Module 7.

Oil Crop: An Outlook of Sunflower

(Helianthus annuus)

INTRODUCTION

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is a most important oil crop in world. Sunflower oil is used as a substitute for mineral
oil in various applications such as fuel or an oil for hydraulic system. It is an important oil seed crop. Oil content ranges from 46-
52 per cent and is of high quality having non-cholesterol properties. Two types of sunflowers can be produced: oilseed and non-
oilseed. The oilseed hybrids are black-seeded and have a thin hull that adheres to the kernel. This type of sunflower is used in
oilseed production. The non-oilseed type (confectionary sunflower) is used in food products and snacks. The seeds of
confectionary sunflowers are larger than that of the oilseed type and they are black and white striped.

Sunflowers are native primarily to North and South America, and some species are cultivated as ornamentals for their
spectacular size and flower heads and for their edible seeds. The common sunflower is valuable from an economic as well as
from an ornamental point of view. The leaves are used as fodder, the flowers yield a yellow dye, and the seeds contain oil and
are used for food.

One of the main commodities that can be produced from sunflower seeds is sunflower seed oil, which is a popular
cooking oil. In addition to being the world’s leading producer of sunflower seeds, Ukraine also exports the highest volume of
sunflower seed oil of any country. In the United States, domestic consumption of sunflower seed oil was increasing between
2015 and 2017 but dropped in consumption volume in 2018.

OBJECTIVES:

 To determine the importance and benefits of sunflower.

 To determine the different varieties of sunflower.

CONTENT

Botanical Classification

Scientific name: Helianthus annuus

Common name: Sunflower

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Spermatophyta

Subphylum: Angiospermae

Class: Dicotyledonae

Order: Asterales Figure 7-1. Sunflowers in a crop-field.

Family: Asteraceae Source: John Misachi April 25 2017. shorturl.at/eTZ68

Genus: Helianthus

Species: annuus

Domain: Eukaryota
History of Sunflower Crop

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is one of the few crop species that originated in North America (most originated in
the Fertile Crescent, Asia or South or Central America). It was probably a "camp follower" of several of the western Native
American tribes who domesticated the crop (possibly 1000 BC) and then carried it eastward and southward of North America.

Sunflower was probably first introduced to Europe through Spain and spread through Europe as a curiosity until it
reached Russia where it was readily adapted. Selection for high oil in Russia began in 1860 and was largely responsible for
increasing oil content from 28% to almost 50%. The high-oil lines from Russia were reintroduced into the U.S. after World War
II, which rekindled interest in the crop. Production of sunflowers subsequently rose dramatically in the Great Plains states as
marketers found new niches for the seeds as an oil crop, a birdseed crop, and as a human snack food. Production in these
regions in the 1980s has declined mostly because of low prices, but also due to disease, insect and bird problems. Sunflower
acreage is now moving westward into dryer regions; however, 85% of the North American sunflower seed is still produced in
North and South Dakota and Minnesota.

Origin and Distribution

The genus name for sunflower is derived from the Greek Helios, meaning “sun” and anthos, meaning “flower”.
Sunflower turn with the sun until anthesis after which the heads face east.

According to Heifer et al (1969), sunflower is a native of southern USA and Mexico from where it was taken to Spain
before the middle of sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, cultivation of sunflower as an oilseed crop began in USSR and
the majority of present day varieties grown all over the world trace back their origin to the USSR. The major sunflower
producing countries are USSR, Argentina, Bulgaria, Rumania, Turkey and South America.

Sunflower (Helianthus annus), which used to be an ornamental plant in India, has in recent times become an
important source of edible oil. As a forage crop, sunflower is fed green or converted into silage in western countries. Globally,
sunflower ranks second to soybean among annual field crops grown for edible oil. The quantity of sunflower oil represents
about 15 per cent of the total world production of the major vegetable oils.

Sunflower seeds are one of the most nutritious and healthy foods. Sunflower is described as “drenched with sun-
vitality” because the head follows the sun, ending up facing the west “to absorb the few last rays of the dying sun”. Sunflower
as an oilseed is a newly introduced crop in the country. This crop has gained importance due to its short duration of maturity,
containing of excellent quality of oil, photo- insensitivity, wide adaptability into different kinds of cropping pattern, high-energy
hull and drought tolerance. It is a short duration crop and can be incorporated in different type of cropping pattern. Sunflower
is grown as intercrop with crops such as groundnut, pigeonpea, castor, soybean etc. Since it is a photoinsensitive crop, it can be
grown throughout the year. Oil cake is rich in high quality protein (40-44%) and used as cattle and poultry feed. This crop is
considered valuable from economic as well as ornamental point of view.

Production and Utilization

Sunflower is native to North America but commercialization of the plant took place in Russia. Sunflower oil is the
preferred oil in most of Europe, Mexico and several South American countries.

