into bike that detectors in left-turn lanes be sensitive
lanes before making right turns. enough to detect bicycles (see Chapter 9 of
the Traffic Manual and Standard Plans for
Bike lane stripes should be placed a constant bicycle-sensitive detector designs).
distance from the outside motor vehicle lane.
Bike lanes with parking permitted (3.3 m to At intersections (without bike lanes) with
3.9 m between the bike lane line and the significant bicycle use and a traffic-actuated
curb) should not be directed toward the curb signal, it is desirable to install detectors that
at intersections or localized areas where are sensitive enough to detect bicycles.
parking is prohibited. Such a practice Figure 1003.2C illustrates recommended
prevents bicyclists from following a straight striping patterns for bike lanes crossing a
course. Where transitions from one type of motorist right-turn-only lane. When
bike lane to another are necessary, smooth confronted with such intersections, bicy-
e tapers should be provided. clists will have to merge with right-turning
motorists. Since bicyclists are typically
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.2A
Typical Bike Lane Cross Sections
(On 2-lane or Multilane Highways)
Parking Stalls or Optional 100 mm Solid Stripe
Motor Vehicle Lanes Min.

Bike Parking
Lane Lane
+ The optional solid white stripe may be advisable where stalls are
unnecessary (because parking is light) but there is concern that
motorists may misconstrue the bike lane to be a traffic lane.
(1) STRIPED PARKING
150 mm Solid White Stri
Motor Vehicle Lanes
* 3.9 m is recommended where there is substantial parking or

turnover of parked cars is high (e.g. commercial areas)
(2) PARKING PERMITTED WITHOUT
PARKING STRIPE OR STALL
9 ,150 mm Solid White Strim.
Bike Bike
Lane Lane
mi* (3) PARKING PROHIBITED Wthout
Qu*) a=*)
150 mm Solid White Stripe -,
Motor Vehicle Lanes

Bike Bike
Lane Lane
(4) WPlCAL ROADWAY
IN OUTLYING AREAS
PARKING RESTRICTED
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.28
Typical BicycleIAuto Movements at

Intersections of Multilane Streets
I I I
" I I
UNE
mKE
'I
I I tI
I
I
I I
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.2C a
Bike Lanes Approaching Motorist
Right-turn-only Lanes
Ped. Crossinq I
* available
If space is
Typical path
* If space is available. l -11.2. mi-
.[/ of through
bicyclist.
Otherwise all delineation

should be dropped at
RIGHT-TURN-ONLY LANE PARKING AREA BECOMES

RIGHT-TURN-ONLY LANE
7 7
Ped. Crossing / Ped. Crossing I
,Typical path of
Typical path of through bicyclist.
through bicyclist.
* available.
If space is
\t stripe where
OPTIONAL DOUBLE
*1 *I
RIGHT LANE BECOMES

kE
right turn only
designated.
RIGHT-TURN-ONLY LANE RIGHT-TURN-ONLY LANE

July 1,1995
0 traveling at speeds less than motorists,they

should signal and merge where there is
a higher degree of service than alternative
streets. Routes should be signed only if
sufficient gap in right-turning traffic, rather some of the following apply:
than at any predetermined location. For (a) They provide for through and direct
this reason, it is recommended that all travel in bicycle-demand corridors.
delineation be dropped at the approach of
the right-turn lane (or off-ramp). A pair (b) Connect discontinuous segments of bike
of parallel lines (delineating a bike lane lanes.
crossing) to channel the bike merge is not (c) An effort has been made to adjust traffic
recommended, as bicyclists will be en- control devices (stop signs, signals) to
couraged to cross at a predetermined give greater priority to bicyclists, as
location, rather than when there is a safe gap compared with alternative streets. This
in right-turning traffic. Also, some could include placement of bicycle-
bicyclists are apt to assume they have the sensitive detectors on the right-hand
right of way, and may not check for right- portion of the road, where bicyclists are
turning motor vehicle traffic. expected to ride.
A dashed line across the right-turn-only lane (d) Street parking has been removed or re-
is not recommended on extremely long stricted in areas of critical width to pro-
lanes, or where there are double right-turn- vide improved safety.
only lanes. For these types of intersections,
all striping should be dropped to permit (e) Surface imperfections or irregularities
judgment by the bicyclists to prevail. A have been corrected (e.g., utility covers
Bike Xing sign may be used to warn adjusted to grade, potholes filled, etc.).
motorists of the potential
- for bicyclists ( f ) Maintenance of the route will be at a
crossing their path. higher standard than that of other
comparable streets (e.g., more frequent
1003.3 Class I11 Bikeways street sweeping).
Class 111bikeways (bike routes) are intended to (2) Sidewalk Bikeway Criteria. In general, the
provide continuity to the bikeway system. Bike designated use of sidewalks (as a Class III
routes are established along through routes not bikeway) for bicycle travel is unsatisfactory.
served by Class I or I1 bikeways, or to connect
discontinuous segments of bikeway (normally It is important to recognize that the devel-
bike lanes). Class 111 facilities are shared opment of extremely wide sidewalks does
facilities, either with motor vehicles on the not necessarily add to the safety of sidewalk
street, or with pedestrians on sidewalks, and in bicycle travel, as wide sidewalks will
either case bicycle usage is secondary. Class 111 encourage higher speed bicycle use and can
facilities are established by placing Bike Route increase potential for conflicts with motor
signs along roadways. vehicles at intersections, as well as with
pedestrians and fixed objects.
Minimum widths for Class I11 bikeways are not
presented, as the acceptable width is dependent Sidewalk bikeways should be considered
on many factors, including the volume and only under special circumstances, such as:
character of vehicular traffic on the road, typical (a) To provide bikeway continuity along
speeds, vertical and horizontal alignment, sight high speed or heavily traveled roadways
distance, and parking conditions. having inadequate space for bicyclists,
Since bicyclists are permitted on all highways and uninterrupted by driveways and
(except prohibited freeways), the decision to intersections for long distances.
sign the route should be based on the advis- (b) On long, narrow bridges. In such
ability of encouraging bicycle travel on the route cases, ramps should be installed at the
and other factors listed below. sidewalk approaches. If approach
(I) On-street Bike Route Criteria. To be of bikeways are two-way, sidewalk
benefit to bicyclists, bike routes should offer facilities should also be two-way.
Whenever sidewalk bikeways are estab- use if it meets certain criteria. Essentially, the
lished, a special effort should be made to re- criteria involve assessing the safety and conve-
move unnecessary obstacles. Whenever nience of the freeway as compared with avail-
bicyclists are directed from bike lanes to able alternate routes. However, a freeway
sidewalks, curb cuts should be flush with should not be opened to bicycle use if it is
the street to assure that bicyclists are not determined to be incompatible. The
subjected to problems associated with Headquarters Traffic Reviewer and the OPPD
crossing a vertical lip at a flat angle. Also Coordinator must approve any proposals to
curb cuts at each intersection are necessary, open freeways to bicyclists.
as well as bikeway yield or stop signs at If a suitable alternate route exists, it would
uncontrolled intersections. Curb cuts normally be unnecessary to open the freeway.
should be wide enough to accommodate However, if the alternate route is unsuitable for
adult tricycles and two-wheel bicycle bicycle travel the freeway may be a better
trailers.
alternative for bicyclists. In determining the
In residential areas, sidewalk riding by suitability of an alternate route, safety should be
young children too inexperienced to ride in the paramount consideration. The following
the street is common. With lower bicycle factors should be considered:
speeds and lower auto speeds, potential con-
flicts are somewhat lessened, but still exist. Number of intersections
Nevertheless, this type of sidewalk bicycle
use is accepted. But it is inappropriate to Shoulder widths
sign these facilities as bikeways. Bicyclists Traffic volumes
should not be encouraged (through signing)
to ride facilities that are not designed to Vehicle speeds
accommodate bicycle travel.
(3) Destinution Signing of Bike Routes. For Bus, truck and recreational vehicle
Bike Route signs to be more functional, volumes
supplemental plates may be placed beneath Grades
them when located along routes leading to
high demand destinations (e.g., "To Down- Travel time
town"; "To State College"; etc.-- see Figure
1004.4 for typical signing). When a suitable alternate route does not exist, a
freeway shoulder may be considered for bicycle
There are instances where it is necessary to travel. Normally, freeways in urban areas will
sign a route to direct bicyclists to a logical have characteristics that make it unfeasible to
destination, but where the route does not of- permit bicycle use. In determining if the
fer any of the above listed bike route fea- freeway shoulder is suitable for bicycle travel,
tures. In such cases, the route should not be the following factors should be considered;
signed as a bike route; however, destination
signing may be advisable. A typical applica- Shoulder widths
tion of destination signing would be where
bicyclists are directed off a highway to by- Bicycle hazwds on shoulders (drainage
pass a section of freeway. Special signs grates, expansion joints, etc.)
would be placed to guide bicyclists to the
next logical destination. The intent is to di- Number and location of entrancelexit
rect bicyclists in the same way as motorists ramps
would be directed if a highway detour was
necessitated. Traffic volumes on entrancelexit ramps
When bicyclists are permitted on segments of
1003.4 Bicycles on Freeways freeway, it will be necessary to modify and
In some instances, bicyclists are permitted on supplement freeway regulatory signs,
freeways. Seldom would a freeway be signed particularly those at freeway ramp entrances and
or striped as a bikeway, but it can be opened for exits (see Chapter 4 of the Traffic Manual).
July 1,1995
Where no reasonable alternate route exists bridle trail separate from the multipurpose trail is
within a freeway corridor, the Department recommended wherever possible.
should coordinate with local agencies to develop
or improve existing routes or provide parallel 1003.6 Miscellaneous Bikeway Criteria
bikeways within or adjacent to the freeway right The following are miscellaneous bikeway
of way. criteria which should be followed to the extent
The long term goal is to provide a safe and pertinent to Class I, 11and 111bikeways. Some,
convenient non-freeway route for bicycle travel. by their very nature, will not apply to all classes
of bikeway. Many of the criteria are important
1003.5 Multipurpose Trails to consider on any highway where bicycle travel
is expected, without regard to whether or not
In some instances, it may be appropriate for bikeways are established.
agencies to develop multipurpose trails - for
hikers, joggers, equestrians, bicyclists, etc. (I) Bridges. Bikeways on highway bridges
Many of these trails will not be paved and will must be carefully coordinated with approach
not meet the standards for Class I bikeways. As bikeways to make sure that all elements are
such, these facilities should not be signed as compatible. For example, bicycle traffic
bikeways. Rather, they should be designated as bound in opposite directions is best
multipurpose trails (or similar designation), accommodated by bike lanes on each side of
along with regulatory signing to restrict motor a highway. In such cases, a two-way bike
vehicles, as appropriate. path on one side of a bridge would normally
be inappropriate, as one direction of bicycle
If multipurpose trails are primarily to serve traffic would be required to cross the
bicycle travel, they should be developed in highway at grade twice to get to and from
accordance with standards for Class I bikeways. the bridge bike path. Because of the in-
In general, multipurpose trails are not convenience, many bicyclists will be
recommended as high speed transportation encouraged to ride on the wrong side of the
facilities for bicyclists because of conflicts highway beyond the bridge termini.
between bicyclists and pedestrians. Wherever
possible, separate bicycle and pedestrian paths The following criteria apply to a two-way
should be orovided. If this is not feasible, bike path on one side of a highway bridge:
additional Gidth, signing and striping should be (a) The bikeway approach to the bridge
used to minimize conflicts. should be by way of a separate two-way
It is undesirable to mix mopeds and bicycles on facility for the reason explained above.
the same facility. In general, mopeds should (b) A physical separation, such as a
not be allowed on multipurpose trails because of chain link fence or railing, shall
conflicts with slower moving bicyclists and be provided to offset the adverse
pedestrians. In some cases where an alternate effects of having bicycles
route for mopeds does not exist, additional traveling against motor vehicle
width, signing, and striping should be used to traffic. The physical separation should
minimize conflicts. Increased patrolling by law be designed to minimize fixed end
enforcement personnel is also recommended to hazards to motor vehicles and if the
enforce speed limits and other rules of the road. bridge is an interchange structure, to
It is usually not desirable to mix horses and minimize sight distance restrictions at
bicycle traffic on the same multipurpose trail. ramp intersections.
Bicyclists are often not aware of the need for It is recommended that bikeway bridge
slower speeds and additional operating space railings or fences placed between traffic
near horses. Horses can be startled easily and lanes and bikeways be at least 1.4 m high to
may be unpredictable if they perceive minimize the likelihood of bicyclists falling
approaching bicyclists as a danger. In addition, over the railings. Standard bridge railings
Davement requirements for safe bicycle travel which are lower than 1.4 m can be
lare not suitabie for horses. For these-reasons, a
retrofitted with lightweight upper railings or
July 1,1995
chain link fence suitable to restrain strips are not suitable as a riding surface for
bicyclists. bicycles. See Traffic Manual Section 6-03.2
Separate highway overcrossing for additional information regarding rumble
structures for bikeway trafflc shall strip design considerations for bicycles.
conform to Caltrans' standard pedes- (3) Drainage Grates, Manhole Covers, and
trian overcrossing design loading. Driveways. Drainage inlet grates, manhole
The minimum clear width shall be covers, etc., on bikeways should be
the paved width of the approach designed and installed in a manner that
bikeway but not less than 2.4 m. If provides an adequate surface for bicyclists.
pedestrians are to use the structure, They should be maintained flush with the
additional width is recommended. surface when resurfacing.
(2) Surface Quality. The surface to be used by Drainage inlet grates on bikeways
bicyclists should be smooth, free of shall have openings narrow enough
potholes, and the pavement edge uniform. and short enough to assure bicycle
For rideability on new construction, the fin- tires will not drop into the grates
ished surface of bikeways should not vary (e.g., reticuline type), regardless of
more than 6 mm from the lower edge of a the direction of bicycle travel. Where
2.4 m long straight edge when laid on the it is not immediately feasible to replace exist-
surface in any direction. ing grates with standard grates designed for
bicycles, 25 mm x 6 mm steel cross straps
Table 1003.6 should be welded to the grates at a spacing
of 150 mm to 200 mm on centers to reduce
the size of the openings adequately.
BIKEWAY SURFACE Corrective actions described above are
TOLERANCES recommended on all highways where
bicycle travel is permitted, whether or not
Direction of ('1 steps(2) bikeways are designated.
Travel
Future driveway construction should avoid
Parallel to travel No more than No more construction of a vertical lip from the drive-
12 mm wide than 10 rnm way to the gutter, as the lip may create a
high problem for bicyclists when entering from
Perpendicular to No more the edge of the roadway at a flat angle. If a
travel --- than 20 mm lip is deemed necessary, the height should
high be limited to 15 mm.
(1) Groove--A narrow slot in the surface that could (4) At-grade Railroad Crossings and Cattle
catch a bicycle wheel, such as a gap between two Guards. Whenever it is necessary to cross
concrete slabs. railroad tracks with a bikeway, special care
(2) Step--A ridge in the pavement, such as that which must be taken to assure that the safety of
might exist between the pavement and a concrete bicyclists is protected. The bikeway
gutter or manhole cover; or that might exist crossing should be at least as wide as the
between two pavement blankets when the top level approaches of the bikeway. Wherever
does not extend to the edge of the roadway. possible, the crossing should be straight and
at right angles to the rails. For on-street
bikeways where a skew is unavoidable, the
Table 1003.6 indicates the recommended shoulder (or bike lane) should be widened,
bikeway surface tolerances for Class I1 and if possible, to permit bicyclists to cross at
III bikeways developed on existing streets to right angles (see Figure 1003.6A). If this is
minimize the potential for causing bicyclists not possible, special construction and
to lose control of their bicycle (Note: Stricter materials should be considered to keep the
tolerances should be achieved on new flangeway depth and width to a minimum.
bikeway construction.) Shoulder rumble Pavement should be maintained so ridge
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.6A
Railroad Crossings
stop
CLASS I BIKEWAY
L x \ ,Direction of bike travel
angle
CLASS I I BIKEWAY
July 1,1995
Figure 1003.6B
Obstruction Markings
Pier, abutment or other obstruction
LEGEND
L = 2/3 V W
where: L = Length of opprooch morking (m)
V = Average speed of bicyclists (km/h)
W = Width of obstruction (rn)
July 1,1995
e buildup does not occur next to the rails. In

