6.

2 Post-Processes

The most significant concern with metal AM is that the produced part can have some

internal defects, such as pores, cracks, residual stress. Another concern is the rough surface.

Therefore, it essential to apply one or more post-processing methods. In terms of a connecting

rod, internal defects could cause the rod to crack and result in catastrophic failure. This section

will discuss two post-processing methods that could prevent the rod from cracking due to print

defects.

6.2.1 Hot Isostatic Pressure

Hot isostatic pressure (HIP) is a post-process used for metal AM, and regardless of the

method used to manufacture, EBM or SLM, the part will benefit significantly from the treatment.

According to Quintus Technologies, one of the leaders of HIP systems, HIP can achieve 100% of

maximum theoretical density and improve the ductility and fatigue resistance of critical, high-

performance materials [24].

The AM part is placed inside a pressure vessel, as illustrated in Figure 90. The pressure

vessel is filled with inert gas, typically argon, and heated up to a temperature of 2000oC

depending on the material. Once the desired temperature is obtained, the vessel is pressurized,

pressure ranges from 1035 bar to 2070 bar, and held under these conditions to a set period of

time. The HIP process will increase ductility and fatigue life [24].

The key to fully utilize all the opportunities that metal AM has to offer, it is crucial to

attaining a proper microstructure. A study performed by the Barnes group in co-operation with

Quintus Technologies [26] determined that using modern HIP equipment would result in a finer

and more consistent microstructure.

69
FIGURE 90. Illustration of HIP process where printed part is placed in the middle [25].

The study was based on AM test specimens in Ti-6Al4V, which is a common material in

the aerospace industry. The build was completed in 12 hours using a Renishaw 500Q system

with a layer thickness of 60 µm. [26] The heat treatment parameters used in the study are

presented in Figure 91.

FIGURE 91. Heat treatment parameters for Ti-6Al-4V [26].

The study determined that conventional HIP enlarges the grains, which would result in a

loss of static properties. However, with a combined cycle stress relief, HIP, and controlled

cooling rate, the grain growth could be controlled. The different microstructures are displayed in

Figure 92 with (a) after AM process, (b) after conventional HIP, (c) combined cycle HIP, and (d)

conventional HIP and annealed.

70
FIGURE 92. Ti-6Al-4V microstructures (a) As built, (b) conventional HIP, (c) combined
cycle HIP and (d) conventional HIP and annealed [26].

Being able to utilize this method with controlled grain structure and achieve close to

100% density would significantly enhance the properties of a connecting rod. The delicate

balance between stiffness and ductility is required not to fail under the cycles.

6.2.2 Shot Peening

One drawback of AM materials is that the fatigue strength is less due to surface

roughness in comparison to billet materials. Various forms of shoot peening have shown a

significant improvement of the surface roughness. A few different types of peening are available,

but shot peening would be most suitable for the AM connecting rod. To avoid dust forming

during shot peening, the shots are circulated in water. A typical shot peening apparatus can be

seen in Figure 93 [27].

FIGURE 93. Illustration of shot peening machine [27].

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 A research study performed by Hitoshi Soyama and Yuya Okura at Tohoku University,

Japan demonstrated that the fatigue strength of Ti6Al4V was doubled by shot peening, when the

thickness including the surface roughness was used to calculate the bending stress [28].

The study was performed using a circulating shot peening machine on EBM printed Ti6Al4V

material. In Figures 94-96 can be seen some results of the analysis. Figure 97 shows surface

cracks during fatigue testing [27].

FIGURE 94. Surface on non-peened test specimen [27].

FIGURE 95. Surface on shot peened test specimen [27].

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FIGURE 96. Comparison of the improvements made in the fatigue strength of Ti6Al4V
manufactured by EBM by the various peening methods [27].

FIGURE 97. Surface cracks during fatigue tests [27].