Ukraine and Russia remain the top sunflower seed producers in the world. They produce almost half of the world
sunflower seeds. Ukraine produced 11 million tons of Sunflower seeds accounting for 24.8% of the world’s production while
Russia produced 10.6 million tons in 2013 accounting for 23.7% of the world’s production. Argentina, China, Romania, Bulgaria,
and Tanzania are also major producers of sunflower seeds in the world. The world sunflower seed production totalled 44.5
million tons in 2013 (Figure 1.2). These countries/areas of the world produced in 2019 about 86% of the world’s oilseed and
nonoilseed sunflower.

Ukraine and Russia remain the top sunflower seed producers in the world. They produce almost half of the world
sunflower seeds. Ukraine produced 11 million tons of Sunflower seeds accounting for 24.8% of the world’s production while
Russia produced 10.6 million tons in 2013 accounting for 23.7% of the world’s production. Argentina, China, Romania, Bulgaria,
and Tanzania are also major producers of sunflower seeds in the world. The world sunflower seed production totalled 44.5
million tons in 2013 (Figure 1.2). These countries/areas of the world produced in 2019 about 86% of the world’s oilseed and
nonoilseed sunflower.

Figure 7-2. The Top Sunflower Seed Producing Countries in the World

Rank Country Production (millions of tonnes)

1 Ukraine 11.0

2 Russia 10.6

3 Argentina 3.1

4 China 2.4

5 Romania 2.1

6 World total 44.5

Source: John Misachi April 25 2017. shorturl.at/eTZ68

Sunflower Fields in the Philippines

 Mariano’s Blooming Agri-Tourism Park — Tupi, South Cotabato

- 13-hectare plantation in Tupi, which is known as the fruit, vegetable, and flower basket of South Cotabato.
 Sunflower Camp at Tayug Ecopark — Tayug, Pangasinan
 Sunshine Farm — Tiaong, Quezon
- The Sunshine Farm is not just a stunning tourist spot — it’s also a beautiful symbol of hope. Known to empower
persons with disabilities by providing them with livelihood opportunities, this flower farm in the Philippines is run by
advocates for inclusivity and diversity.
 Julyan’s Farm — San Narciso, Zambales
- An advocate for those with special needs, Rachel Harrison first put up Julyan’s Farm for her son Julyan, who was
diagnosed with autism at two years old. Farming proved to be therapeutic for Julyan, and this later inspired Harrisson
to open the farm to the public; this way, she could help employ and empower those living with learning and
developmental disabilities.

Uses of Sunflower

The sunflower is native to North America and was used by the Indians for food and oil. Some farmers use it to feed
their livestock. Sunflower seeds are typically used to make oil, bird seed and for snacking. They have lots of calcium and 11
other important minerals.

 Human use

Sunflower oil has become the world's second most important vegetable oil and is used for cooking and to make
margarine, salad dressing, lubricants, paints and soaps. Sunflower oil is considered a premium oil due to its light colour, low
level of saturated fats, mild flavour, good taste and ability to be used at high cooking temperatures. Oil content of the seed
varies from 25 to 65%. Oil composition depends on temperature and can be 20-60% linoleic acid and 25-65% oleic acid, protein
content is 15-20%. Sunflower oil is mainly used for food purposes. Inferior grades of oil are used for the production of paint,
varnish and soap. The remaining material after oil extraction has a protein content of 28-45% and is used as cattle feed.
 Native Americans used sunflower plants for treating a variety of ailments. Dakota Indians made a broth of sunflower
heads for a drink to relieve chest pains. Pueblo Indians of the Southwest USA used plant parts to cure rattlesnake and spider
bites as well as for healing cuts and other wounds. More recent folk and herbal medicine uses include the control of pain,
inflammation, coughs and a host of other remedies. Hopi Indians in the USA still grow a particular variety of single-headed
sunflower that is tall, slender with dark leaves, and has a thin, dark purple seed that requires a longer growing season to mature
than other local varieties. This sunflower is prized for the brilliant blue, purple, black or red dye that is made from the hulls and
used to dye wool, cotton and baskets, as well as for making ceremonial body paint.

 Animal use

The non-dehulled or partly dehulled sunflower meal can be used for ruminant animals, pigs and poultry feeds
because of its high protein percentage (28–42). Sunflower can be used as silage for animal feeds. Sunflower silage is richer in
nutrients than corn but lower than alfalfa hay. Industrial use. It can be used in certain paints, varnishes and plastics because of
good semi-drying properties without colour modification associated with oils high in linolenic acid. It can be also used to
manufacture soaps and detergents. Sunflower is sometimes grown as a silage crop as feed for livestock, when the crop has to
be harvested when half of the flowering head of the plant has mature seeds. Seeds contain 20-40% protein and 40-65% oil,
comprising up to 80% linoleic acid (C18:2). As well as extraction of edible oil, seeds can be eaten raw or as salted or toasted
snacks, and ground into a meal for using in bread and cakes, or they can be used as birdseed. Sunflowers are also used as an
industrial raw material (oil, cellulose), or for poultry and animal feeds (seeds, pressing residues, green material).