some cases, timber plank crossings can be
space is the recommended striping pattern, but
may be revised, depending on the situation.
justified and can provide for a smoother Standard regulatory, warning, and guide signs
crossing. Where hazards to bicyclist cannot used on highways may be used on bike paths,
be avoided, appropriate signs should be as appropriate (and may be scaled down in
installed to warn bicyclists of the danger. size). Special regulatory, warning, and guide
All railroad crossings are regulated by the signs may also be used to meet specific needs.
California Public Utilities Commission White painted word (or symbol) warning
(CPUC). All new bike path railroad markings on the pavement may be used as an
crossings must be approved by the CPUC. effective means of alerting bicyclists to
Necessary railroad protection will be approaching hazards, such as sharp curves,
determined based on a joint field review barrier posts, etc.
involving the applicant, the railroad
company, and the CPUC. 1004.3 Bike Lanes (Class 11)
The presence of cattle guards along any Bike lanes require standard signing and
roadway where bicyclists are expected pavement markings as shown on Figure
should be clearly marked with adequate 1004.3. This figure also depicts the proper
advance warning. method of striping bike lanes through
(5) Obstruction Markings. Vertical barriers and intersections. Bike lane lines are not typically
obstructions, such as abutments, piers, and extended through intersections. Where motor
other features causing bikeway constriction, vehicle right turns are not permitted, the solid
should be clearly marked to gain the at- bike lane stripe should extend to the edge of the
tention of approaching bicyclists. This treat- intersection, and begin again on the far side.
a ment should be used only where

unavoidable, and is by no means a substitute
for good bikeway design. An example of an
Where right turns are permitted, the solid stripe
should terminate 30 m to 60 m prior to the
intersection. A dashed line, as shown in
obstruction marking is shown in Figure Figure 1004.3, may be carried to, or near, the
1003.6B. Signs, reflectors, diagonal black intersection. Where city blocks are short (less
and yellow markings, or other treatments than 120 m), the length of dashed stripe is
will be appropriate in other instances to alert typically close to 30 m. Where blocks are
bicyclists to potential obstructions. longer or motor vehicle speeds are high
(greater than 60 krnlh), the length of dashed
-
Topic 1004 Uniform Signs, stripe should be increased to 60 m.
The R81 bike lane sign shall be placed
Markings and Traffic Control
Devices at the beginning of all bike lanes, on
the far side of every arterial street
intersection, at all major changes in
1004.1 Introduction direction, and at maximum 1 km
Per Section 891 of the Streets and intervals.
Highways Code, uniform signs, Bike lane pavement markings shall be
markings, and traffic control devices placed on the far side of each
shall be used. As such this section is intersection, and may be placed at other
mandatory, except where permissive language is locations as desired.
used. See the Traffic Manual for detailed
specifications. Raised pavement markers or other
raised barriers shall not be used to
1004.2 Bike Path (Class I) delineate bike lanes.
An optional 100 rnm yellow stripe may be The G93 Bike Route sign may also be used
placed to separate opposing directions of travel. along bike lanes, but its primary purpose should
(See Index 1003.1(3) for additional be to provide directional signing and destination
information.) A 0.9 m long stripe with a 2.7 m signing where necessary. A proliferation of
July 1,1995
Bike Route signs along signed and striped bike

lanes serves no useful purpose.
Many signs on the roadway also will apply to
bicyclists in bike lanes. Standard regulatory,
warning, and guide signs used specifically in
conjunction with bike lanes are shown in
Chapter 4 of the Traffic Manual.
1004.4 Bike Routes (Class 111)
Bike routes are shared routes and do not require
pavement markings. In some instances, a
100 mrn white edge stripe separating the traffic
lanes from the shoulder can be helpful in
providing for safer shared use. This practice is
particularly applicable on nual highways, and
on major arterials in urban areas where there is
no vehicle parking.
Bike routes are established through placement of
the G93 Bike Route sign. Bike route signs are
to be placed periodically along the route. At
changes in direction, the bike route signs are
supplemented by G33 directional arrows.
Typical bike route signing is shown on Figure
1004.4. The figure shows how destination
signing, through application of a special plate,
can make the Bike Route sign more functional
for the bicyclist. This type of signing is
recommended when a bike route leads to a high
demand destination (e.g., downtown, college,
etc.).
Many signs on the madway also will apply to
bicyclists. Standard warning and guide signs
used specifically in conjunction with bike routes
are shown in Chapter 4 of the Traffic Manual.
July 1,1995
Figure 1004.3
Bike Lane Signs and Markings
WHERE VEHICLE PARKING I S PROHIBITED
Optional Dashed
.-
Centerline o r Lane Line
150 mm
1.2 m Minimum 1 -
(See N o t e 4)
30 m. - 60 m l
1- - =
White S t r i p e (Sqe F i g u r e 1003.2A)

, ~ O O
r
??m D -
fi m
Em \ /-
t- C u r b o r edge o f pavement
R26, R81 Optional Markings
(No Parking) (See N o t e 1)
(Bike Lane)
(See N o t e 6 )
WHERE VEHICLE PARKING I S PERMITTED

Optional Dashed
Stripe
Mandatory Markings
3.3 m o r 3,6 m Minimum 30 m - 60 m
(See Note 1)
rn
(See F i g u r e 1003.2A) I
L
rP -
0 0 1
z
E m
PARKING / gSTALL o
(See N o t e 5 )
(150 mm White S t r i p e b p t i o n a l Markings 1 1 I- 100 mm White

(See N o t e 1) R 81
(See N o t e 6)
N O STALLS STALLS
NOTES:
1. The Bike Lane pavement markings shall be placed 5. In areas where parking stalls are not necessary
on the far side of each intersection, and rnay be (because parking is light), it is permissible to paint
placed at other locations as desired.
a 100 mm solid white stripe to fully delineate the bike
2. The use of the bicycle symbol pavement marking lane. This may be advisable where there is concern
to supplement the word message is optional. that motorists may misconstrue the bike lane to be
a traffic lane.
3. The G93 Bike Route sign rnay be placed intermit-
tently along the bike lane if desired. 6. The RBI bike lane sign shall be placed at the be-
ginning of all bike lanes, an the far side of every
4. Where motorist right turns are permitted, the solid arterial street intersection, at all major changes in
bike lane line shall either be dropped entirely, or
dashed as shown, beginning at a point between direction, and at maximum 0.8 km intervals.
30 rn and 60 m in advance of the intersection.
Refer to Detail 39A in the Traffic Manual for
striping pottern dimensions.
July 1,1995
Figure 1004.4
Bike Route Signing
G93
-
Special Optional
Destination Signing
* G93
[m]
--
Special Optional
Destination Signing
II
NOTES: The 693 Bike Route signs shall be placed at all points where
the route changes direction and periodically as necessary.
July 1,1995
through appropriate land use control. For

CHAPTER 1100 example, cities and counties have the power
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE to control development by the adoption of
ABATEMENT land use plans and zoning, subdivision,
building and housing regulations.
Topic 1101 General - (3) Noise Abatement. Caltrans will attempt to

locate, design, construct, and operate State
Requirements highways to minimize the intrusion of traffic
noise into adjacent areas. When this is not
-
Index 1101.1 Introduction possible, noise impacts may be attenuated
by the construction of noise barriers.
The abatement of highway traffic noise is a
design consideration that is required by State (4) Noise Abatement by Others. An increasing
and Federal Statutes and regulations and by number of requests are being made to
Caltrans policy. This chapter provides design Caltrans by owners or developers to
standards relating to the location, height and attenuate noise reaching adjacent properties
length of noise barriers and includes discussion for which the State's mitigation priority is
on alternative designs, maintenance and low or nonexistent. The general policy is
emergency access considerations and aesthetics that all feasible steps must be taken in the
of noise barriers. Procedures and policies on design of the adjacent development to
minimum attenuation, design goals, assessing attenuate noise so as not to require
noise impacts, noise abatement criteria levels, encroachment on the State's right of way.
priorities, reasonableness and feasibility, and The State shall assume NO review authority
cost-effectiveness are contained in the Project or responsibility of any kind for the
Development Procedures Manual and the structural integrity or the effectiveness of the
Environmental Handbook. sound attenuation of walls constructed by
others outside of the State's right of way.
1101.2 Objective Where it is determined to be necessary to
permit others to construct a sound barrier
The objectives are: for new construction or within the State's right of way, the general
reconstruction of highways, to limit the policy is that the design will meet Caltrans
intrusion of highway noise into adjacent areas; geometric, structural, and safety standards
on existing freeways to limit the noise intrusion as established in this and other manuals and
to achievable levels within practical and fmancial that the effects of the barrier on operation,
limitations; and to limit the noise to the levels maintenance and aesthetics of the highway
specified by statute for qualifying schools will be more beneficial than detrimental.
adjacent to freeways. To achieve these objec-
tives the Department supports the following four 1101.3 Terminology
approaches to alleviate traffic noise impacts:
The terms "noise barrier" and "soundwall" are
( I ) Reduction at the Source. Reduction of often used interchangebly. Technically, a
traffic noise at the source is the most effec- "noise barrier" may be any feature which
tive control. Therefore, Caltrans encourages blocks, prevents or diminishes the transmission
and supports legislation to require reduction of noise. An earth berm could serve this
in motor vehicle noise as advances in the purpose. A large building could serve as a
state-of-the-art of motor vehicle engineering noise barrier to shield receptors further from the
permit. noise source. A dense growth of vegetation, if
(2) Encouraging Compatible Adjacent Land it were wide enough and dense enough, would
Use. Caltrans encourages those who plan be a noise barrier. A "soundwall" is a particular
and develop land and local governments type of noise barrier. It is a wall, which may be
controlling development or planning land constructed of concrete panels, masonry blocks,
use near known highway locations to wood boards or panels, or a variety of other
exercise their powers and responsibility to materials.
minimize the effect of highway vehicle noise
July 1,1995
1101.4 Procedures for Assessing Noise

Impacts inside the right of way or, alternatively,
10 m or more from the traveled way.
Highway traffic noise impacts are identified in
the project noise study report and are listed in When lateral clearance is 4.5 m or
the environmental document. The procedures less, the noise barrier shall be
for assessing noise impacts for new highway placed on a safety shape concrete
construction or reconstruction projects, retrofit barrier. Guardrail or safety shape barrier
projects (Community Noise Abatement Program protection should be considered when the
- HB3 11) along existing freeways, and School noise barrier is located between 4.5 m and 9
Noise Abatement Projects (HB312), are m from the edge of the traveled way.
included in Title 23, United States Code of When the noise barrier is placed closer than
Federal Regulations Part 772, the Environ- 5 m from the traveled way, Traffic
mental Handbook and Project Development Operations should be consulted early in the
Procedures Manual, and Section 216 of the design. Signs (overhead and ground
Streets and Highways Code. mounted) and other poles and standards for
lighting, Transportation Management items,
1101.5 Prioritizing Construction of call boxes, etc. should be detailed for
Retrofit Noise Barriers mounting on the wall, incorporated into the
Legal requirements and procedures for wall foundation and possibly recessed into
prioritizing the construction of noise attenuation the surface of the wall.
barriers are provided in Section 215.5 of the (2) Sight Distance Requirements. The stopping
Streets and Highway Code and in the Caltrans sight distance is of prime importance for
Environmental Handbook. noise barriers located on the edge of
Topic 1102 - Design Criteria shoulder along the inside of a curve. Hor-
izontal clearances which reduce the stopping
sight distance should be avoided. Noise
1102.1 General barriers within gore areas should begin or
end at least 60 m from the theoretical curb
This section covers the noise barrier location, nose location.
various design aspects such as height and length
of noise barriers, alternative designs, (3) Ultimate Location. Noise barriers should be
maintenance considerations, and aesthetic constructed at the ultimate location for the
considerations. Various types of Caltrans facility as discussed in the Project
standard noise barrier designs are referenced. Development Procedures Manual.
Noise barrier design procedures, from the
acoustical standpoint, are included in the 1102.3 Noise Barrier Heights
Caltrans Environmental Handbook. Noise level (I) Minimum Height. Noise barriers should
criteria and guidelines on noise reduction can be have a minimum height of 1.8 m (measured
found in Caltrans Environmental Handbook and from the top of the barrier to the top of the
Project Development Procedures Manual. foundation).
1102.2 Noise Barrier Location (2) Maximum Height. Noise barriers should
not exceed 4.3-m in height (measured from
(1) Lateral Clearances. Minimum lateral the pavement surface at the face of the
clearance to noise barriers shall be safety-shape barrier) when located 4.5 m or
as provided in Topic 309.1, Hori- less from the edge of the traveled way, and
zontal Clearances, of this manual, should not exceed 5.0 m in height above the
but shall not be less than 3 m. Lateral ground line when located more than 4.5 m
clearances greater than the minimums should from the traveled way.
be used whenever feasible. Where terrain
permits, the most desirable location for a (3) Truck Exhaust Intercept. Current FHWA
noise barrier from a safety perspective is just noise barrier design procedures result in
noise barrier heights which often do not
July 1, 1995
a intercept noise emitted from the exhaust

stack of trucks. For design purposes, the
noise barrier should intercept the line of
determining how far beyond the end
dwelling a noise barrier should be extended.
When appropriate, consideration should be
sight from the exhaust stack of a truck to the given to terminating the noise barrier with a
receptor. The truck stack height is assumed section of the barrier perpendicular to the
to be 3.5 m above the pavement. The freeway. This could reduce the overall
receptor is assumed to be 1.5 m above the barrier length, but may require an easement
ground and located 1.5 m from the living or acquisition from the property owner to
unit nearest the roadway. If this location is permit construction of the noise barrier off
not representative of potential outdoor the right of way.
activities, then another appropriate location (2) Gap Closures. In some cases, short gaps
should be justified in the noise study report. may exist between areas qualifying for a
(4) Two-story Development. The noise barrier noise barrier. The closure of these gaps
should not be designed to shield the second should be considered on a project by project
story of two-story residences unless it pro- basis and be justified in the Project Report.
vides attenuation for a substantial number of
residences at a reasonable increase in cost. (3) Local Street Connections. At on- and off-
If the noise barrier is extended in height to ramp connections to local streets, the De-
provide second story attenuation, this partment's responsibility for noise
attenuation is to be at least 5 decibels. abatement should be limited to areas where
the traffic noise level from the State highway
(5) Parallel Noise Barriers. Frequently, noise is the predominant noise source.
barriers are constructed to shield noise (4) Barrier Overlaps. When the noise barrier
receivers on both sides of a highway. These
are referred to as parallel barriers. If the has overlapping sections, such as when
barrier surfaces are hard, relatively smooth, concealing an access opening, the walls
C and non porous, such as concrete or
masonry surfaces, the barriers can reflect
must be overlapped a minimum of 2.5 to 3
times the offset distance in order to maintain
noise back and forth between the barriers, the integrity of the sound attenuation.
decreasing their effectiveness. As a result of
research performed by Caltrans and others, 1102.5 Alternative Noise Barrier
reflective parallel barriers should have a Designs
width-to-height ratio (W:H) of at least 10:1 ( I ) General. Every noise barrier that is con-
to avoid a risk of perceptible reduction in structed as a part of new highway
performance of both noise barriers. The construction or reconstruction, or along
width is the distance between the two freeways as a part of the Community and
barriers, and the height is the average height School Noise Abatement Programs, requires
of both barriers with reference to the at least two alternative designs included in
roadway elevation. For example, two the contract plans. Selection of the most
parallel barriers, one 3 m, the other 4 m cost-effective and aesthetically pleasing
high, should be separated by at least 35 m to designs should include an analysis of their
avoid a noticeable degradation in life-cycle costs. The Project Development
performance. A perceptible, or noticeable Procedures Manual discusses cost analysis
decrease in performance is defined as a of noise barriers.
reduction of 3 dBA or more in barrier
attenation. Standard sheets for noise barriers (sound
walls) developed by the Office of Structure
1102.4 Noise Barrier Length Design have been furnished to the Districts.
These standard designs include the
(1) General. Careful attention should be given following materials:
to the length of a noise barrier to assure that
it provides adequate attenuation for the end Masonry block.
@ dwelling. The Caltrans Environmental Precast concrete panel (with post or
Handbook provides guidance on mounted on safety shaped barrier).
July 1,1995
Wood (post and plank or framed bottom elevation line. The square meter cost @
plywood). includes all types of supports (footings,
piles and pile caps).
Metal (ribbed steel).
If the sound wall is on a barrier the sound
Composite beam (Styro-foam and wire wall pay item is measured from top elevation
mesh core with stucco exterior). line to top of barrier, and the supporting
piles or footings and barrier will be separate
Other design alternatives may be pay items.
considered provided they meet the
structural and noise attenuation criteria. The aesthetic features affect the amount of
Questions regarding the approval status footing for the masonry block design, and
of various designs or products should be these features must be shown clearly on the
directed to the Headquarters Noise plans. The "Typical Sections" sheet is the
Abatement Design Standards Engineer in recommended location to show the aesthetic
the Office of Project Planning and treatment.
Design. Refer to the Standard Special Provisions for
Project Files for each noise barrier project more information on measurement and pay
should include the justification and quantities.
background for the design type or the
options allowed on each project. (4) Shop Plans. The Special Provisions should
require the successful bidder to submit two
(2) Design Procedures. The plans for sets of shop plans of the selected alternate
alternative noise barriers are to be prepared for approval. These shop drawings must
using the standard sound wall sheets and the show pile spacing, pile lengths, expansion
appropriate Standard Special Provisions. joints location, and aesthetic treatment.
As a minimum, the sound wall plans are to
show the horizontal alignment, the wall (5) Preliminary Site Data In using the "Top
profile made up of a top elevation line and a LineIBottom Line" concept, it is important
bottom elevation line, the applicable that the preliminary site data be as complete
standard sound wall detail sheets, and as possible. To eliminate or minimize
aesthetic features sheet. The top elevation construction change orders the following
line is defined as the profile line of the guidelines are suggested.
minimum wall height required for the design Provide accurate ground line profiles.
insertion loss. and the bottom elevation line
is defined as the finished grade ground line. Select only approved design alternative
If a concrete safety-shape barrier is sound wall types.
involved, the top of barrier is to be
designated as the bottom elevation line of the Provide adequate foundation investiga-
sound wall. For alternative sound walls not tion.
on a barrier, the footing design does not
have to be detailed on the plans. If a barrier Locate overhead and underground
is required, the pile layout should be detailed utilities.
for only one of the alternative designs.
Although this method does not require the Review drainage and show any
detailing of one complete sound wall modifications on the plans.
alternative, it does not remove the necessity
to solve drainage, utility, foundation, or any Determine and specify architectural treat-
other problems which are unique to each ment.
project. Determine the need for special design,
(3) Pay Quantities. The pay item for alternative and coordinate with the Office of
sound walls without a barrier is square Structures Design during the early stages
meter of sound wall and is measured of design.
between the top elevation line and the
Juiy 1,1995
1102.6 Noise Barrier Aesthetics 1102.7 Maintenance Consideration in