73
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

7.1 Discussion

This study focused on reducing the mass of a connecting rod from a 1957 Chevrolet 283

cubic inches V8 engine, specifications listed in Table 1. Engine Analyzer Pro software was used

to determine important engine parameters used for BCs calculations. The original connecting rod

was modeled in Solidworks 2018 and assigned a generic material, AISI 1045 cold drawn, for

design analysis purposes.

The BCs, 48 kN in compression, 32 kN in tension, and 2 kN in bending, were used in

FEA studies in Solidworks 2018 to obtain baseline values of the original connecting rod.

The design space of the connecting rod was maximized based on clearance inside the crankcase,

and Altair Inspire software was used for TO, where optimum density distribution was obtained

by maximizing stiffness. See Figures 98 and 99 for maximized design and TO result.

FIGURE 98. Maximized design space of original connecting rod.

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FIGURE 99. TO result based on maximized stiffness.

An optimized connecting rod was modeled in Solidworks 2018 based on TO and general

metal AM guidelines. A comparison between the original connecting rod and the optimized

connecting rod can be seen in Figures 100 and 101.

FIGURE 100. CAD model of Chevrolet connecting rod modeled in Solidworks 2018.

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FIGURE 101: Optimized design of connecting rod modeled in Solidworks 2018.

FEA study was performed on the optimized connecting rod with the BCs mentioned

previously. FEA results were analyzed and discussed in detail in section 5.2.

Lastly, the optimized connecting rod was compared to design trends among high-

performance connecting rods to evaluate trend similarities.

The optimized design resulted in a mass decrease of 8.13% without compromised

strength. The results were validated based on FEA studies performed on the original and the

optimized connecting rod design. The overall trend for the optimized connecting rod was a lower

and more uniform distribution of Von Mises stress, displacement, and ESTRN.

Figures 102 and 103 show a sample from the FEA used for evaluation. For a complete

comparison of FEA results, refer to section 5.2.

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FIGURE 102. Von Mises stress on original design in compression

FIGURE 103. Von Mises stress on optimized design in compression.

77
 7.2 Future Work

The next step in the design process is to use the SLM process to manufacture models of

original design and the optimized design in the materials listed in Table 7 and evaluate design

concept via mechanical testing. A test fixture, to fix the big end, and a fixture to apply load

inside the small end has to be designed and fabricated. The loads for mechanical testing should

be based on a BCs calculated in chapter 3.

Mechanical testing should be performed on three different AM connecting rods for each

material. One test on AM rod without post-treatment, one test on AM rod after HIP treatment,

and another test where HIP treatment is combined with shot peening. Results will be analyzed,

and steps towards design improvements will be taken as necessary.

With a constantly evolving market for metal AM system, AM material, and software,

there is great potential to use AM as an alternative manufacturing method for connecting rod

fabrication. An Italian manufacturing company, Streparava, used AM to fabricate an optimized

connecting rod [26]. The AM manufactured connecting rod by Strearrava is shown in Figure

104.

FIGURE 104. Strepavara designed and AM connecting rod [28].

78
 The main purpose of a race car engineer is to save weight and push the limits beyond

what is possible, so it is just a matter of time until the first AM connecting rod transfers the gas

force from the piston to the crankshaft in a winning race car.

79
APPENDICES

80
 APPENDIX A

SOLIDWORKS SIMULATION ANALYSIS RESULTS ON ORIGINAL CONNECTING

ROD DESIGN

81
FEA of original connecting rod design
Assumptions used for three loading conditions: compression loading, tension loading, and
bending loading were analyzed:

82
FEA study properties used for the three loading conditions:

Units used in the FEA of the three loading conditions:

83
Material properties used for the three loading conditions:

The big end was fixed for all three loading conditions:

84
Mesh information about the mesh used in the three loading conditions:

Illustration of the meshed part using the mesh details shown above:

85
Load details for FEA of compression loading:

Resultant forces used in FEA of compression loading:

Von Mises stress result from compression loading:

86
Displacement result from compression loading:

ESTRN result from compression loading:

87
Load details for FEA of compression loading:

Resultant forces used in FEA of tension loading:

Von Mises stress result from tension loading:

88