 Other industrial use

It includes production of agrichemicals or pesticides, surfactants, adhesives, fabric softeners, lubricants and coatings.
A future high-potential use will be on diesel engines as the world is striving for a non-polluted environment.

Botanical Description

Botany of the Plant

The cultivated sunflower is an erect, hardy, often unbranched, coarse, stout-stemmed annual herb, with a varying
height up to 4 m. The stem is robust, circular in section, 3-6 cm in diameter, curved below the head, and woody when mature. It
is filled with white pith that often becomes hollow with age. The root is a taproot, which can penetrate the soil to a depth of
about 3 m, with a large lateral spread of surface roots; however, most of the roots generally remain in the first 50 cm. Leaves
are usually alternate (lower leaves opposite), ovate, cordate, with three main veins, 10-30 cm long, 5-20 cm wide, margin
serrate, and carried on long petioles. The colour of the leaves is usually dark green. Lower leaves are larger, broadly ovate or
heart-shaped, and attach individually or in pairs. The base of the leaf blade is recurved as it joins a prominent petiole. Teeth on
leaf margins range from inconspicuous to clearly present. Upper leaves are smaller, broadly lance-shaped or ovate, and attach
individually to the stem.

The flowering head is heliotropic (rotating to face the sun). Flowering heads have 16-30, yellow to gold, ray flowers
surrounding a large central disc, and may reach up to 3.5 cm in diameter. Tall, ornamental cultivars have more numerous
smaller flowers, whereas cultivars for oil extraction are shorter and have a single flower head. Disc flowers are dark brown to
purple. Involucral bracts are broadly ovate, with tips drawn out to a fine point. The disc-shaped flowering head is borne
terminally on the main stem, 10-50 cm in diameter, sometimes drooping, and containing 800-8000 bisexual florets. Around the
margin of the head there are individual ray flowers, which are sterile, brightly coloured, usually yellow, but varying from deep
yellow to red. The brown or purplish disc florets are spirally arranged, flowering from the outer to the centre. The ovary is
inferior with a single basal ovule. Fruits are dry, indehiscent achenes, variable in colour (white, brown, black, or often dark with
white stripes). Seed is compressed, flattened oblong, the top truncated and base pointed, 10-25 mm long, 7-15 mm wide. The
1000-kernel weight varies from 50 g to many times this.
Crop Varieties

There are over 70 types of cultivars in the genus Sunflower. For easy identification, divided into 3 varieties of
sunflower namely, giant sunflower, dwarf sunflower, and colored sunflowers.

Tall Sunflowers

Here is a list of the most popular types of sunflowers in the tall variety:

Russian Mammoth - This sunflower can grow up to 12 feet height and is used in a lot of county fairs and flower shows because
of its size and effortless ability to grow. As the name, Russian Mammoth has a huge flower size, which is about 20-30 cm with a
golden yellow petal and a dark brown in the middle. The sturdy stem supported charm of the Russian Mammoth Sunflower can
attract the attention of birds, bees, and also butterflies.

Skyscraper – One of the largest sunflowers available producing massive 12-14ft plus plants with large bright yellow flower
heads up to 40cm across.

Schweinitz’s Sunflower (Helianthus schweinitzii) - This sunflower species is one of the rarest in America. It has an average
height of 6.5 feet, but can grow up to 16 feet tall.

American Giant - These sunflowers can reach maximum height at 15 feet and a face that grows to one foot in width, it is no
wonder they call this one the American Giant.

Sunforest Mix - This sunflowers height can get anywhere between 10-15 feet high and 40 inches across.

Dwarf Sunflowers

Dwarf sunflowers are a type of sunflower that grows to heights of only three feet or smaller! Here is a list of the most popular
sunflowers in the dwarf variety:

Suntastic Yellow - The Suntastic Yellow likes to grow in packs of about five or eight and grow to be only 20 inches tall. Perfect
for bouquets or gardens.

Sunny Smile - Ranging from 12 to 15 inches tall, the Sunny Smile has sturdy stalks that make them great when gardening with
children or pets.

Sundance Kid - Sundance kid will produce double, yellow blooms with deep, rustic orange centers. Growing to a short height of
only 1 to 2 ft. tall, this sunflower will make a great addition to your low growing flower beds. Makes an excellent cut flower for
bouquets and floral arrangements as well.