Noise Barrier Design
(I) General. A landscaped earth berm or a
combination wall and berm tend to minimize (I) General. Noise barriers placed within the
the apparent noise barrier height and are area between the shoulder and right of way
probably the most aesthetically acceptable line complicate the ongoing maintenance
alternative, but unfortunately these operations. When there is a substantial
alternatives are not suitable for many sites distance behind the noise barriers and in
due to limited space. front of the right of way line, special
consideration is required. If the adjoining
Some moderate additional cost to enhance land is occupied with streets, roads, parks,
the noise barrier's aesthetic quality is usually or other large parcels, an effort should be
warranted. However, elaborate or costly made during the right of way negotiations to
individualized designs which significantly have t l abutting
~ property owners maintain
increase the cost of the noise barrier should the area. In this case, the chain link fence at
be avoided. Sound walls should not be the right of way line would not be required.
designed with abrupt beginnings or ends. Maintenance by others may not be practical
Generally, the ends of the sound wall if a number of small individual properties
should be tapered or stepped if the height of abut the noise barrier.
the sound wall exceeds 2 m. The District
---- - -
Landscape Architect should be consulted (2) Access Requirements. Access to the back
regarding the design of tapers or stepped side of the noise barrier must be provided if
ends, aesthetic treatment and landscaping for the area is to be maintained by Caltrans. In
noise barriers. subdivided areas, access can be via local
streets, when available. If access is not
(2) Standard Aesthetic Treatment. Only the available via local streets, access gates or
standard aesthetic treatments for the various openings are essential at intervals along the
alternative materials developed by the noise barrier. Access may be provided via
Division of Structures should be used. A offsets in the barrier. Offset barriers must
description of the different types of aesthetic be overlapped a minimum of 2.5 to 3 times
treatments developed are included in the the offset distance in order to maintain the
"Instructions for Using the Standard integrity of the sound attenuation of the main
Aesthetics Features Sheets" which are barrier. Location of the access openings
available from the Aesthetics and Models must be coordinated with the District
unit of the Division of Structures. maintenance office.
(3) Nonstandard Aesthetic Treatment. When a (3) Noise Banier Material. The alternative
nonstandard aesthetic treatment is proposed materials selected for the noise barrier
for noise barriers, the Headquarters Traffic should be appropriate for the environment in
Liaison should be consulted. which it is placed. For walls that are located
(4) Planting of Noise Barriers. The use of at ~r near the edge of shoulder, the portion
plants in conjunction with noise barriers can of the noise barrier located above the safety-
help to combat graffiti and enhance public shape concrete barrier should be capable of
acceptance of the noise barrier. When withstanding the force of an occasional
landscaping is to be placed adjacent to the vehicle which may ride up above the top of
sound wall which will eventually screen a the safety barrier. At this location, concrete
substantial portion of the wall, only a block, cast-in-place concrete, or precast
minimal aesthetic treatment is justified. concrete panels are the recommended
alternative sound wall materials. In
Index 902.3 of this manual and the Project locations which are susceptible to fires, use
Development Procedures Manual contain of wood noise barriers should be avoided.
additional information on the planting
- - of
noise barriers.
a
."
July 1,1995
1102.8 Emergency Access barriers to allow drainage and not defeat the
Considerations in Noise Barrier Design noise attenuation of the barrier. The following
( I ) General. In addition to access gates being sizes of unshielded openings at ground level are
allowed for this purpose:
constructed in noise barriers to satisfy the
Department's maintenance needs, they may (a) Openings of 200 mm x 200 mm or
also be constructed to provide a means to smaller, if the openings are spaced at
access the freeway in the event of a least 3 m on center.
catastrophic event which makes the freeway (b) Openings of 200 mm x 400 mm or
impassable for emergency vehicles. These smaller, if the openings are spaced at
gates are not intended to be used as an least 6 m on center, and the noise
alternate means of emergency access to receiver is at least 3 m from the nearest
adjacent heighborhoods. Access to those opening.
areas should be planned and provided for
from local streets and roads. Small The location and size of drainage openings need
openings may also be provided in the noise to be designed based on the hydraulics of the
barrier which would allow a fire hose to be area. The designer should also take into
passed through it. Local emergency consideration possible erosion problems that
response agencies should be contacted early may occur at the drainage openings.
in the design process to determine the need Where drainage requirements dictate openings
for emergency access gates and fire hose that do not conform to the above limitations,
openings. shielding of the opening will be necessary to
(2) Emergency Access Gate Requirements. uphold the noise attenuation of the barrier.
Access gates in noise barriers should be kept Shield design must consider the hydraulic
to a minimum and should be at least 300 m characteristics of the site. When shields are
apart. Locations of access should be
coordinated with the District Maintenance
office. Only one opening should be
determined to be necessary, consultation with
the District Hydraulics Unit and the OPPD
Coordinator and Noise Abatement staff is
e
provided at locations where there is a need recommended.
for access openings to serve both the
emergency response agency and Caltrans
maintenance. Design of gates should
comply with the soundwall details
developed by the Office of Structures
Design.
(3) Fire Hose Access Openings. When there is
no other means of providing fire protection
to the freeway, small openings for fire hoses
may be provided. Fire hose access should
be located as close as possible to the fire
hydrants on the local street system. Where
possible, fire hose access should be
combined with emergency or maintenance
access openings. Design of fire hose
openings should be requested from the
Ofice of Structures Design.
1102.9 Drainage Openings in Noise
Barrier
Drainage through noise barriers is sometimes
required for various site conditions. Depending
on the size and spacing, small, unshielded
openings at ground level can be provided in the
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL Index 1
July 1. 1995
Planting .....................................................................................
902.1
Retaining Walls ........................................................................ 210.4
AGGRADATION
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
AASHTO STANDARDS Definition .................................................................................
874
Policy on Use of .......................................................................82.3
AGGRESSIVE
ABANDONMENT Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Water Wells .............................................................................
110.2
AGREEMENTS
ABBREVIATIONS.OFFICIAL NAMES Drainage. Cooperative .......................................................... 803.2
..................................................................................................
61.1 Materials ..................................................................................
111.4
ACCELERATION LANE AIR POLLUTION
.................................................................................................
403.5 Control of Burning ................................................................... 110.3
ACCESS CONTROL Control of Dust ......................................................................... 110.3
..................................................................................................
62.6 AIR RIGHIS
..................................................................................................
104 ....................................................................................................
62.6
Alignment. Existing .................................................................. 104.3
Alignment, New ....................................................................... 104.3 AIRWAY-HIGHWAY
Frontage Roads ....................................................................... 104.3 .................................................................................................... 207
Frontage Roads Financed by Others .......................................104.3 Clearances ...............................................................................207.2
General Policy ................................................................... 104.1 Submittal of Data ..................................................................... 207.3
.
Highways Definition ............................................................... 62.3 ALIGNMENT
Interchanges ............................................................................
504.8 Aesthetic Factors ..................................................................... 109.3
Intersections .............................................................................
405.6 Bridges .....................................................................................
203.9
Openings ..................................................................................
104.2 Channel ....................................................................................
862.2
Openings on Expressways ....................................................... 205.1 Consistency (Horizontal) ......................................................... 203.3
Openings in Relation to Median Openings ..............................104.5 Controls (Horizontal) ...............................................................203.1
Openings. Financial Responsibility ..........................................205.5 Culverts ....................................................................................
823.2
Rights. Protection of .................................................................104.4 Horizontal ................................................................................
203
ACCESSIBILITY R E Q U i m S Vertical (Grade) ......................................................................204
Driveways .................................................................................
205.3 ALLIGATOR CRACKING
Provisions for Disabled Persons ............................................... 105.3 Definitions ................................................................................
612
Refuge Areas ...........................................................................
403.7
Wheelchair Ramps. Guidelines for .........................................105.4 ALLUVIUM
Definition .................................................................................806.2
ACCIDENT DATA Definition ................................................................................. 874
Intersections .............................................................................
402.2
ALTERNATIVES FOR CULVERT PIPES
ACCRETION
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Definition .................................................................................
874 ALUMINUM PIPE
....................................................................................................
854.4
ACQUISITION
....................................................................................................
62.6 ANALYSIS PERIOD
of Material and Disposal Sites .................................................111.5 Definitions ................................................................................
612
Pavement Structural Section for Life-Cycle Cost Analysis .... 609.3
ADTIAADT
See AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC ANGLE OF INTERSECIlON
....................................................................................................
403.3
AESTHETIC FACTORS
Contour Grading and Slope Rounding .....................................304.4 APPRAISAL
In Design.............................................................................109.3 .................................................................................................... 62.6
Materials and Color Selection .................................................705
Noise Barrier ..........................................................................
1102.16
Index 2 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1.1995
APPROVALS AUXILIARY LANES

Nonstandard Design Features .................................................82.2 ....................................................................................................
62.1
Pavement Structural Section Designs ....................................602.1 Interchange ..............................................................................
504.5
Proprietary Items ...................................................................110.9
AVAILABLE HEAD. USE OF
Proprietary Items ...................................................................602.1
....................................................................................................
821.1
AREAS OF CONFLICT ...................................................................................................
821.4
Intersections .............................................................................
403.2
AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
AQUEDUCr ....................................................................................................
62.8
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 ....................................................................................................
103.1
AQUIFER AWLSION
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
....................................................................................................
841.2 Definition .................................................................................
874
ARCH CULVERTS AXE OF ROTATION