Pacino - Also known as the “dwarf pacino gold,” this sunflower usually grows to be about 12 to 16 inches with a maximum
height of two feet.

Little Becka - The average height of this sunflower between 1 to 2 feet high and looks great when wanting to add a splash of
color to your garden.

Elf Sunflower - The Elf sunflower is amongst the smallest dwarf varieties of Helianthus, 14-16 inches.

Helianthus cusickii “Cusick’s Sunflower” – The Cusick’s sunflower is commonly grown for its edible roots, 1-4 ft. flower height.

Helianthus radula “Rayless Sunflower” - This might be the funkiest sunflower on the list because it doesn’t look anything like a
sunflower! The flower itself is one of the darkest sunflowers, typically dark red wine color and brown, and the petals are mostly
small and retracted, 1-2 ft. flower height.

Colored Sunflowers

From creamy custard to deep red wine, here is a list of the most popular sunflowers of the colored variety:
Chianti - The Chianti is one of the darkest sunflowers because of the deep red wine color of its petals and face, 4 – 5ft.

Moulin Rouge - Arguably one of the most unique colored sunflowers because of its consistent color and extravagant burgundy
red petals, 60 - 80 inches.

Earthwalker - The Earthwalker possesses dark earthy hues that can range from golds and reds to browns, 7 – 9ft.

Ms. Mars - This gorgeous flower has red to purple hues that transform to subtle yellow on the tips, 20 – 30 inches.

Terracotta - The Terracotta possesses more brown colors than other sunflowers which make it ideal for fall displays.

Others:

Strawberry Blonde – This is one of several sunflower types that is deer-resistant, 5 – 6ft. flower height.

Italian White – These sunflowers are unique because of their white flower petals. These off-yellow sunflowers often have a
tinge of orange around their centers, but they have predominantly white petals, 5-7 ft. flower height.

Teddy Bear – The flowers of the Teddy Bear hybrid are very distinct. They look like small, yellow petals that look like puffballs,
4-5 ft. flower height.

These flowers all fall within the same family, but they are different species.

Helianthus tuberosus “Jerusalem Artichoke” - The Jerusalem is loved because it is so easy to grow – but the flip side is that it
can be hard to remove, 6-10 ft. flower height.

Helianthus giganteus “Giant Sunflowers” - Careful when planting giant sunflowers! They are a great groundcover plant and will
spread very quickly, 4-10 ft. flower height.

Helianthus maximiliani “Maximilian Sunflower” - The mature size of the Maximilian sunflower will drastically depend on local
conditions, humidity, soil pH, and nutrients, 3-10 ft. flower height.

Helianthus angustifolius “Swamp Sunflower” - Unlike most sunflowers, the Swamp sunflower thrives in wet soil conditions. It is
a good choice for humid areas in the upper hardiness zones, up to 8 ft. flower height.

Helianthus argophyllus “Silverleaf Sunflower” - The Silverleaf can grow in most hardiness zones, but it will reach its full height
potential in the upper parts of its range (9-11).

Helianthus atrorubens “Appalachian Sunflower” - While less picturesque than some other species on this list, the Appalachian
sunflower makes for great groundcover that won’t be quite as dominating as some other Helianthus species, 3-4 ft. flower
height.

Helianthus carnosus “Lakeside Sunflower” - Similar to the Swamp sunflower, the Lakeside grows best in hot, humid, wet soil
conditions. The Lakeside typically blooms in early fall, 2-3 ft. flower height.

Helianthus gracilentus “Slender Sunflower” - The Slender sunflower is just that – slender. It is prized for its tiny yet brilliantly
colored petals, 2-7 ft. flower height.

Helianthus laciniatus “Alkali Sunflower” - The Alkali sunflower is unique in that it grows fairly well in the Chihuahuan Desert, 3-
5 ft. flower height.

Helianthus neglectus “Neglected Sunflower” - The Neglected sunflower is relatively rare and grows well on sandy hillsides in
New Mexico and Texas, 3-6 ft. flower height.

Helianthus niveus “Showy Sunflower” - The Showy sunflower is rather small and its petals are covered in a short, soft fuzz, 3-5
ft. flower height.

Helianthus occidentalis “Western Sunflower” - The Western sunflower is a bit of a misnomer as it grows particularly well in the
cooler regions of the upper Midwest, 1-4 ft. flower height.
Helianthus paradoxus “Pecos Sunflower” - While the Pecos sunflower is relatively moderate in its height, the petals can be
extremely small – sometimes only an inch long, 2-4 ft. flower height.

Helianthus pauciflorus “Stiff Sunflower” - The Stiff sunflower is one of the most commonly cultivated perennial sunflowers, 2-6
ft. flower height.