....................................................................................................
854.1 Superelevation ..........................................................................
202.4
....................................................................................................
854.7 AXLE LOADS. EQUIVALENT SINGLE
Definitions ................................................................................
612
ARMOR
ARTERIAL HIGHWAYS B
ARTESIAN WATERS
Definition ............................................................................806.2 BACKFILL, CULVERTS
....................................................................................................
829.2
ASPHALT CONCRETE
Base ..........................................................................................
605.7 BACKWATER
Cold Recycled ..................................................................... 611.9 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Cold Recycled .......................................................................... 612 Definition .................................................................................
874
Dense Graded .......................................................................... 612 ....................................................................................................
821.4
Dense Graded .......................................................................... 608.2 ....................................................................................................
864.4
Hot Recycled ........................................................................... 612 BAFFLE
Hot Recycled ......................................................................... 611.9 ....................................................................................................
873.4
Open Graded ........................................................................... 612
Open Graded ........................................................................... 608.2 BANK
Overlay Design Method .......................................................... 611.9 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Pavement ..................................................................................608 Definition .................................................................................
874
Pavement Failure Types .......................................................... 611.6 Guide ........................................................................................
873.4
Rubberized ............................................................................... 608.2 Protection. Definition ............................................................... 806.2
Rubberized ........................................................................... 612 Protection. Definition ............................................................... 874
Structural Section, Full Depth .................................................. 608.4 BARRIER
Sulphur Extended ..................................................................... 608.2 Concrete on Walls ................................................................... 210.5
Surface Treatments ................................................................608.3 Curbs ...................................................................................... 209.2
Surfacing. Road Mixed ...................................................... 608.2 Median ..................................................................................... 305.3
ASPHALT TREATED PERMEABLEBASE Noise .......................................................................................
1100
Definition .................................................................................612 Railing ......................................................................................
208.10
July 1. 1995
BITUMINOUS SEALS
Aggmgate ................................................................................605.3 ....................................................................................................
611.9
Asphalt Concrete ................................................................. 605.7 Bleeding ...................................................................................
611.6
Asphalt Treated Permeable .....................................................612 Blow-ups ..................................................................................
611.5
Asphalt Treated Permeable ................................................... 605.8 Definitions ................................................................................
612
Cement Treated ....................................................................... 605.5
BORDER INSPECTION STATIONS
Cement Treated Permeable .....................................................612
....................................................................................................
Cement Treated Permeable ..................................................... 605.8
Definitions ...............................................................................
612 BORROW
Lean Concrete ........................................................................ 612 .................................................................................................... 604.3
Lean Concrete ........................................................................ 605.6 Definitions ................................................................................612
Lime Treated ........................................................................... 605.10
BRANCH CONNECTION
Stabilized ..................................................................................
605.4
....................................................................................................62.4
Treated Permeable .................................................................. 605.8
Freeway-to-freeway ...............................................................504.4
Treated Soil Cement ................................................................ 605.9
Interchange, Entrances and Exits ...........................................504.2
BASEMENT SOIL
BRIDGE REPLACEMENT & REHABILITATION PROGRAM
....................................................................................................604
......................................................................................................43.3
Material .................................................................................... 612
BRIDGES
BASIN CHARACTERISTICS
...................................................................................................208
Elevation ..................................................................................812.7
Alignment ................................................................................. 203.9
Land Use .................................................................................. 812.4
Approach Railing ..................................................................... 208.10
Orientation ............................................................................... 812.8
Clearances ...............................................................................309
Shape ........................................................................................812.2
Deer Crossing ..........................................................................208.8
Size ...........................................................................................
812.1
Definition ...................................................................................62.2
Slope .........................................................................................
812.3
Embankment Slopes ................................................................. 208.5
Soil& Geology ......................................................................... 812.5
Equipment Crossings ................................................................ 208.8
Storage ..................................................................................... 812.6
Falsework Clearance ............................................................ 204.6
BEDLOAD Hood Design ............................................................................82 1.3
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Grade Line ............................................................................... 204.6
Definition .................................................................................
874 Overloads ................................................................................. 110.1
....................................................................................................
851.2 Slope Treatment. End ..............................................................707
Structure Depth ........................................................................ 204.6
BENCHES
Drains .......................................................................................
834.4
.
Structure Open End ................................................................208.5
Types of Structures .................................................................... 62.2
Slope .........................................................................................
304.3
also see GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES
BERM
BROKEN-BACK CURVE
....................................................................................................835
see CURVES
Definition ................................................................................. 874
BULKHEADS
BIKEWAY
....................................................................................................210.1
Definitions ..............................................................................
1001.1
Definition ................................................................................. 874
Design Criteria ....................................................................... 1003
Type ......................................................................................... 873.3
Markings ................................................................................
1004
Planning Criteria .................................................................... 1002 BULKING
Railings ....................................................................................
208.10 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Standards ................................................................................
1000 Definition .................................................................................874
Traffic Control Devices ........................................................ 1004 ....................................................................................................861.2
.................................................................................................... 864.3
BITUMINOUS
Coatings On Pipes ..................................................................854.3
July 1. 1995
CHAIN LINK
Design Vehicle ........................................................................
404.2 Fences ......................................................................................
701.2
Loading Facilities .....................................................................
108.2 Railings. Bridges ...................................................................... 208.10
Turning Templates ...................................................................
407
CHANNEL. OPEN
BYPASS MGHWAY Alignment & Grade .................................................................862.2
Changes ....................................................................................
865
Characteristics ......................................................................... 813
Cross Section ............................................................................863
Design Consideration ...............................................................861
Flow Classifications ................................................................. 864.2
Flow Equations ......................................................................... 864.3
CAMBER Linings ......................................................................................
873.3
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Unlined .....................................................................................
862.2
....................................................................................................
829.2 CHANNEL & SHORE PROTECTION
CANTILEVER WALLS ..................................................................................................
870
....................................................................................................
210.1 Armor ....................................................................................... 873.3
Definitions ................................................................................ 874
CAPACITY Design. Concepts ..................................................................... 873.1
Drainage Structure ..................................................................806.2 Design. Highwater & Hydraulics ............................................ 873.2
Highway ...................................................................................
I02 Site Considerations ................................................................... 872.3
Intersection ..............................................................................
402.1 Training .................................................................................... 873.4
Operational Features Affecting Design ..................................402.1
Ramp Intersection .................................................................... 406 CHANNELIZATION
Safety Roadside Rests .............................................................. 903.5 ....................................................................................................
62.4
Design Standards ..................................................................... 405
CAPIL.LARITY Left-turn ................................................................................... 405.2
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Principles of ............................................................................403
CAPILLARY WATER Right-turn ................................................................................. 405.3
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2 CHANNELIZATION. PRINCIPLES OF
....................................................................................................
841.2 ....................................................................................................
403
CATCH BASIN Angle of Intersection ...............................................................403.3
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Areas of Conflict .....................................................................403.2
Inlets .........................................................................................
837.2 Major Movements .................................................................... 403.1
Points of Conflict ...................................................................... 403.4
CATCH POINT Precautions ...............................................................................403.12
Side Slope Standards ................................................................
304.1 Prohibited Turns ....................................................................403.8
Clearance to Right of Way Line ............................................ 304.2 Refuge Areas ......................................................................403.7
Signal Control ........................................................................... 403.9
Speed-change Areas ............................................................... 403.5
Summary ..................................................................................403.11
CEMENT TREATED Traffic Control Devices .......................................................... 403.10
Base ..........................................................................................
605.5 Tuming Traffic ........................................................................403.6
Permeable Base .................................................................612
Pexmeable Base ....................................................................... 605.8 CHECK DAM
Definition .................................................................................806.2
CENTRAL ANGLE
CIENAGA
Definition .................................................................................806.2
CENTRIFUGALFORCE
Formula ..................................................................................202.1 CLASSIFIED TRUCK COUNTS
Superelevation ......................................................................... 202
July 1. 1995
CONCENTRATED FLOW
CLEAR DISTANCE
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves ....................... 201.6
CONCENTRATION
CLEAR RECOVERY ZONE
................................................................................................... 309.1
.
Drainage Definition ................................................................
806.2
CONCRETE
CLEARANCES Base. h ............................................................................... 612
Airway-highway ......................................................................207
Base. h ...............................................................................605.6
Falsework ................................................................................. 204.6
Gravity Walls ........................................................................... 210.1
Lateral. for Elevated Strudum .............................................. 309.4 Grind ........................................................................................
611.8
Pedestrian Over Crossings .......................................................309.2
Gmve ..................................................................................... 611.8
Railroad ....................................................................................309.5
Overlays. Thin Bonded ............................................................ 612
Sips. Vertical .......................................................................... 309.2
Overlays. Thin Bonded ............................................................611.8
Slope to Right of Way Line .....................................................304.2
Painting .....................................................................................
705.1
Structures. Horizontal .............................................................. 309.1
Pavement Joints ........................................................................ 607.6
Structures. Vertical .................................................................. 309.2
Pavement, Ramp Termini ........................................................607.4
Tunnel ....................................................................................309.3
Portland Cement Pavement (PCCP) .......................................... 607
CLIMBING LANES PCCP Failure Types ................................................................. 611.5
Transitions.................................................................................. 206.2 Rehabilitation Strategies, Basic ...............................................611.8
Sustained Grades .....................................................................204.5 Retaining Walls ........................................................................ 210.1
Slab Replacement .................................................................... 611.8
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE Subseal .....................................................................................611.8
Local Streets ............................................................................502.2
Freeway-to-freeway ............................................................... 502.3 CONDEMNATION
....................................................................................................
62.6
C O A m Inverse ..................................................................................... 62.6
Pipe ...........................................................................................
854.3
CONDUIT
COEFFICIENT OF ROUGHNESS Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Channels ...................................................................................
864.3
Cross Section ............................................................................
851.2
Conduit .....................................................................................
851.2
Crossover. Irrigation ................................................................ 706.3
COEFFICIENT OF RUNOFF Protective Coating ....................................................................854.3
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
CONGESTION MITIGATION AND AIR QUALITY
....................................................................................................819.2 IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM (CMAQ)
COLORS. SELECTION
Concrete ...................................................................................
705.1
CONNECTIONS
Steel Structures ........................................................................705.2
Access Openings on Expressways .......................................... 205.1
COMFORT FACILITIES Branch ...................................................................................... 62.4
Roadside Rests ......................................................................... 903 Branch Interchange. Entrances and Exits .............................. 504.2
Driveways on Frontage Roads ............................................... 205.4
C0MM)RTABL.E SPEEDS
Driveways on Rural Roads ...................................................... 205.4
Chart...........................................................................................
203.2
Driveways on Urban Roads .................................................... 205.3
Superelevation ......................................................................... 202.2
Hnancial Responsibility ........................................................... 205.5
COMMERCIAL DRIVEWAYS Freeway-to-freeway ............................................................... 62.4
....................................................................................................205.3 Freeway-to-freeway .............................................................. 504.4
Freeway with Local Roads ......................................................106.2
COMMUNITY NOISE ABATEMENT PROGRAM Local Facility ........................................................................... 203.1
.................................................................................................. Private Road ............................................................................. 205.2
COMPACTION Roadway .................................................................................. 107.1
July 1. 1995
CONSERVATIONOF MATERIALS AND ENERGY Transverse ...............................................................................

612
....................................................................................................611.11 Transverse ...............................................................................
611.6
CONSTRUCTION CRASH CUSIONS
Freeway Connections with Local Roads .................................106.2 ..................................................................................................
702.1
initialandstage .......................................................................106.1
CRIB WALLS
CONTOUR GRADING ....................................................................................................
210.1
....................................................................................................304.4
CRITICAL
A d t i c s ............................................................................ 109.3
Depth. Definition .....................................................................806.2
CONTRACTORS YARDS/PLANTSITES Depth. Definition .....................................................................874
....................................................................................................112 Flow, Definition .......................................................................
806.2
CONTRASF TREATMENT Flow, Definition .......................................................................

874
Slope, Definition ......................................................................
806.2
....................................................................................................704
Policy ........................................................................................704.1 Slope, Definition ......................................................................874
Velocity, Definition .................................................................806.2
CONTROL
Drainage. Definition ................................................................806.2
.
Velocity Definition ................................................................. 874
CROSS DRAINAGE
Erosion ................................................................................110.2
Traffic. Devices ......................................................................62.8
....................................................................................................
820
Traffic. Devices ......................................................................403.10 CROSSSECFION

Traffic, Special Problems ...................................................... 110.6 Clear Recovery Zone, .............................................................309.1
CONTROL OF ACCESS City Streets and County Roads .................................................308.1
Effects on Drainage ................................................................833
See ACCESS CONTROL
Frontage Roads ........................................................................ 3 10.1
CONTROL OF POLLUTION Geometric ................................................................................62.1
See POLLUTION CONTROL Grade .......................................................................................
204.2
Multilane, Divided ...................................................................307.4
CONTROLLED ACCESS HIGHWAY
Multilane, All Paved ................................................................ 307.5
....................................................................................................62.3
Multilane, RRR Criteria ...........................................................307.6
CONVENTIONAL HIGHWAYS Outer Separation ...................................................................... 3 10.2
............................................................................................... 62.3 State Highway ....................................................................307
Sidewalks .................................................................................105.1 Two.lane. RRR Criteria ........................................................... 307.3
COORDINATION WITH OTHER AGENCIES Two-lane, New Construction ..................................................307.2
Warmnts for ........................................................................307.1
....................................................................................................108
Bus Loading Facilities .............................................................. 108.2 CROW SECIION, OTHER THAN STATE HIGHWAY ROADS
Divided Nonfreeway Facilities ...............................................108.1 ...................................................................................................
308
with M A ..............................................................................108.3 City and County Roads .............................................................308.1
COST REDUCTION INCENTIVEPROPOSALS CROSS SECFION. STATE HIGHWAY
Walls ........................................................................................210.3 See CROSS SECTION
COUNTERFORT WALLS CROSSSLOPES
....................................................................................................
210.1 Effects on Drainage ................................................................ 833
CRACK AND SEAT Gutter .......................................................................................
209.6
pavement....................................................................................611.8 Median .....................................................................................305.2
Pavement .................................................................................. 301.2
CRACKING Struchms ................................................................................. 208.2
Alligator ................................................................................... 6 11.6
Block ........................................................................................ 612 CROSSINGS
Block ........................................................................................611.6 Deer .........................................................................................
208.8
Equipment ................................................................................ 208.8
Longitudinal .............................................................................612
Longitudinal .............................................................................611.6 Railroad ....................................................................................104.3
Slab .......................................................................................612 CROWOVER
slab ..................................................................................... 611.5 Irrigation. Conduits ...............................................................706.3
July 1. 1995
CUGDESAC STREET General Policy .........................................................................209.1

....................................................................................................62.3 Grade Separations ................................................................... 209.5
CULVERTS Gutter Cross Slope .............................................................209.6
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2 Interchange Ramps .................................................................. 504.3
Alignment & Slope ................................................................. 823.4 Median .....................................................................................
305.4
Alternative Pipes ................................................................853 Position of .................................................................................
209.3
Anchorage ............................................................................... 829.5 Returns. for City Streets ...........................................................405.8
Available Head .................................................................821.4 Structures .................................................................................
209.5
Backwater ..........................................................................825.1 Types and Uses ........................................................................ 209.2
Bedding & Backfill .................................................................. 829.2
CURVES
Box and Arch ........................................................................... 854.7
Broken-back ........................................................................... 203.7
Bridges ................................................................................821.3
Comfortable Speeds ................................................................. 202.2
Buoyant Forces ........................................................................ 826.3
Comfortable Speeds ..............................................................203.2
Camber ..................................................................................... 823.2
Compound ................................................................................ 203.5
Choice of Type ........................................................................ 851.2
Compound. Superelevation of ................................................. 202.6
Culvert Design System .............................................................825.3
Horizontal ................................................................................203
Curvature ............................................................................823.2
Location of Ramp on ................................................................ 504.2
Design Discharge ..............................................................82 1.2
Length and Central Angle ....................................................... 203.4
Design Flood, Definition .......................................................... 806.2
Radius .......................................................................................
203.2
Design S t o w Definition ........................................................ 806.2
Ramp Widening ....................................................................... 504.3
Design Frequency, Definition ................................................. 806.2
Reversing .................................................................................
203.6
End Treatment ......................................................................... 826.2
Reversing. Superelevation Transition for ...............................202.5
Entrance Design .................................................................... 826
Superelevation ......................................................................... 202
Entrance Riser ......................................................................... 826.3
Spiral ........................................................................................
203.8
Gradeline ..............................................................................823.2
Three-Center ........................................................................... 405.7
Headwall .................................................................................. 826.3
Vertical ....................................................................................
204.4
Headwater ............................................................................... 821.4
Height of Cover .................................................................... 829.2 CUT WIDENING
Height of Cover ....................................................................... 854 ....................................................................................................
304.3
Hydrologic Considerations .................................................... 821.2
Improved Inlets ........................................................................ 826.4
Inlet Control ............................................................................ 825.2 D
Jacking ................................................................................829.8
Joints .........................................................................................
853.1
Length ...................................................................................... 828.3 D-LOAD
Minimum Cover ...................................................................... 854.9 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Multiple Pipes ........................................................................... 824.2 Cracking DLoad ..................................................................854.1
Outlet Design ...........................................................................827 Reinforced Concrete Pipe .......................................................854.1
Piping ........................................................................................829.3
Roughness ................................................................................ 85 1.2 DAM
Sag ...........................................................................................829.7
Service Life ............................................................................. 852.1 DEAD END STREET
Settlement ............................................................................829.2
Slope .........................................................................................823.2
Transitions ...............................................................................826.4 DEBRIS
Type Selection ....................................................................824 ....................................................................................................
822
CURB RAMPS
.
Barrier Definition ...............................................................806.2
Basin. Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Control Structure .....................................................................822.2
CURBS Definition ...........................................................................806.2
...............................................................................................209 Definition .................................................................................874
Bridges ...............................................................................209.5 Rack. Definition ....................................................................... 806.2
Frontage Roads and Stnets ..................................................... 209.4 Riser ......................................................................................... 822.2
DE4xLmATION LANE DESIGN SPEED

................................................................................................. 101
Definition ................................................................................... 62.8
Entrances & Exits .................................................................... 504.2
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
Freeway-to-freeway Minimum ...............................................502.4
.................................................................................................... 201.7
Freeway Entrances & Exits .....................................................504.7
DEER CROSSINGS Local Facility .......................................................................101.1
.................................................................................................... 208.8 Scenic Values ......................................................................109
Selection ............................................................................... 101.1
DEFENmROUTE
Standards ............................................................................. 101.2
42 000 lun Priority Network ..................................................... 309.2
DESIGN VEHICLE
.................................................................................................... 62 ....................................................................................................
404
Drainage ................................................................................ 806.2
Bus ......................................................................................404.2
Pavement Structural Section ....................................................612
California Truck ......................................................................404.2
DEFLECTION METHOD Offtracking ..............................................................................404.1
Overlays .................................................................................. 611.9 STAA Truck ............................................................................ 404.2
Turning Templates ................................................................... 404.3
DEGRADATION
Definition ............................................................................. 806.2 DESIGN VOLUME
See DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME
DELAY
............................................................................................. 62.8 DESIGN. FACTORS AFFECfl[NG
..................................................................................................401
Bicycles .................................................................................... 401.6
Driver ....................................................................................... 401.2
DESIGN Environment ........................................................................401.4
Capacities .................................................................................I02 General .................................................................................... 401.1
Channel & Shore Rotedon ....................................................873.1 Pedestrian ................................................................................. 401.5
Designation .............................................................................. 103 Vehicle ..................................................................................... 401.3
Discharge ................................................................................. 811.3
DESIGN. OPERATIONALFEATURES AFFECTING
Discharge. Estimating .............................................................. 819
....................................................................................................
402
Hood, Establishing ...................................................................818.2
Accidents ................................................................................. 402.2
Frequency. Definition ..............................................................806.2
Capacity ................................................................................... 402.1
Geometric Standards ............................................................... 200
Undesirable Geometric Features ............................................ 402.2
Hourly Volume ........................................................................ 103.1
.
Hourly Volume Definition ......................................................62.8 DESIGNATION. DESIGN
Interchange .............................................................................. 504 Design Period ...........................................................................
103.2
Intersection .............................................................................. 405 Relation to Design ....................................................................
103.1
Period .......................................................................................103.2
DrnOURS
Period .......................................................................................612
Period ....................................................................................603.2
....................................................................................................
110.6
Speed (See DESIGN SPEED) .................................................

Local Roads Used as ..............................................................
106.2
.
Standards Applications ........................................................... 80 DETRlTUS
Storm .................................................................................. 821.2 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Storm. Definition ..................................................................806.2 Definition .................................................................................
874
DESIGN DESIGNATION DW
Design Period ........................................................................ 103.2 See DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME
Relation to Design .................................................................... 103.1
DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME ....................................................................................................
502.2
....................................................................................................62.8
....................................................................................................103.1
July 1.1995
Basic Policy ..............................................................................

803.1
Channels ...................................................................................
861
Coefficients ..............................................................................
612
....................................................................................................835.3
Computer Programs ................................................................. 819.6
Definition ................................................................................. 874
Guide ..................................................................................873.4
Ramps ....................................................................................... 504.3
Cooperative Projects Policy .....................................................803.2
DISCHARGE Course. Definition ................................................................... 806.2
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Design ......................................................................................
811.3 Definition. Channel & Shore ................................................... 874
Estimating .................................................................................
819 Detention Basins ...................................................................... 891.3
Peak ..........................................................................................
811.3 Design Responsibility .............................................................. 802.1
Divide. Definition .................................................................... 806.2
DISPOSAL SITISMATERIALSSITES
Easement. Definition ............................................................... 806.2
....................................................................................................
111
Economics of Design ............................................................... 801.5
Acquisition of ......................................................................... 111.5
Flexible Pavement Structural Section ...................................... 606.2
Environmental Requirements .................................................. 111.1
Galleries ...................................................................................
841.5
Information Furnished to Prospective Bidders .......................111.3
Glossary of Terms ................................................................... 806.2
Investigation of Local Material Sources ................................. 111.2
Median .....................................................................................
834.2
Mandatory, on Federal-aid Projects ........................................111.6
Objectives of Design ............................................................ 801.4
Material Arrangements ......................................................... 111.4
by Pumping ...............................................................................
839
DISTANCE, CLEAR Rigid Pavement Structural Section .......................................... 606.3
Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves ....................... 201.6 Roadway ..................................................................................
830
Section. Duties of ..................................................................... 802.1
DITCHES
Structural Section ..................................................................... 606
Grade .......................................................................................
834.3
Subsurface ...............................................................................
840
Side ...........................................................................................
303.2
System, Definition .................................................................... 806.2
Side ...........................................................................................
834.3
Slope .........................................................................................
834.3 DRAINS
Anchorage ............................................................................... 834.4
DIVERGING
Benches ....................................................................................
834.4
....................................................................................................
62.8
Entrance Standards .................................................................. 834.4
DIVERSION Geotextile .................................................................................
841.5
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Horizontal ................................................................................
841.5
Definition .................................................................................
874 Outlet Treatment ...................................................................... 834.4
Overside. Spacing & Location ..............................................834.4
DIVIDED HIGHWAY
Service Life .............................................................................
853.1
....................................................................................................62.3
Slope .........................................................................................
834.4
Grade Line ..............................................................................204.2
Subsurface Types .................................................................... 841.5
DIVIDED NONFXEEWAY FACILITY
DRIP TRACK RAVEL
....................................................................................................
108.1
....................................................................................................
611.6
DO- Definitions ................................................................................612
Definitions ................................................................................
612
DRIVEWAYS
DOWNDRAINS ..............................................................................................205
Definition ................................................................................806.2 Access Openings on Expressways .......................................... 205.1
Flume ........................................................................................
834.4 Commercial .............................................................................. 205.3
Pipe ...........................................................................................
834.4 Wnancial Responsibility ........................................................... 205.5
Frontage Roads ........................................................................ 205.4
DRAIN
Local Standards .................................................................205.3
Edge System .......................................................................612
Pedestrian Access .................................................................... 205.3
DRAINAGE Residential ................................................................................ 205.3
Area, Definition ....................................................................... 806.2 Rural Areas .............................................................................. 205.4
Area .........................................................................................
819.2 Urban ....................................................................................... 205.3
July 1. 1995
DRY WEATHER FLOWS ENWRONMJCNTAL REQUIREMENTS

Definition ............................................................................... 806.2 Material Sites and Disposal Sites...............................................111
Bus Loading Facilities ..............................................................108.2
Contnctor's Yard and Plant Site ...............................................112
FHWA .................................................................................108.3
Median Width ..........................................................................
305.1
EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS Project Development ................................................................. 81.1
.............................................................................................210 Special Considerations .............................................................. 110
EARTHQUAKECONSIDERATIONS EQu-
....................................................................................................110.5 Definition ............................................................................ 806.2
....................................................................................................
826.3
EASEMENT
....................................................................................................62.6 EQUESTRIAN TRAILS
Definition ...........................................................................806.2 see TRAILS, MULTIPURPOSE
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS EQUESTRIAN UNDERCROSSINGS

..................................................................................................609.3 ....................................................................................................
208.7
also see LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT CR(TSSINGS
EDDY LCM ....................................................................................................
208.8
Defmition .................................................................................
806.2 EQUIVALENT SINGLE AXLE WADS
EDGE DRAIN SYSTEM .................................................................................................... 603
....................................................................................................
606.2 Definition .................................................................................
612
.....................................................................................................
606.3 EROSION
....................................................................................................
611.8 And Accretion, Definition .................................................... 806.2
Definition ................................................................................. 612 Control, Channel & Shore ........................................................ 871.1
ELECl'R0LJER.S AND SIGNS Control, Planting ....................................................................... 902
Walls ........................................................................................
210.7 Control, Water Pollution .......................................................... 110.2
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
EMBANKMENT Definition ................................................................................. 874
Definition .................................................................................
612 Vegetative Control ................................................................... 62.5
Slopes at Stnrctms .................................................................. 208.5
Struchm Approach Slabs and .................................................610 EVAPORATION
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
EMINENT DOMAIN ....................................................................................................
812.8
....................................................................................................62.6 ....................................................................................................
814.4
ENCROACHMENT ....................................................................................................
819.2
....................................................................................................
62.6 EXFFS
END OF FREEWAY Freeway Interchange ..............................................................
504.2
Connections with Local Roads ................................................106.2 EXPRESSWAY
ENDWALL ....................................................................................................62.3
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
ENERGY
Dissipator, Definition ............................................................. 806.2
Dissipator ................................................................................. 827.2
FAA
Grade Line, Definition ............................................................ 806.2
Abbreviation ............................................................................ 61.1
Head, Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Notice Requirements ........................................................... 207.3
ENTRANCE
FACTORS AFFEC TING INTERSECTION DESIGN
Design (Hydraulic) .................................................................. 826 .--..
See DESIGN.FAL I u K aI AFFECTING #-.
Freeway Interchange .............................................................. 504.2

Head. Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Loss. Definition ........................................................................806.2
July 1. 1995
FLAP GATES
....................................................................................................
204.6 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Grade Line ............................................................................... 204.6 ....................................................................................................
821.6
Vertical Clearance ................................................................. 204.6 ....................................................................................................
838.5
Width of Trac Openings ......................................................204.6
FLARED END SECFION
Worker Safety .........................................................................204.6
....................................................................................................
826.3
FAN ....................................................................................................
834.4
Definition ............................................................................806.2 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Definition .................................................................................
874
Definition .................................................................................
612
FAULTING
Design Example ....................................................................... 608.4
....................................................................................................
61 1.5
Design Procedure for .............................................................. 608.4
Definitions ................................................................................
612
St~cturalSection Drainage .................................................... 606.2
FEDERALAID also see ASPHALT CONCRETE
....................................................................................................
40
FU)<ID
Funding Determination ............................................................44
Base ..........................................................................................
818.1
Programs (see also PROGRAMS) ...........................................43
Control Projects ........................................................................ 803.2
System ......................................................................................42
Design ......................................................................................818.1
FEDERAL LANDS PROGRAM Design Criteria, Recommended .............................................. 821.3
......................................................................................................
43.4 Design Criteria, Recommended ..............................................831.3
Greatest of Record .................................................................. 821.3
FENCES
Magnitude ................................................................................ 817
Maximum Historical ................................................................ 818.1
Approval ..................................................................................
701.1
Measurement ........................................................................... 817.2
Barbed Wire ............................................................................ 701.2
ChainLink ................................................................................701.2
.
Plain Definition ....................................................................... 806.2
Plane. Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Exceptions to Standard Types ..............................................701.2
Stage. Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Freeways and Expressways ................................................... 701.2
Stage. Definition ..................................................................... 874
Location of ...............................................................................
701.2
Waters. Definition ................................................................... 806.2
Locked Gates ........................................................................... 701.2
Waters. Definition ................................................................... 874
Median .....................................................................................
701.2
on other Highways ................................................................... 701.3 FLQW
Policy and Purpose ...................................................................701.1 Channel ....................................................................................816.6
Retaining Walls ........................................................................ 210.5 Critical ......................................................................................
864.3
Safety Roadside Rests ..............................................................903.5 Definition .................................................................................806.2
Standard Types ...................................................................701.2 Definition .................................................................................874
Vinyl-clad ................................................................................
705.1 Line ..........................................................................................
806.2
Weathering Type Steel .........................................................705.1 Subcritical ................................................................................864.3
Wire Mesh ...............................................................................701.2 Supercritical ............................................................................. 864.3
FETCH FREE
Definition .................................................................................874 Outlet, Definition ......................................................................
806.2
Water. Definition .....................................................................
806.2
FHWA
Approval of Locked Gates ...................................................... 701.2 FREEBOARD
Approval of Mandatory Sites ..................................................111.6 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Coordination With .................................................................... 108.3 ......................................................................................................
866
Federal-aid ...............................................................................
40
FREEWAY
Liaison With .............................................................................11.2
....................................................................................................
62.3
FILTER FABRIC Entrances and Exits at Interchanges .......................................504.2
....................................................................................................
841.5 Landscape ................................................................................62.5
Landscape ................................................................................ 900
FREEWAY CONNECTIONSWITH EXISTING ROADS
July 1. 1995
FREEWAY-TO-FREEWAY CONNECMONS GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN REPORT

.................................................................................................... 62.4 ....................................................................................................113
.................................................................................................... 504.4 Content ..................................................................................113.2
Branch C ~ ~ O I.................................................................
I S 504.4 Policy ........................................................................................113.1
Grade Line ............................................................................... 204.2 Submittal and Approval ........................................................113.3
Grades..................................................................................... 504.4
GORE
Lane Drops .............................................................................. 504.4
Metering ................................................................................... 504.4
Shoulda Width ........................................................................504.4 GRADE
Cross Section. Position with Respect to ...................................204.2
FREEWAY-TO-FREEWAYINTERCHANGES
to Drain. Definition .............................................................806.2
....................................................................................................502.3
Freeway Entrance Standards .................................................. 504.2
FRENCH DRAINS Freeway Exit Standards ............................................................ 504.2
Definition ............................................................................ 806.2 Freeway-to-freeway Connection Standards ..........................504.4
....................................................................................................
841.5 General Controls ................................................................ 204.1
FRICTION FACTORS Horizontal Alignment, Coordination with ...............................204.7
....................................................................................................
202.1 Ramps .......................................................................................
504.3
Rolling Pmfile ..........................................................................
FRONTAGE ROADS
Safety Roadside Rests ..............................................................
....................................................................................................62.3 Separate L i e s .........................................................................
.................................................................................................. 310 Separation ................................................................................
Access kontrol ......................................................................... 104.3
Separation Structures ...............................................................
Cross Seaion ..........................................................................310.1
Separation. Pedestrian .............................................................
Curbs ........................................................................................ 209.4
Standards ..................................................................................
Driveways ............................................................................205.4
Stopping Sight Distance at Crests ............................................
Financed by Others ................................................................ 104.3
Stopping Sight Distance at Sags ...............................................
Headlight Glare ..................................................................310.3
Structures .................................................................................
Horizontal Clearance ..............................................................309.1
Sustained Grades .....................................................................
Outer Separation ..................................................................310.2
Vertical Curves ........................................................................
Railroad Crossings ..................................................................104.3
Sidewalks ...........................................................................105.1 GRADE LINE
Bridge Decks ........................................................................... 204.6
FUNDING
.. Depressed. Under Structures .................................................. 204.6
......................................................................................................44 General ....................................................................................
204.1
Fedd-Aid Eligibility............................................................. 44.1
Separate ...................................................................................
204.8
Federal Participation Ratio .....................................................44.2
Structures .................................................................................
204.6
GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES

.............................................................................403.1
....................................................................................................
208
Cattle Passes. Equipment. and Deer Crossings ....................... 208.8
Cross Slope ............................................................................... 208.2
Curbs ........................................................................................209.6
Equestrian Undercrossing ....................................................... 208.7
GALLERIES Median ..................................................................................... 208.3
Drainage ...............................................................................841.5 Open End Structures ................................................................ 208.5
GEOMETRIC CROSS MXXIONS Pedestrian ................................................................................. 105.2
................................................................................................300 Pedestrian Overcrossings and Undercrossing ........................ 208.6
Definition ........................................................................... 62.1 Railings .....................................................................................208.10
Railroad Underpasses and Overheads ....................................208.9
GEOMETRIC DESIGN Sidewalks ................................................................................. 208.4
Definition .......................................................................... 62.4 Widths ...................................................................................... 208.1
Structure Standards .................................................................. 200
Undesirable Geometric Features, Intersections ..................... 402.2 GRADIENT (SLOPE)
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
July 1. 1995
HIGHWAY
Definition .................................................................................
612 ....................................................................................................
62.3
Capacity ................................................................................... 102
GRAVEL EQUIVALENT
Controlled Access .................................................................... 62.3
....................................................................................................
608.4
Conventional ............................................................................ 62.3
GRAVITY WALL Federal Lands Program ...........................................................43.4
....................................................................................................
210.1 Landscape Architect Definitions ............................................62.5
1 GRIND CONCRETE PAVEMENT
...
Major ........................................................................................
National Highway System ........................................................42
62.3
....................................................................................................
011.8
n
Parkway ................................................................................... 62.3

GROIN Pedestrian Facilities ...............................................................
105
....................................................................................................
873.4 Planting ....................................................................................62.5
Radial .......................................................................................
62.3
GROOVE CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Route Numbers ........................................................................ 21.2
....................................................................................................
611.8
Scenic .......................................................................................
62.3
GROUND WATER Structures. Definitions ............................................................. 62.2
Definition .................................................................................806.2 Structures. Grade Line ............................................................ 204.6
....................................................................................................
841.2 Through ....................................................................................
62.3
Types. Definitions .................................................................... 62.3
GUARDRAIL
Bridge Approach Railings ........................................................ 208.10 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL STANDARDS
References ...............................................................................
702 ....................................................................................................
82.1
GUIDE BANK HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

....................................................................................................
I
Alignment Consistency ............................................................ 203.3
GuTl'ERs
Bridges .....................................................................................
203.9
....................................................................................................
209
................................................................
Broken Back Curves 203.7
Cross Slope ...............................................................................
209.6
Compound C w e s .................................................................... 203.5
GUTFERS. SIDE Curve Length and Central Angle ............................................ 203.4
....................................................................................................303.2 General Controls ......................................................................
203.1
.................................................................................................... 834.2 Grade. coordination with ....................................................... 204.7
Capacity ................................................................................... 836.2 Radius .......................................................................................
203.2
Cross Slopes ............................................................................. 209.6 Reversing Curves .....................................................................
203.6
Grade .......................................................................................836.2 Standards for Curvature .......................................................... 203.2
Intersection. at ........................................................................ 836.2 Spiral Transition .......................................................................203.8
Types ........................................................................................836.1
HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE
Valley .......................................................................................836.2
Bridges .....................................................................................
309.1
Between Elevated Structures .................................................. 309.4
Clear Distance ......................................................................... 201.6
Noise Barriers .........................................................................1102.2
Off-track Maintenance ........................................................... 309.5
Railroad Walkway ................................................................... 309.5
HAULING Railroads, Adjacent to .............................................................
Overloaded MateriaYEquipment Design for . .........................110.1 Retaining Walls ................................................................... 309.1
309.5
HEAD Structure ...................................................................................