Helianthus petiolaris “Prairie Sunflower” - The leaves of the Prairie sunflower can vary widely depending on local conditions,
rain, and soil pH, 3-5 ft. flower height.

Helianthus porteri “Porter’s Sunflower” - The Porter’s sunflower tends to grow like a bush – thus while it doesn’t make great
groundcover, it can fill in a cutting garden very nicely, 3-4 ft. flower height.

Helianthus resinosus “Resindot Sunflower”- Depending on growing conditions, each Resindot stem can produce up to five
flower heads. Unlike most sunflowers, the Resindot prefers partial shade, about 4-6 hours of direct sunlight per day, 6-8 ft.
flower height.

Climatic and Soil Requirement

Sunflower prefers the warm temperate regions, but is cultivated from 40°S to 55°N. Sunflower is unsuitable for humid
climates. New cultivars are adapted to a wide range of environments. The plant grows well at temperatures of 20-30°C,
although a range of 8–34°C is tolerated. A frost-free period of 120 days is usually necessary for commercial crops. Good yields
can be obtained with 500 mm of rainfall or irrigation water. The plants are quite drought-resistant, except during the flowering
period. Sunflowers grow well in any well-drained, neutral to slightly alkaline sandy soil. Seed should normally be planted 3-8 cm
deep, depending on cultivar. A seedbed temperature of 25-30°C is best but should not be below 15°C.

It is tolerant of both low and high temperatures, however, more tolerant to low temperatures. The crop is particularly
sensitive to high soil temperature during emergence. Sunflower seeds will germinate at 5°C, however, temperatures of at least
14 to 21°C are required for satisfactory germination. Seeds are not affected by vernalisation (cold) in the early germination
stages. At later stages freezing temperatures could damage the crop. Temperatures lower than the freezing levels are required
before maturing sunflower plants would die off. The optimum temperature for growth is 23 to 28 °C, however, a wider range of
temperatures up to 34 °C show little effect on productivity. Extremely high temperatures have been shown to lower oil
percentage, reduce seed fill and germination.

The rainfall requirement ranges from 500 to 1 000 mm. Sunflower is an inefficient user of water, as measured by the
volume of water transpired per gramme of plant above-ground dry matter. It is a crop which, compared to other crops,
performs well under drought conditions; this is probably the main reason for the crop’s popularity in the marginal areas of
South Africa. However, the crop is not considered highly drought tolerant, but often produces satisfactory results while other
crops are damaged during drought. Its extensively branched taproot, penetrating to 2 m, enables the plant to survive times of
water stress. A critical time for water stress is the period 20 days before and 20 days after flowering. If stress is likely during this
period, irrigation will increase yield, oil percentage and test weight. Protein percentage, however, will decrease.

Sunflower will grow in a wide range of fertile soil types; sandy loam to clays with pH value ranging from 6.0 to 7.5.
Traditionally, sunflower cultivation has been limited to soils where the clay percentage varies between 15 and 55 % (in other
words, sandy loam to clay soil types). At present the major planting areas are in soils with a clay percentage of less than 20.
Sunflower has a low salt tolerance, however, it is somewhat better than field bean or soya-bean in this respect. Good soil
drainage is required for sunflower production, but this crop does not differ substantially from other field crops in flooding
tolerance. Soils with good water-holding capacity (clays) will be preferred under dryland conditions.

Cultivation Practices

Propagation

Sunflower is propagated by seed.

Land preparation
 Many different tillage systems can be used effectively for sunflower production. Soil preparation should be focused on
decreasing runoff, especially in the case of soils with a low infiltration rate. These losses can be limited to a great extent by
applying the correct soil cultivation practices. Conventional systems of seedbed preparation consist of mouldboard plowing or
chisel plowing. The aim of the cultivation is to break up limiting layers, destroy weeds, provide a suitable seedbed and to break
the soil surface and at the same time to ensure maximum rainfall infiltration, as well as to prevent wind and water erosion.
Both germination percentage and lodging have been shown to increase in ridge-till systems vs. level plantings. Several tillage
systems have been used with some success in specific environments. Major considerations are: • firm placement of seed near
moist soil

• absence of green vegetation during emergence

• maintaining an option to cultivate

• reducing the risk of soil erosion

Planting

Row width has little influence on grain yield. It can range from 90 to 100 cm, however, wider rows such as 1.5 m to
2.1 m can also be used, particularly to accommodate other farm implements. The required spacing in the row is about 30 cm. In
South Africa, sunflower is planted from the beginning of November to the end of December in the eastern areas and to mid-
January in the western areas. Sunflower seeds are planted at relatively shallow depths. In soil with a high clay content, seeds
are planted at a depth of 25 mm. In sandy soils, seeds can be planted at a depth of up to 50 mm.