309.1
Available ..................................................................................
821.4 Tunnels .....................................................................................
309.3
HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE HORIZONTAL DRAINS

Grade Sags ...............................................................................
201.5 ....................................................................................................
841.5
HEADWAY
July 1. 1995
HYDRAULIC
Gradient, Definition .............................................................. 806.2 I
.
Jump Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Mean Depth. Definition ....................................................... 806.2
Mean Depth ............................................................................. 864.3 INFILTRATION
.
Radius Definition ....................................................................806.2 ....................................................................................................606.2
....................................................................................................819.2
HYDRAULIC DESIGN DISCHARGE Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Empirical Methods ................................................................... 819.2
Field Investigation ................................................................... 815.3 IMTIALCONSTRUCFION
Hydrograph Methods ...........................................................816.5 and Stage....................................................................................
106.1
Rational Methods .....................................................................819.2 INLFIS
Regional Analysis ....................................................................819.2 Combination ............................................................................. 837.2
Statistical Methods .................................................................819.3 Curb Opening ........................................................................... 837.2
HYDROGRAPH Grate ...................................................................................837.2
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Hydraulic Design ..................................................................... 837.4
....................................................................................................
816.5 Location and Spacing .............................................................. 837.3
SCS Triangular .........................................................................819.4 Pipe Drop .................................................................................
837.2
Synthetic ................................................................................... 819.4 Time, Definition ..................................................................806.2
Unit ...........................................................................................819.4 Transition .................................................................................
826.4
Types ........................................................................................
837.2
HYDROGRAPHY Use of .......................................................................................
837.1
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
INSPECFION STATIONS, BORDER
HYDR0UW:ICAL ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................
107.3
Gurnbel Extreme Value Distribution .......................................819.3
Log Nonnal Distribution .......................................................819.3 INTERCHANGES
Log Pearson Type I11 Distribution ..........................................819.3 Access Control ......................................................................... 504.8
Objectives ................................................................................
Rational Methods ..................................................................... 819.2 Approval of Design ................................................................. 503.2
Regional Analysis Methods ...................................................819.2 Auxiliary Lanes ....................................................................... 504.5
Synthetic Hydrograph .............................................................. 819.4 Cloverleaf ................................................................................
502.2
SCS Triangular Hydrograph ....................................................819.4 Concepts ...................................................................................
501.1
Unit Hydrograph ..................................................................819.4 Data Required for Design .......................................................503.1
Definition ...................................................................................
62.4
HYDR0UW:IC DATA Design. Procedure ................................................................. 503
Basin Characteristics ............................................................... 812 Design. Standards .................................................................... 504
Federal Agencies ..................................................................... 815.3 Diamond ...................................................................................
502.2
Field Investigations .................................................................. 815.3 Elements ...................................................................................
62.4
Precipitation ...........................................................................815.2 Freeway Entrances and Exits. Design ....................................504.2
Pmipitation .............................................................................815.3 Freeway-to-freeway ............................................................... 502.3
Rainfall .....................................................................................
815.5 Freeway-to-freeway Connections. Standards ........................ 504.4
Sources .....................................................................................
815.3 Freeway.to.freeway. Minimum Design Speed ...................... 504.4
Stream Flow .............................................................................815.4 Freeway-to-freeway Omission of Movements ....................... 502.3
Surface Runoff ........................................................................ 815.2 Grade Separations ...................................................................62.4
Transfer of Data ......................................................................819.5 Grades Exits/Entrances ............................................................ 504.2
HYDROLOGY Lane Reduction ........................................................................ 504.6
Definition .................................................................................806.2 Local Streets ............................................................................502.2
.................................................................................................... 811.1 Parallel Street Systems ............................................................. 502.2
Ramps ....................................................................................... 504.3
Sight Distance for Planting .....................................................902.2
Single Point Interchange ........................................................502.2
Spacing ..................................................................................... 501.3
Traff~c ...................................................................................... 500
July I. 1995
Trumpet ....................................................................................
502.2 INTERSTATE
Twoquadrant Cloverleaf ..................................................502.2 Funding .....................................................................................
42.2
Types ........................................................................................
502 Numbering ................................................................................. 21.2
Warrants ..................................................................................501.2
INUNDATE
Weaving Sections ....................................................................504.7
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
also see RAMPS
INVERSE CONDEMNATION
INTERMODAL SURFACE TRANSPORTATION EFFICIENCY
....................................................................................................
62.6
ACT (ISTEA)
......................................................................................................
40 INVERT
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
INTERSECIlON
Paving. Definition .................................................................... 806.2
Access Control ......................................................................... 405.6
Paving ....................................................................................... 854.1
Accidents ................................................................................. 402.2
Protection ................................................................................. 854.1
Angle of Intersection ............................................................... 403.3
Approval of Design .................................................................. 405.10 INVERTED SIPHON
Areas of Conflict ..................................................................... 403.2 Definition .................................................................................806.2
Bicycle, Affecting Design of .................................................. 401.6 .................................................................................................... 829.7
Capacity ................................................................................... 402.1
IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Capacity. Ramps ...................................................................... 406
Crossover Conduits .................................................................. 706.3
Channelization .........................................................................403
Definition ................................................................................... 62.4 ISLAND
Design. Factors Affecting ....................................................... 401 .................................................................................................... 62.4
Design. Operational Features Affecting ................................. 402 Traffic ...................................................................................... 405.4
Design. Standards .................................................................... 405
ISOHYETAL
Design Vehicle .........................................................................404
tine. Definition ........................................................................ 806.2
Driver. Affecting Design of .................................................... 401.2
Map. Definition ........................................................................ 806.2
Environment. Affecting Design of .......................................... 401.4
General. Factors Affecting Design ......................................... 401.1 ISOVEL
at Grade ...................................................................................400 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Grade Separations ...................................................................62.4 Definition ................................................................................. 874
Left-turn Channelization ......................................................... 405.2
Major Movement. Preference to ............................................. 403.1
rn
...................................................................................................... 41.1
Median Openings ..................................................................... 405.5
...................................................................................................... 42.2
Operational Features ............................................................... 402
Pedestrian. Affecting Design of .............................................. 401.5
Points of Conflict ...................................................................... 403.4
Precautions ............................................................................... 403.12
Prohibited Turns ....................................................................... 403.8
Public Road .............................................................................. 405.7 JACK
Ramp ........................................................................................406 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Refuge Area ............................................................................ 403.7 Definition ................................................................................. 874
Returns and Comer Radii. City Street ..................................... 405.8 JACKING OPERATIONS
Right-turn Channelization ........................................................ 405.3 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Sight Distance .......................................................................... 405.1
Signal Control ...........................................................................403.9
Speed-change Areas ............................................................... 403.5 JFITY
Traffic Control Devices ....................................................... 403.10 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Traffic Islands ......................................................................... 405.4 Definition ................................................................................. 874
Turning Traffic ........................................................................ 403.6 Types ........................................................................................ 873.4
Undesirable Geometric Features ............................................ 402.2 JOINT
Vehicle, Affecting Design of ..................................................401.3 Construction ............................................................................. 612
Widening at Signalized Intersections ......................................405.9 Contraction ............................................................................... 612
Expansion ................................................................................. 612
July 1. 1995
Longitudinal ............................................................................. 612 Drops on Ramps .................................................................504.3

Pavement .................................................................................. 607.6 Left Turn .................................................................................. 405.2
Seals .........................................................................................
612 Numbering ............................................................................... 62.1
Weakened Plane ...................................................................... 612 Passing ...................................................................................... 204.5
Reductions ................................................................................ 206.3
JOINT BANK PROTECTION COMMITTEE
Reduction at Interchanges ..................................................... 504.6
....................................................................................................
802.3
Right Turn ................................................................................ 405.3
s' lm
oJ' Separate Turning ..................................................................... 403.6
Culverts ....................................................................................
829.4 Speed Change .......................................................................... 403.5
Two-way Left-turn Lanes ....................................................... 405.2
JUNCTION STRUCTURES
Width ........................................................................................ 301.1
.................................................................................................... 838.5
Width on Curves ...................................................................... 504.3
Width of Opening for Falsework ........................................... 204.6
K LATERAL
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
KINEMATIC WAVE EQUATION .................................................................................................... 838.4
.................................................................................................... 816.6 .................................................................................................... 838.5
KIRPICH EQUATION LAYER COEFFICIENT
.................................................................................................... 816.6 .................................................................................................... 612
K-RAIL LEFT-TURN CHANNELIZATION

.................................................................................................... 204.6 .................................................................................................... 405.2
LEFT-TURN REFUGE
.................................................................................................... 403.7
L LEGISLATION
......................................................................................................
41
L-TYPE WALL ISTEA ........................................................................................ 41.1
.................................................................................................... 210.1
LEVEE
LAG Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
LEVEL OF SERVICE
LAMINAR FLOW .................................................................................................... 62.8
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
LEVELING COURSE
LANDSCAPE ....................................................................................................
612
Aesthetic Factors ................................................................... 109.3
LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS
Architecture ............................................................................. 62.5
Selection of Pavement Types .................................................
602.1
Architecture ............................................................................. 900
Economic Analysis. Pavement ................................................609.3
Highway ................................................................................... 62.5
LIME
LANE
Stabilized Base ......................................................................... 605.4
Addition .................................................................................... 206.2
Treatment Definition ............................................................... 612
Addition on Ramps ................................................................ 504.3
Auxiliary .................................................................................... 62.1 LININGS
Auxiliary .................................................................................. 504.5 Channel .................................................................................... 873.3
Climbing ................................................................................... 204.5
LOAD TRANSFER DEVICE
Climbing .................................................................................. 206.2
Deceleration ............................................................................ 405.2
....................................................................................................
612
Deceleration ............................................................................ 405.3 LOADING F A C I L r n

Definitions ................................................................................ 62.1 Bus ............................................................................................ 108.2
Distribution, Factors ................................................................. 603.3
LQCAL STREETSIROADS
Drops ........................................................................................ 206.3
Cross Section ............................................................................ 308.1
Drops on Freeway-to-freeway Connectors ............................504.4
Design Speed ............................................................................ 101.1
Definition ............................................................................ 62.3 MATERIALS REPORT

Driveways ............................................................................205.3 Content .....................................................................................
114.2
Grade .......................................................................................
204.1 Policy ........................................................................................
114.1
Horizontal Alignment .............................................................. 203.1 Submittal and Reviews ............................................................. 114.3
Interchanges ............................................................................502.2
MAY
Returns and Comer Radii ........................................................405.8
Definition and Usage ........................................................... 82.1
Superelevation ....................................................................202.7
MEAN VELOCITY
....................................................................................................
864.3
MEDIAN
LOG OF TEW BORINGS
....................................................................................................
62.1
....................................................................................................
210.7
Aesthetic Factors ..................................................................... 109.3
LOW VOLUME ROAD Barriers .................................................................................... 305.3
Cross Slope ............................................................................... 305.2
Curbs ........................................................................................
305.4
Decking on Bridge ................................................................... 208.3
Fencing .....................................................................................701.2
Grade ....................................................................................... 834.2
Lane ......................................................................................... 62.1
MAINTENANCE Left-turn Lane ......................................................................... 405.2
Definitions ................................................................................
612 Openings .................................................................................. 405.5
Paved ........................................................................................
305.5
MAINTENANCE YARDS Separate Roadways ................................................................. 305.6
On Freeways..............................................................................
107.2 Standards .................................................................................. 305
MANDATORY MATERIAL SITES Width ........................................................................................
305.1
Federal-aid Projects .................................................................
111.6 MERGING
MANDATORY STANDARDS Definition ................................................................................. 62.8
MmF4oROLOGY
MANNING Evapo-transpiration ................................................................. 814.4
Equation ...................................................................................
864.3 Rainfall .....................................................................................
814.2
Roughness Coefficient ............................................................. 85 1.2 Snow .........................................................................................
814.3
Roughness Coefficient ........................................................... 864.3 Tides and Waves ..................................................................... 814.5
Tsunami .................................................................................... 814.5
MARKERS
....................................................................................................
702.1 METERING
Contrast Treatment ..................................................................
704.1 ....................................................................................................
504.3
Definition ...................................................................................62.8
MATERIALS Freeway-to-Freeway Connections .......................................... 504.4
Color Selection for Steel Structures ........................................705.2 Lane Merges ............................................................................
206.3
Hauling. Overloaded Design ................................................... 110.1 Ramp Lane Drops ....................................................................504.3
Information Furnished to Prospective Bidders ........................111.3
Plants .........................................................................................
112 MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS
Report. Local Materials Sources ............................................ 111.2 Definition .................................................................................
62.4
Report. Side Slope Standards ...................................................304.1 MLSCELLANEOUS STANDARDS
Report. Structural Section Design ...........................................602.3 ....................................................................................................
700
Selected ....................................................................................
612 Fences ...................................................................................... 701
Sites ..........................................................................................
111 Guardrail .................................................................................. 702
Sites. Aquisition ...................................................................... 111.5 Mailboxes ................................................................................. 702
Sites. Arrangements ................................................................. 111.4 Markers ....................................................................................
.
Sites Environmental Requirements .........................................111.1
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION
702
Sites. Investigation of Local Sources ......................................111.2

Sites. Mandatory ...................................................................... 111.6 Definition .................................................................................
612
Special Treatment .................................................................... 705.1
July 1. 1995
MUDFLOW NONFREEWAY FACILITIES

Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Conversion to Divided .............................................................
108.1
MULTILANE CROSS SECIlONS NONMOTORIZED TRAFFIC

Divided .....................................................................................
307.4 Provisions for ...........................................................................
104.3
All Paved ................................................................................307.5
Definition .................................................................................
62.1
....................................................................................................
824.2 OFF-SITE DRAINAGE
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
OFFTRACKING
....................................................................................................
404.1
OFFICE OF
NATIONAL HIGHWAY SYSTEM Landscape Architecture ..........................................................
901.1
...................................................................................................
42.1 Project Planning and Design ....................................................10
NAVIGABLE WATERS ON-SITE DRAINAGE

Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
NEGATIVE PROJECTING CONDUIT OPEN CHANNEL

Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Alignment and Grade .............................................................. 862.2
NOISE
Changes ....................................................................................
865
Assessing Impacts ...................................................................
1101.4
Design Consideration ............................................................... 865.2
NOISE ABATEMENT Discharge Computations ......................................................864.3
...................................................................................................
1lo0 Flow Characteristics ................................................................ 864.2
Objective ............................................................................... 1101.2 Linings ......................................................................................
873.3
by Others ................................................................................. 1101.2 Unlined .....................................................................................
862.2
Prioritizing ............................................................................... 1101.5
OUTER SEPARATION
Terminology ............................................................................ 1101.3
Definition ............................................................................... 62.1
NOISE BARRIERS ....................................................................................................
310.2
Aesthetics ................................................................................
1102.6
OUTFALL
Alternate Designs ................................................................... 1102.5
Clearances ..............................................................................
1102.2
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Design Criteria ....................................................................1102
Definition .................................................................................
874
Design Procedures .................................................................. 1102.5 OUTWASH
Drainage Openings ................................................................ 1102.9 Definition .............................................................................. 806.2
Emergency Access ................................................................ 1102.8 Definition .................................................................................
874
Heights ....................................................................................
1102.3 OVERFLOW
Lengths ....................................................................................
1102.4 Channel ....................................................................................
861.5
Location .................................................................................
1102.2 Definition .................................................................................
874
Maintenance Considerations ................................................1102.7
OVERLAND FLOW
Pay Quantities .........................................................................
1102.5
Planting ....................................................................................
1102.6
....................................................................................................
816.6
Preliminary Site Data .............................................................. 1102.5 OVERLAYS

Sight Distance Requirements .................................................. 1102.2 Asphalt Concrete Method ........................................................ 611.9
Asphalt Over PCCP .................................................................. 611.8
NORMAL DEPTH
Concrete. Thin Bonded ..........................................................611.8
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Concrete. Thin Bonded ............................................................ 612
....................................................................................................
864.2
Definitions ................................................................................
612
July 1. 1995
Structure ...................................................................................
612
Design for ................................................................................
110.1 Surfacing ..................................................................................
612
Transitions ................................................................................
206
Transitions for Freeways. Temporary ....................................206.4
P Type Selection ......................................................................... 602.3
Type Selection ......................................................................... 609
Type Selection .........................................................................609.2
Type Selection. Economic Analysis ........................................609.3
PAINT BINDER
Widenings ................................................................................206.2
....................................................................................................
608.3
Width .......................................................................................301.1
PAINTING
Concrete ...................................................................................
705.1 PEAK FLOW
Steel ..........................................................................................
705.2
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Definition ................................................................................. 874
PANEL LENGTH .................................................................................................... 811.3
Definitions ................................................................................
612
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
PARALLEL STREET SYSTEMS .................................................................................................... 105
Interchanges ............................................................................502.2 Accessibility Requirements ....................................................... 105.3
Bridges .......................................................................................208.4
PARK AND RIDE LOTS
Conventional Highways............................................................. 105.1
Pavement Structural Section Design .......................................
608.7
Freeway Facilities......................................................................105.1
PARKWAY Frontage Roads ..........................................................................105.1
Definition .................................................................................62.3 Grade Separations ................................................................... 105.2
Overcrossings .......................................................................... 105.2
PARTIAL ACQUISITION
Overcrossings .......................................................................... 208.6
Definition .................................................................................
62.6
Railings ..................................................................................... 208.10
PASSINGLANE Replacement in Kind ................................................................. 105.1
Refuge Areas ........................................................................... 403.7
School Walkways ....................................................................105.1
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
.................................................................................................... 201.2 Sidewalks ................................................................................. 105.1
Sidewalks. Structures ............................................................... 208.4
PAVEMENT Undercrossings ........................................................................ 105.2
ACP Failure Types ................................................................... 61 1.6 Undercrossings ........................................................................208.6
Composite ................................................................................. 612 Wheelchair Ramps. Guidelines ............................................... 105.4
Cross Slopes ............................................................................. 301.2
Definition .................................................................................612 PENETRATIONTREATMENT
Flexible .....................................................................................612 ....................................................................................................608.3
Grind ........................................................................................611.8 PERCHED WATER
G m v e ..................................................................................... 611.8 Definition .................................................................................806.2
Joints .........................................................................................
607.6 ....................................................................................................
841.4
Management System ................................................................ 612
Management System ............................................................... 611.2 PERCOLATING WATERS
Overlays, Asphalt .................................................................... 61 1.9 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Overlays, Concrete .................................................................. 611.8 PERMEABILITY
Performance ............................................................................ 612 ....................................................................................................606.2
Portland Cement Concrete ....................................................... 607 .................................................................................................... 841.2
PCCP Failure Types ................................................................. 611.5 Definition .................................................................................806.2
Reconstruction ......................................................................... 61 1.7
Reductions ................................................................................ 206.3 PHYSICALLY DISABLED PERSONS
Rehabilitation ........................................................................... 6 11.7 See ACCESSIBILITY REQUIREMENTS
Rehabilitation. Definition ......................................................612 PIPE
Rehabilitation Strategies .......................................................... 61 1.7 Cast in Place Concrete ........................................................... 854.2
Reinforcing Fabric ................................................................... 612 Culverts ....................................................................................
828.2
Rigid .........................................................................................
612 Culverts ....................................................................................
828.3
July 1. 1995
Metal Service Life ...................................................................