Fertilization

Compared to grain crops, sunflower utilises soil nutrients exceptionally well. The main reason for this is the finely
branched and extensive root system. The roots come into contact with nutrients which cannot be utilised by other crops.

Irrigation

In most cases South African sunflower is cultivated under dry land during the summer rainfall season (November to
March). In areas with low rainfall, water supply can be supplemented with irrigation in order to increase yield. The method of
irrigation will depend on the water availability and the available irrigation equipment. The pH of the irrigation water should be
slightly neutral.

Weed control

Efficient weed control is a prerequisite for high sunflower yields. It is achieved by a combination of mechanical and
chemical practices. Young plants are highly sensitive to strong weed competition and cannot develop fast enough to form a full
shade covering which can suppress weed seedlings. Therefore, the first 6 weeks after planting are a critical period for the crop.
Yields can be increased significantly by keeping fields free of weeds during this time.

 Mechanical weed control

Mechanical weed control can be very effective, provided it is done in time and with care not to damage the crop. Chemical
weed control can be applied successfully together with mechanical methods and cultivation practices to bring about better
weed control. The following tips are given for mechanical control:

• Cultivate before the sunflower is too tall for equipment, or the plants will be damaged easily.

• To prevent damaging the sunflower roots, cultivation should be shallow (less than 75 mm).

• Throw loose soil onto the row—this will assist in suffocating weeds which sprout in the row.

• Smaller weeds die-off easily when dry soil is hoed.

• Hoe during the hottest part of day when the sunflowers are wilted—this reduces stem damage.

 Chemical weed control

 The use of herbicides has many advantages, of which the most important is that effective weed control can be applied
during wet periods when mechanical weed control is impossible. If sunflower is cultivated in crop rotation with maize, weeds
can be controlled more effectively in both crops as grass and broadleaf herbicides can be used in continuous succession. Pest
control Insect pests have become major potential yield-reducing factors in sunflower producing areas.

Pest and Diseases

A. Insect Pest
1. False wireworms

Striate false wireworm (Pterohelaeus alternatus), Eastern false

wireworm (Pterohelaeus darlingensis), Southern false wireworm
(Gonocephalum macleayi)

Damage symptoms: Both adults and larvae attack sunflower. Larvae

feed on decaying vegetable and crop residues in the soil. They also
feed on newly germinating seed and the growing points of seedlings
which results in patchy stands. Damage is most common in early-
planted crops where crop residue has become scarce. During
summer, adults may damage young plants by surface feeding or Figure 7-3. Southern false wireworms
cutting of the plant at or near soil level. Damage by both larvae and
Source: cesaraustralia.comFebruary 2015.
adults may necessitate replanting.
shorturl.at/qILR3
Management:

High mortality of false wireworms can be caused by cool, wet weather from autumn to spring.

 Prepare ground for even and rapid germination.

 Use of press wheels at planting provides some control.

 Clean cultivation during summer dries out topsoil and eliminates weeds that provide food for adults.

 Larvae can be controlled by insecticide applications at planting or insecticide-treated seed.

 Control of adults is obtained by baiting with insecticide-treated cracked grain broadcast evenly over the surface at or
immediately after planting.

 Where broadcasting is not possible, the bait may be laid in trials spaced no more than two metres apart.

 Natural enemies provide little control.

2. True wireworms (Agrypnus spp)

Damage symptoms: Larvae bore into germinating seed and chew on seedling roots
and shoots resulting in reduced vigour or seedling death.

Management

a. Seed dressings, in-furrow sprays and granular insecticides offer some control.

Figure 7-4. True wireworm larva and adult

3. Cutworms Source: Tonia Grundy October 19, 2017.

(Agrotis spp) shorturl.at/vEVXZ
Damage symptoms: Cutworm larvae can sever stems of young seedlings at or near ground level, thereby causing collapse of the
plant. Sometimes the young plant is partially dragged into the soil where the larvae feed on it. Larvae may also climb plants and
browse on or cut off leaves. Crop areas attacked by cutworms tend to be patchy and the destruction of seedlings in one area
may cause cutworms to migrate to adjacent fields. Risk period is summer and spring - one generation per crop.

Management

 Cutworms are attacked by a range of natural enemies Figure 7-5. Cutworms of sunflower
such as:
Source: J.P. Michaud 10/30/2013. syngenta-
a. common brown earwigs
us.com shorturl.at/yzKTV
b. orange caterpillar parasite
c. two-toned caterpillar parasite
d. orchid dupe
e. spiders
f. Bt .
 Controlling weeds prior to planting will reduce cutworm infestations.
 Chemical control may be cost effective. Spot spraying of identified patches may suffice. Spray late afternoon, close to
feeding time, for best results.