854.3 POSITIVEPROJECTING CONDUIT
Metal Service Life ...................................................................
854.4 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Metal. Strength Requirements ................................................ 854.6 PRECIPITATION

Minimum Cover ...................................................................... 854.9 Area, Definition ....................................................................... 806.2
Minimum Diameter .................................................................. 838.4 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Multiple ....................................................................................
824.2 Definition .................................................................................
874
Plastic .......................................................................................
854.8 Mean Annual ........................................................................... 819.2
Protective Coatings .................................................................. 854.3 Point, Definition .......................................................................806.2
.
Reinforced Concrete Strength Requirements ........................ 854.1
PRELIMINARY HYDRAULIC DATA
Standards for Drain ................................................................. 838.4
....................................................................................................
805.1
PIPING
PRESENT SERVICEABILITYINDEX
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Definition .................................................................................
612
....................................................................................................
829.3
PRESENT WORTH
PLANT SITESlCONTRACTOR'SYARD
... see ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
PRIME COAT
PLANTING
Aesthetic Factors ................................................................. 109.2
....................................................................................................
608.3
Design ......................................................................................
902
Definition .................................................................................
612
Guidelines ................................................................................
902.4 PRIORITY NETWORK
Highway ...................................................................................62.5 42 000 km .................................................................................
309.2
Irrigation ............................................................................902.5
PRIVATE ROAD CONNECTIONS
Replacement ........................................................................... 62.5
....................................................................................................
205.2
Restoration ...............................................................................62.5
Financial Responsibility ........................................................... 205.5
Safety Requirements ................................................................ 902.2
Sight Distance ..........................................................................
405.1
Safety Roadside Rests .............................................................. 903.5
Sight Distance ..........................................................................902.2 PROCEDURAL REQUIREMENTS
Trees ........................................................................................
902.3 ......................................................................................................
82.4
Vista Points ...............................................................................904.4
PROGRAMS. FEDERALAID
Water Supply ........................................................................... 706.4
Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program.......................43.3
PLASTIC COATINGS Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program
.................................................................................................... 854.3 (CMAQ).......................................................................................
43.2
POINT OF CONCENTRATION Federal Lands Program .............................................................. 43.4
Definition ................................................................................806.2 Special Programs .........................................................................43.5
Surface Transportation Program (STP) ......................................43.1
POINTS OF CONFLICT
PROHIBITED TURNS
Intersections .............................................................................
403.4
..............................................................................................403.8
POLICEFACIISIlES
PROJECTING BARREL
....................................................................................................
107.2
....................................................................................................
826.3
POLLUTION CONTROL
PROJECTING ENDS
Air ..........................................................................................110.3
Water ....................................................................................... 110.2
............................................................................................... 826.3
PROPRIETARY ITEMS
PONDING
....................................................................................................821.4 ....................................................................................................110.9
....................................................................................................
602.1
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE Euth Retaining Systems ............................................................ 210.1
Channel Linings ....................................................................... 872.2
PROTECTION OF ACCESS RIGHTS
Pavement ..................................................................................
607
....................................................................................................
104.4
July 1. 1995
@ PROTECI'IONOFWETUNDS RAIN GAGE

....................................................................................................
819.5
See WETLANDS
PRcYmClWE COATINGS RAINWASH

....................................................................................................
854.3 Definition ............................................................................. 806.2
Definition .................................................................................
874
PUBLIC ROAD INTERSECTION
.............................................................................................. 405.7 RAMPS
Sight Distance .......................................................................405.1 Curbs on ................................................................................... 504.3
Definition .............................................................................62.4
PULLOUTS
Dikes .......................................................................................504.3
see TURNOUTS
Distance Between Exits ........................................................... 504.3
PUMPING Distance Between On-Ramps .................................................504.3
....................................................................................................612 Entrance and Exit ................................................................ 504.2
Grade .......................................................................................504.3
PUMPING PLANT
Grade Line ............................................................................... 204.2
......................................................................................................
839.1
Grade. Standards ..................................................................... 204.3
Hook .........................................................................................
502.2
Intersection Capacity ............................................................... 406
Intersections on Crossroad. Location of ................................. 504.3
Lane Drops .............................................................................. 504.3
Loop .........................................................................................
504.3
R VALUE Metering (see METERING)
....................................................................................................
604.2 Pavement Transitions ............................................................... 206
....................................................................................................
607.2 Single Lane .............................................................................. 504.3
Structural Design ..................................................................... 603.3
Definition .................................................................................
612 Structural Design ..................................................................... 607.4
RADIAL HIGHWAY Structural Design ..................................................................... 608.6
Definition .................................................................................
62.3 Superelevation .........................................................................504.3
Tapers ......................................................................................206.3
RADIUS Termini. Concrete Pavement ..............................................607.4
Horizontal Alignment ..............................................................
203.2 Transitions ................................................................................ 504.3
Curb ..........................................................................................
405.8 Two-lane Entrance .................................................................. 504.3
RAILINGS Two-lane Exit .......................................................................... 504.3
Bicycle ...............................................................................208.10 Wheelchair .............................................................................. 105.4
Bridge Approach .................................................................... 208.10 Widening for Trucks ............................................................... 504.3
Bridge .......................................................................................
208.10 RATIONAL METHOD
Chain Link ................................................................................208.10
Guardrail .................................................................................208.10
Guardrail ..................................................................................
702.1 RAVELING
Pedestrian .................................................................................
208.10 ....................................................................................................611.6
Vehicular .................................................................................208.10 Definitions ................................................................................ 612
Euth Retaining Systems .......................................................... 210.5 REACH
RAILROAD Definition .................................................................................806.2
Clearances ........................................................................... 309.5 Definition .................................................................................874
Crossings ..................................................................................
104.3 RECOVERY AREA
Grade Line of Structures ......................................................... 204.6 ....................................................................................................
309.1
Overheads ................................................................................ 208.9 RECYCLING ASPHALT CONCRETE
Slope Treatment. Structures .................................................... 707 Cold .......................................................................................... 611.9
Underpasses ............................................................................. 208.9 Cold. Definition ........................................................................ 612
RAINFALL Hot ............................................................................................ 611.9
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Hot. Definition ......................................................................... 612
Sources of Data ................................................................. 815.3 REFUGE AREAS
July 1. 1995
REGIME REVERSING CURVES

Definition .................................................................................806.2 ....................................................................................................203.6
Definition .................................................................................874 Superelevation Transitions ..................................................... 202.5
REHABILITATION. PAVEMENT R E V E m
Strategies. ACP ........................................................................
611.9 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Strategies. General Pavement .................................................611.7 Definition .................................................................................
874
Strategies. PCCP ......................................................................611.8
RIGHT OF ACCESS
Traffic Handling and Safety ................................................... 611.10
Definition .................................................................................
62.6
RELICTION
RIGHT OF WAY
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Definitions ................................................................................ 62.6
RELINQUISHMENT Through Public Domain ......................................................... 306.2
Definition .................................................................................62.6 Width ........................................................................................
306.1
REPLACEMENT IN-KIND RIGHT-TURN CHANNELIZATION

Sidewalks .................................................................................
105.1 ....................................................................................................
405.3
REPLACEMENT PLANTING RIGID PAVEMENT

Aesthetic Factors .....................................................................109.3 Definition .................................................................................
612
Definition .................................................................................62.5 Design Procedure for .............................................................. 607.2
Structural Section Diainage .................................................... 606.3
RESILIENT MODULUS
also see CONCRETE
Definition ................................................................................. 612
RIPARIAN
RESTORATION PLANTING
Definition .................................................................................62.5
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Aesthetic Factors ................................................................. 109.3

Definition .................................................................................
874
RIPRAP
RESURFACING
ForACP ....................................................................................
611.9
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Definition .................................................................................
612
Definition .................................................................................
874
....................................................................................................
827.2
RETARD ....................................................................................................
873.3
Types ........................................................................................
873.4
RISER
RETAINING WALLS Definition .................................................................................
806.2
....................................................................................................
210 Culvert Entrance ...................................................................... 822.2
Aesthetic Considerations ......................................................... 210.4
RISK ANALYSIS
Guidelines for Plan Preparation ..............................................210.7
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Safety Railing. Fences. and Concrete Bamers ....................... 210.5
Types and Uses ........................................................................
210.1
....................................................................................................
818.2
ROADBED
RETARDING BASIN
Defmition .................................................................................806.2
Definition ................................................................................62.1
....................................................................................................
612
RETENTION BASIN Material .................................................................................... 612
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Prepared ................................................................................... 612
OGRESSI ION ROADSIDE INSTALLATIONS

Definition .................................................................................
806.2 ....................................................................................................
107
RETURNWALLS Border Inspection Stations, Location of .................................. 107.3
....................................................................................................
210.7 Define Roadside ......................................................................62.1
Maintenance Yards and Police Facilities ................................107.2
RETURNS. CITY STREET AND CORNER RADII
Roadway Connections .............................................................107.1
ROADSIDE RESTS, SAFETY

Definition .................................................................................
62.5
....................................................................................................62.5
Aesthetic Factors .....................................................................
109.3
Facilities and Features ............................................................. 903.5
July 1. 1995
Fencing ..................................................................................... 903.5 Railings on Walls ..................................................................... 210.5

Grading .................................................................................... 903.5 Reviews ................................................................................... 110.7
Minimum Standards ................................................................. 903.1 Roadside Rests ......................................................................... 903
Pavement Design ..................................................................... 608.8 Worker ..................................................................................... 110.6
Planting and Irrigation ............................................................. 903.5 Worker, Falsework Clearance ............................................ 204.6
Site Feasibility .......................................................................... 903.4
SAFETY ROADSIDE RESTS
Size and Capacity .................................................................... 903.5
Definition ................................................................................. 62.5
Water Supply ........................................................................... 110.2
Water Supply ........................................................................... 706.4
Facilities and Features ............................................................. 903.5
Water Supply ........................................................................... 903.5
Fencing .....................................................................................903.5
ROADSIDE TREATMENT Grading .................................................................................... 903.5
Irrigation Crossover Conduits .................................................. 706.3 Minimum Standards ................................................................. 903.1
Topsoil ...................................................................................... 706.2 Planting and Irrigation ............................................................ 903.5
Vegetation Control ................................................................... 706.1 Site Feasibility .......................................................................... 903.4
Water Supply ........................................................................... 706.4 Size and Capacity .................................................................... 903.5
Sewage Facilities ..................................................................... 903.5
ROADWAY
Water Supply ........................................................................... 706.4
Definition ................................................................................. 62.1
Water Supply ........................................................................... 903.5
Connections .............................................................................. 107.1
Drainage .................................................................................. 830 SAG CULVERT
Structural Elements .................................................................. 601.3 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
....................................................................................................
829.7
ROCKFALL RESTRAINING NETS
.................................................................................................... 703.2 SALVAGE VALUE
....................................................................................................
609.3
ROUNDED INLET
also see LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS
Definition ..........................................................................806.2
SCENIC
ROUNDED LIP
Highway ...................................................................................62.3
values ......................................................................................
109
RRR CRITERIA Values. Safety Roadside Rests ................................................ 903.4
2-lane Cross Section ............................................................... 307.3
SCENIC VALUES IN PLANNING AND DESIGN
Design Period.............................................................................
103.2
....................................................................................................
109
Left-Turn Lanes ........................................................................405.2
Multilane Cross Section ............................................................. 307.6
Basic b p t s ......................................................................... 109.1
RUNNING Design Speed ...........................................................................109.2
Speed ........................................................................................
62.8
SCHOOL PEDESTRIAN WALKWAYS
Time .........................................................................................
62.8
....................................................................................................
105.1
RUNOFF SCOUR
....................................................................................................
816 Definition .............................................................................. 806.2
Drainage. Definition ................................................................
806.2 Definition .................................................................................
874
Superelevation Transition ........................................................202.5 ....................................................................................................
827.2
Factors Affecting ...................................................................
811.5
SEAL
RUlTING
Chip ..........................................................................................
611.9
....................................................................................................
61 1.6
Chip. Definition ........................................................................ 612
Definition .................................................................................
612
Coat, Definition ..................................................................612
Fog ............................................................................................
611.9
Fog. Definition ...................................................................612
S l u q ........................................................................................
611.9
Sluny. Definition ..................................................................... 612
SEDIMENTATION
Planting ..................................................................................... Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Planting and Inigation ............................................................. 902.1 Definition .................................................................................
874
July 1. 1995
Transition Slopes ......................................................................304.1

Widening ..................................................................................
304.3
.................................................................................................. 865.2
SIDEWALKS
SEPARATE ROADWAY see PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
.............................................................................................. 305.6 SIGHT DISTANCE
SEPARATION. OUTER Clear Distance (m) ...............................................................201.6
See OUTER SEPARATION Comer ......................................................................................
405.1
Decision ...................................................................................
201.7
SERVICE LWE
Design Drains. ........................................................................ 852.1 Decision at Intersections ......................................................405.1
Exit Nose ..................................................................................
504.2
SERVICEABILITY General ....................................................................................
201.1
D e f ~ t i o n............................................................................... 612 Headlight, at Grade Sags ......................................................... 201.5
Intersection ..............................................................................405.1
!!mmmmm Passing ......................................................................................
201.2
Definition .................................................................................
612
Planting .....................................................................................
902.2
SEVERANCEDAMAGES Ramp Intersections .................................................................. 504.3
....................................................................................................62.6 Standards ..................................................................................
201.1
Stopping ....................................................................................
201.3
SHALL
Stopping at Grade Crests .........................................................201.4
Definition and Usage ...............................................................82.1
Stopping at Grade Sags ............................................................ 201.5
SHEFFFLOW Stopping on Horizontal Curves ................................................ 201.6
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Stopping at Intersections .......................................................... 405.1
SHOALING SIGNALCONTROL
Definition
SHOULD
Definition and Usage
.................................................................................
806.2
............................................................... 82.1
....................................................................................................
SIGNALIZEDINTERSECTION
Widening ..................................................................................
405.9
403.9
a
SHOULDER SIGNS
Backing. Definition .................................................................. 612 Vertical Clearance ..................................................................
309.2
Cross Slope .............................................................................. 302.2
SILT
Definition .................................................................................62.1
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Standards .............................................................................302
Definition .................................................................................
874
Structural Design ..............................................................603.3
Structural Design ..................................................................... 607.4 SILTATION
Structural Design .................................................................. 607.5 ....................................................................................................
110.2
Structural Design ..................................................................... 608.5 SIPHONS
Superelevation Transitions ...................................................... 202.5 ....................................................................................................
829.7
Transitions (Widen. Reduction) ............................................... 206 SKEW
Width ........................................................................................
302.1 Definition (Hydraulic) ........................................................... 806.2
Width. Right Turn Channelization ...........................................405.3 Angle ........................................................................................
62.4
Width. Two-lane Roads. New Construction ..........................307.2 Angle of Intersection ............................................................... 403.3
SIDE GWERSO1TCHF.S SLIDE

....................................................................................................
303.2 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Definition .................................................................................
874
SIDESLOPES
....................................................................................................
304 SLIPOUT
Benches and Cut Widening ..................................................... 304.3 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
C l e m c e to Right of Way Line ...........................................304.2 Definition .................................................................................
874
Contow Grading and Slope Rounding .....................................304.4
SLOPE
Standards ..................................................................................
304.1
Stepped .....................................................................................
304.5
Cross .........................................................................................
301.2
Structures .................................................................................
208.5
Crown .......................................................................................
301.2
July 1. 1995
Definition (Hydraulic) .............................................................806.2 SPECIFlC ENERGY

Definition (Hydraulic) ............................................................. 874 Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Paving ....................................................................................873.3 ....................................................................................................
864.3
Protection .................................................................................
873.3
SPEED. COMFORTABLE
Shoulder Cross Slopes ..............................................................302.2
Superelevation .........................................................................
202.2
Side ...........................................................................................
304
Side. Benches and Cut Widening ............................................ 304.3 SPEED. DESIGN
Standards. Side Slopes ............................................................. 304.1 See DESIGN SPEED
Treatment Under Structures .................................................... 707
SPEED. RUNNING
SLOPE TREATMENT UNDER S T R U m Definition .................................................................................
62.8
....................................................................................................
707
SPEED-CHANGE LANES
Guidelines ................................................................................ 707.2
Policy ........................................................................................
707.1
Intersections .............................................................................
403.5
Procedure ................................................................................. 707.3
Right-turn Channelization ........................................................ 405.3
SLOTTED DRAINS Left-turn Channelization ......................................................... 405.2
..................................................................................................
837.2 Pavement Transitions ............................................................... 206
SLOUGH SPILLWAY
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Paved ........................................................................................
834.4
Definition .................................................................................
874
SPIRAL TRANSITIONS
SLUG FLOW ....................................................................................................
203.8
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
STABILIZATIONTRENCHES
SNOW PACK ....................................................................................................
841.5
STAGE
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
SOFFIT
STAGE CONsTRuCTION
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
....................................................................................................
106.1
SOIL Freeway Connections with Local Roads .................................106.2
Topsoil ......................................................................................
706.2
STANDARDS
SPACING ......................................................................................................
80
Drainage Pipes ......................................................................... 824.2 Advisory.......................................................................................82.1
Vehicle .....................................................................................
62.8 Approval for Nonstandard Design..............................................82.2
FHWA and AASHTO .................................................................82.3
SPALLING
Mandatory.................................................................................... 82.1
....................................................................................................
611.5
Permissive ....................................................................................82.1
Definition .................................................................................612
STATE HIGHWAY. CROSS SECTIONS
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
................................................................................................307
....................................................................................................
110
See also CROSS SECTIONS
Air Pollution. Control of ........................................................... 110.3
Earthquake Consideration .......................................................110.5 STEELSTRum
Overloaded Material Hauling. Design for .............................. 110.1 Colors .......................................................................................705.2
Safety Reviews ..................................................................110.7
Tdic Control Plans ............................................................... 110.6
Water Pollution. Control of ......................................................110.2
Wetlands Protection .................................................................110.4 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
See SIGHT DISTANCE
SPECIAL STRUCFURES AND INSTALLATION
July 1. 1995
STORAGE STRUCTURE APPROACH

................................................................................................838.4 Design Responsibilities ............................................................
610.2
Basin. Definition ...................................................................806.2 Foundation: Embankment Design .............................................610.4
Definition ................................................................................ 806.2 Pavement Systems ..................................................................610.3
Definition ................................................................................874 Slab-New Construction Projects .............................................. 610.4
Depression ...............................................................................819.2 Slab-Rehabilitation ...................................................................
611.8
Detention .................................................................................. 812.6 Slab-Rehabilitation Projects ..................................................... 610.5
Interception .............................................................................. 812.6
STP
Left-turns ................................................................................. 405.2
See SURFACE TRANSPORTATION PROGRAM
Retention. Definition ................................................................ 806.2
Right-turns ................................................................................ 405.3 STRUCTURES,SLOPE TREATMENT UNDER
See SLOPE TREATMENT
STORM
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 STRUlTING
Defmition .................................................................................
874 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Design. Establishing ................................................................. 818.2
.
Design Recommended Criteria .............................................. 821.2
SUBBASE
Aggregate ................................................................................ 605.2
Drain. Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Definition .................................................................................. 612
STREAM WATERS Stabilized .................................................................................. 605.4
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
SUBCRITICALFLOW
Definition .................................................................................
874
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
immns .................................................................................................... 864.3
Defmitions ................................................................................62.3
SUBDRAIN
STRESS ABSORBING MEMBRANE INTERLAYER Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Definition .................................................................................
612 ....................................................................................................
841.5
STRUCTURAL CLEARANCE SUBGRADE

....................................................................................................
309 Definition .................................................................................
612
Horizontal ................................................................................ 309.1
SUaSEAL
Elevated Structures ................................................................... 309.4
....................................................................................................
611.8
Railroad .................................................................................... 309.5
Tunnel ...................................................................................... 309.3 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
Vertical .................................................................................... 309.2 ....................................................................................................840
STRUCTURAL DESIGN SUMP
Pavement Section. of ...............................................................600 Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Asphalt Concrete Section ....................................................... 608 .................................................................................................... 831.3
Portland Cement Concrete Section .......................................... 607
SUPERCRITICALFLOW
STRUCTURAL NUMBER Definition ............................................................................. 806.2
Definition .................................................................................
612 ....................................................................................................
864.3
STRUCTURAL PLATE SUPERELEVATION

Arches ......................................................................................
854.6 Axis of Rotation ....................................................................... 202.4
Vehicular Underpasses ........................................................... 854.6 Basic Criteria ........................................................................... 202.1
Channels ................................................................................. 866.2
STRUCTURAL SECTION
City Street and County Roads ............................................... 202.7
Defmition .................................................................................
612
Comfortable Speeds ................................................................. 202.2
Drainage ..................................................................................
606
Compound Curves .................................................................... 202.6
Drainage System. Definition ................................................. 612
Ramps ................................................................................... 504.3
Flexible Pavement Drainage ................................................. 606.2
Reversing Curves ..................................................................... 203.6
Rigid Pavement Drainage ....................................................... 606.3
Relationship to Speed on Curves ......................................... 203.2
Runoff ..................................................................................... 202.5
Standards .................................................................................. 202.2
Transition ................................................................................. 202.5
July 1.1995
0 SURFACE
Attrition ....................................................................................
611.5
Index ........................................................................................
Interchanges ............................................................................
603.4
500
Attrition. Definition .................................................................. 612 Islands ......................................................................................
405.4
Course. Definition ..................................................................... 612 Lane .........................................................................................
62.1
Polish ........................................................................................611.5 Markings .................................................................................. 62.8
Polish. Definition ...................................................................... 612 Noise Abatement .................................................................... 1100
Recycle. Definition .................................................................. 612 Ramp Intersection Flow ........................................................... 406
Runoff. Definition .................................................................... 806.2 Sign ...........................................................................................
62.8
Water, Definition ..................................................................... 806.2 Signals ......................................................................................
62.8
Water ....................................................................................... 831.1 Volumes ................................................................................... 102.1
SURFACE TRANSPORTATION PROGRAM TRANSITIONS

......................................................................................................
43.1 General Standards, Pavement ..................................................206.1
Lane Additions ........................................................................ 206.2
SWALE
Lane Drops ..............................................................................206.3
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
Pavement ..................................................................................
206
Spiral ........................................................................................
203.8
Superelevation ......................................................................... 202.5
Temporary Freeway ................................................................ 206.4
TACK COAT TRANSPIRATION

Definition .................................................................................
612 ....................................................................................................
812.8
....................................................................................................
819.2
TANDEM AXLE LOAD
Definition .................................................................................
612 TRASH RACK
Defmition .................................................................................806.2
TAPERED INLEX
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
....................................................................................................
826.4 TRAVELED WAY
....................................................................................................
62.1
THREE-CENTER CURVE Standards ................................................................................. 301
Intersections .............................................................................
405.7
TREES
TIME OF CONCENTRATION Conventional Highways ...........................................................
902.3
Channel Flow ...........................................................................
816.6 Freeways and Expressways .................................................... 902.2
Combined Flow ........................................................................ 816.6
Culvert Flow .............................................................................
816.6 TRUCK
Kinematic Wave Equation ......................................................816.6 Critical Lengths of Grade ........................................................204.5
Kirpich Equation ......................................................................816.6 Design Vehicle ........................................................................ 404.2
Overland Equation .............................................................816.6 Escape Ramps .......................................................................... 702.1
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Equation ..............................816.6 Turning Templates ...............................................................407
Upland Method ........................................................................ 816.6 Turns ........................................................................................
404.3
Weighing Facilities .................................................................. 703.1
TOLL ROAD. BRIDGE OR TUNNEL
....................................................................................................
62.3 TRUMPET INTERCHANGE
TOPSOIL
Roadside Treatment .................................................................
706.2 TRUNK LINE
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
TRAILS ....................................................................................................
838.4
Multipurpose ..........................................................................
1003.5
TUNNEL
TRAFFIC Classification ............................................................................
829.8
Control Devices ....................................................................... 62.8 Clearances ...............................................................................
309.3
Control Devices .......................................................................403.10 Liner Plate ................................................................................
854.6
Control Plans. Special Problems .............................................. 110.6
0 Definitions ................................................................................
Handling and Safety ..........................................................611.10
62.8
Projects .....................................................................................
TURBULENCE
829.8
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
July 1. 1995
Defmition ............................................................................ 874 UNDIVIDED HIGHJVAYS

Axis of Rotation .......................................................................
202.4
T U R B ~ F L O W
Grade Line ...............................................................................
204.2
Dcfmition ................................................................................. 806.2
UTIllTIES
TURNINGLANES
at Walls
Left-turn Channelization ......................................................... 405.2
Right-turn Channelization ........................................................405.3
Scparatc .................................................................................. 62.1
Traffic .................................................................................. 403.6
Two-way Left-turn ...............................................................405.2
TURNING RADIUS VALUE ANALYSIS

Minimum ............................................................................. 62.4 ....................................................................................................
110.8
VEGETATIVE EROSION CONTROL

....................................................................................................404.3 ....................................................................................................
62.5
Tmck and Bus .....................................................................407
VELOCITYHEAD
Definition .................................................................................
806.2
TURNS. PROHIBITED VERTICAL CLEARANCE

Inter6cctions .............................................................................
403.8 See CLEARANCES
TWO-QUADRANT CLOVERLEAFINTERCHANGE VERTICAL CURVES
....................................................................................................
502.2 ....................................................................................................
204.4
TWO-LANE CROSS SECIlONS See also SIGHT DISTANCE
New Constmction ...................................................................
307.2 VISTA POINTS
RRR Projects ...........................................................................
307.3 ....................................................................................................
62.5
TWO-WAY LJCFl'-TURN LANES Aesthetic Factors .................................................................... 109.3
....................................................................................................
405.2 Design Standards ..................................................................... 904
Features and Facilities ........................................................... 904.3
General .................................................................................... 904.1
Minimum Standards ................................................................ 904.1
Site Selection ........................................................................... 904.2
Water Supply ........................................................................... 706.4
UNDERCUT
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 VOLUME
Definition .................................................................................
874 ....................................................................................................
62.8
....................................................................................................
865.2 Design Hourly Volume ............................................................ 103.1
Design Volume ........................................................................ 62.8
UNDERDRAINS
Design Criteria ......................................................................... 842.4
Installations ..............................................................................
842.2
Opcn Joint ............................................................................842.5
Perforated Pipe ........................................................................ 842.5
Pipe ....................................................................................842.5 WALKWAYS
Selection of Type ..................................................................... 842.7 See PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
Service Life ...................................................................... 842.6
UNDERFLOW WALLS
Definition .................................................................................
806.2 Head ........................................................................................
826.3
UNDERPASS WALLS. RETAINING

.
Railroad Grade Line ............................................................... 204.6 ....................................................................................................
Bulkhead ..................................................................................
210
Railroad.....................................................................................
208.9 210.1
Cantilever ................................................................................. 210.1
Counterfort ............................................................................... 2 10.1
July 1. 1995
Crib. Metal and Concrete ........................................................

210.1 Water. Abandonment ..............................................................
Gravity .....................................................................................210.1 WHEELCHAIR RAMPS

L-Type ..................................................................................... 210.1 Guidelines for Location and Design ....................................... 105.4
Masonry ................................................................................... 210.1 Policy and Procedure ...............................................................
105.3
Mechanically Stabilized ....................................................... 210.1
WIDENING
Proprietary ............................................................................. 210.1
Signalized Intersections ........................................................... 405.9
Reinforced Earth ..................................................................... 210.1
Ramps. for Trucks ...................................................................504.3
Safety Railings ......................................................................... 210.5
Slope Benches and Cut Widening ........................................... 304.3
Timber .................................................................................... 210.1
Pavement ...................................................................................206.2
Utilities .....................................................................................210.7
WIDTH
WATER
Driveway. Access Openings on Expressways ....................... 205.1
Course, Definition .................................................................. 806.2
Driveway. Urban .....................................................................205.3
Definition ................................................................................. 874
Lane ......................................................................................... 301.1
Pollution, Control of ................................................................. 110.2
Lane. on Curves ....................................................................... 504.3
Quality Control Boards ....................................................... 110.2
Lefi Turn Lanes ....................................................................... 405.2
Shed .......................................................................................... 819.2
Median ..................................................................................... 305.1
Table. Definition ...................................................................... 806.2
Opening for Falsework ............................................................ 204.6
Way. Definition ....................................................................... 806.2
Pavement .................................................................................. 301.1
Way. Definition ....................................................................... 874
Right of Way ............................................................................ 306
Wells. Abandonment ........................................................... 110.2
Shoulder ................................................................................... 302.1
WATER SUPPLY Structures ................................................................................. 208.1
Roadside Rests ......................................................................... 903.5
Roadside Rests and Landscaping ............................................ 706.4
Vista Points ............................................................................... 706.4 Y
WAVE
Height ....................................................................................... 873.2
Run-up ...................................................................................... 873.2 YARDS
Maintenance ............................................................................ 107.2
WEARING COURSE Plant Sites. Contractors ............................................................ 112
Definition ................................................................................. 612
WEATHERING
.................................................................................................... 61 1.6
Definition ................................................................................. 612
WEAVING
.................................................................................................... 62.8
Sections .................................................................................... 62.4
Sections. Interchange .............................................................. 504.7
WEEPHOLES
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2
Definition ................................................................................. 874
WEIGHING FACILITIES
Truck ........................................................................................ 703.1
WEIR
Definition ................................................................................. 806.2

HDM Complete 19950701 5th Ed

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CALIFORNIA

SUWECT AREA ISSUING UNIT S fate and Local Project

Highway Design - Various Development Program /Office of

General Changes Throughout Manual

Reference to the 1985 version of the Transportation Research Board's "Highway

Specific Changes to Indexes

Information pertaining to the Geotechnical Design Report has been incorporated

Index 1003.1(8) - The discussion on horizontal alignment and superelevationwas

Index 1003.5 - This section on multipurpose trails was completely rewritten.

Multiplication Factors Prefix Symbol Pronunciations

Common Conversion Factors to Metric

Land Surveying Conversion Factors

62.6 Rightofway July 1, 1995

62.7 Structural Design of the Roadbed July 1, 1995

101.2 Design Speed Standards July 1, 1995

102.2 References 100-3 July 1, 1995

103.2 Design Period July 1, 1995

104.2 Access Openings 100-3 July 1, 1995

104.3 Frontage Roads 100-4 July 1, 1995

104.4 Protection of Access Rights 100-4 July 1, 1995

104.5 Relation of Access Opening to a Median Opening 100-5 July 1, 1995

104.6 Cross References 100-5 July 1, 1995

105.2 Pedestrian Grade Separations July 1, 1995

105.3 Accessibility Requirements July 1, 1995

106.1 Stage Construction 100-9 July 1, 1995

106.2 Utilization of Local Roads 100-9 July 1, 1995

107 Roadside Installations

1 1 1.3 Materials Information Furnished to Prospective 100-27 July 1, 1995

1 1 3.3 Submittal and Review 100-30 July 1, 1995

202.2 Standards for Superelevation July 1, 1995

202.3 Restrictive Conditions July 1, 1995

202.4 Axis of Rotation July 1, 1995

202.5 Superelevation Transition July 1, 1995

202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves July 1, 1995

202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and County Roads July 1, 1995

203 Horizontal Alignment

203.2 Standards for Curvature July 1, 1995

203.3 Alignment Consistency July 1, 1995

203.4 Curve Length and Central Angle July 1, 1995

203.5 Compound Curves July 1, 1995

203.6 Reversing Curves July 1, 1995

203.7 Broken Back Curves July 1, 1995

203.8 Spiral Transition July 1, 1995

203.9 Alignment at Bridges July 1, 1995

204.2 Position with Respect to Cross Section July 1, 1995

204.3 Standards for Grade July 1, 1995

204.4 Vertical Curves July 1, 1995

204.5 Sustained Grades July 1, 1995

204.6 Grade Line of Structures July 1, 1995

204.7 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment July 1, 1995

204.8 Separate Grade Lines July 1, 1995

207.1 Introduction July 1, 1995

208.1 0 Bridge Railings

209 Curbs and Gutters

209.4 Curbs on Frontage Roads and Streets 200-49 July 1, 1995

209.6 Gutter Cross Slopes 200-49 July 1, 1995

210 Earth Retaining Systems

2 10.2 Alternative Earth Retaining Systems (AERS) 200-54 July 1, 1995

2 10.3 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposals (CRIP) 200-55 July 1, 1995

2 10.4 Aesthetic Consideration 200-55 July 1, 1995

30 1.2 Cross Slopes 300-1 July 1, 1995

302 Shoulder Standards

302.2 Cross Slopes 300- 1 July 1, 1995