4. Black scarab beetles/black sunflower scarab

(Pseudoheteronyx spp)

Damage symptoms: Larvae feed on taproots causing wilting and death

of seedlings. Adult beetles can defoliate and kill plants up to 40 cm tall.
Adults often feed in a line across the field. Beetles hide in the soil
during the day and emerge in late afternoon to feed.

Management:

 Removal of the host parthenium weed is advised.

 Limited control can be achieved by spraying either side of the
feeding line. Figure 7-6. Adults of the black scarab beetle
 Spray when beetles are active on the soil surface.
 Chemicals are registered but of limited effectiveness.
 Beetles can also be controlled by application of pelleted baits Source: agrobaseapp.com. (n.d.)
(alfalfa or similar meal) at planting. Cracked grain baits do not
control beetles.
 Damage is most prevalent where sunflowers follow wheat, sorghum or grass pasture.

5. Thrips

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci), Tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei),

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis), Western flower thrips (Frankliniella
occidentalis)

Damage symptoms: Both adults and nymphs feed on the leaves by

rasping the surface tissues and sucking the exuded juices. Damage is
normally insignificant, however when there are high populations of thrips
on seedlings, they cause distortion and browning of the cotyledons and
leaves. Under these conditions seedlings can become stunted and die.
Thrips are an important vector for the pathogen tobacco streak virus
(TSV). Figure 7-7. Western thrips

Management: Source: J.P. Michaud 10/30/2013.

entomology.k-state.edu shorturl.at/iFLX1
  If needed insecticides can be used.

 If a decision is made to control thrips, apply a narrow band spray over the seedlings to preserve predators such as
spiders in the inter-row.

 Thrips may require control in areas of known TSV outbreaks.

6. Wingless cockroaches (Calolampra spp)

Damage symptoms: Cockroaches are mainly a problem where seedlings

are present in late summer and autumn. On small seedlings, they feed on
cotyledons and stems, often severing the stem. On larger seedlings, they
feed on the leaves and growing points.

Management:

 Nymphs and adults are found under stubble but congregate

around volunteer plants in bare fallows.

 If the soil surface dries they tend to move down to the moist
soil layer.

 They feed at night and shelter under trash by day.

 They pose the highest risk where seedlings are present.

 Populations reach the highest densities under no tillage with

Figure 7-8. Adult Wingless cockroach and
wingless cockroach damage to sunflower
seedling
Source: business.qld.gov.au 14 Mar 2019.
shorturl.at/hoEOR
stubble retained.
 Determine numbers with GSB.
 Take action when there are one or more cockroaches per two
GSB.
 Use insecticide-treated seed. See chemical control options.

7. Black field earwig (Nala lividipes)

Damage symptoms: Eat newly sown and germinating seed and the
roots of crops below ground, resulting in poor establishment. Chew
the stems of newly emerged seedlings above ground.

Management:

 Use GSB or digging and sieving to detect adults and nymphs

prior to planting.

 Monitor crops after planting until establishment.

Figure 7-9. Black field earwig adults and nymph
 Control if more than 50 earwigs in 20 GSB.
Source: Kate Charleston, March 2013.
 Grain baits containing insecticide applied at sowing offer
shorturl.at/alxG2
best protection.

 Insecticide seed dressings provide some protection.

 In-furrow sprays are not effective in protecting against dense populations.

  The black field earwig is mainly a pest in areas having heavy, black soils.

 Earwigs prefer cultivated soils rather than undisturbed soil (zero til).

 Use press wheels at sowing.

8. Field crickets

Black field crickets (Teleogryllus spp), brown field crickets

(Lepidogryllus spp)

Damage symptoms: Feed on the leaves and stems of seedlings.

Sometimes sever the stem at or above ground level. They may also
attack more mature plants - feeding on the back of flower heads and
on the maturing seed on the face of the head.

Management:

 Field cricketsFigure 7-10. Black

are controlled fieldinsecticide-treated
using cricket damage to cracked
grain baits. sunflower.

 Source:
Control can be Andrew
achieved withWeeks. shorturl.at/joGVW
insecticide-treated grain baits.
(n.d.)
 Weedy cultivation prior to planting may encourage crickets.

 Natural controls like disease, parasitic insects and predators

such as birds have little impact on crickets.

 Nematodes are common parasites of brown field crickets in Central Queensland.

 Cricket populations are regulated by weather conditions.

Frequent insects in sunflower

These potential risks require that growers follow integrated pest management (IPM) practices. IPM means using a
combination of pest control methods to maintain pest populations below levels which result in unacceptable losses to crop
quality or yield. IPM includes biological, cultural, physical and chemical control. Resistance to insects can be improved by the
presence of a dark- coloured “armour” layer on the seed coats.

B. Diseases

The most serious diseases of sunflower are caused by fungi.

1. Rust (Puccinia helianthi)

Symptoms:
 Small, reddish brown pustules (uredia)
covered with rusty dust appear on the lower
surface of bottom leaves.
 Infection later spreads to other leaves and
even to the green parts of the head. In
severe infection, when numerous pustules
appear on leaves, they become yellow and
dry. Figure 7-11. Rust disease of sunflower

Source: eagri.org shorturl.at/biDP6 (n.d)

  The black coloured telia are also seen among uredia on the lower surface. The disease is
autoecious rust. The pycnial and aecial stages occur on volunteer crops grown during off-season.

Management: Use of tolerant and resistant varieties. Crop rotation should be followed. Previous crop remains should be
destroyed. Removal of crop residues. Spray Mancozeb at 2kg/ha.

2. Downy mildew

Symptoms:
 Death of seedlings leading to reduced stand in
field.
 If seedlings survive they may be chlorotic with
thickened leaves
 White cottony growth is present on leaf
undersides.
 Systemic infection causes stunted plant growth and
reduced seed production

Management: Plant sunflower varieties that are resistant to downy mildew;

treat seeds with an appropriate fungicide prior to planting; foliar fungicides are
ineffective at controlling systemic infections and are not recommended

Figure 7-11. Symptoms of sunflower downy

mildew

Source: researchgate.netMar
3. Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahlia)
2013.shorturl.at/dhAKN

Symptoms:
 Lower leaves developing mottled appearance.
 Leaf tissue between veins turns yellow and then brown.
 Infected leaves wilt, dry out and eventually die.
 Stems of plants may become blackened
close to the soil line. Figure 7-12. Verticullium Wilt
 A cross section of the stem reveals
blackened vascular system. Source: Nadia Hassani 10/10/21
.shorturl.at/oswyA
Management: Plant high quality, disease-free seed; avoid planting
sunflowers in fields known to have been infested with Verticillium
previously; plant resistant sunflower hybrids in areas where disease is known to be problematic.
 4. Sclerotinia stalk and head rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)
Symptoms:
 Plants suddenly wilt after warm, dry periods in
early summer.
 Upper leaves droop; in a few days all leaves
droop, and the plant dies. Plants may also bend
over or break.
 Young plants turn black; older plants remain tan.
A canker at the base of the stem extends several
inches above the soil line.
 Cankers are soft, water soaked, and gray to
brown. Dense, white mold grows on the canker
surface. Large, black, irregularly shaped sclerotia
are in the moldy growth or stem.

Management: Rotate with nonhost crops such as monocots (cereals). Plant

healthy seed that is free of sclerotia. Deeply plow or bury residue.

Figure 7-13. Sclerotinia stalk and head rot of

sunflower

Source: Marlese Bester and Lisa Rothmann

February 2019.grainsa.co.za shorturl.at/swBJP

5. Phoma blight (Phoma macdonaldii)

Symptoms:
 Symptoms of the disease develop after
flowering; large black lesions appear on
stem and coalesce to form large blackened
areas.
 Dark colored irregularly shaped lesions
appear on leaves and flowers.
 Early infections can cause flowers to die.
 Infected plants die prematurely and
produce little seed.
 Disease often affects plants in a circular
pattern in the field
Figure 7-14. Phoma blight (Phoma
Management: Rotate crop to a non-host (e.g. small grains) a period of macdonaldii ) on Sunflower
4 years; plant hybrids which are more tolerant of the disease; control
Source: Howard F. Schwartz shorturl.at/devyI
stem weevil populations in sunflower fields.
(n.d)
Resistance to rust, downy mildew, and Verticillium wilt has
been incorporated into improved sunflower germplasm. The severity
of these diseases effects on total crop yield could be ranked: Sclerotinia, Phoma, Verticillium, downy mildew, rust (recently
more severe).
Crop rotation

According to the research at Colby, grain sorghum required the least amount of available soil moisture to maintain small
year-to-year yield variation, and produced high amounts of crop residue. This suggests that grain sorghum follow sunflower as
the last crop before seeding wheat, not only to provide another cash crop, but also to provide additional crop residue cover
during the extended fallow period. Other suggested sunflower rotations for the High Plains include:

 winter wheat-sunflower-fallow
 winter wheat-proso millet-sunflower-fallow
 winter wheat-corn-sunflower-fallow
 winter wheat-corn-sunflower-grain sorghum-fallow

Sunflower should be grown in rotation with other crops as:

• The risk of diseases and weeds increase with monocropping.

• A yield and quality advantage is often measured in a follow-up maize or sorghum crop.

• Weed and pest problems decrease with crop rotation.

However, take note that some herbicides do have a long residual period and could damage the follow-up crop in a rotation
system. It is therefore important to strictly follow instructions on herbicide labels.

Harvesting

Harvest maturity

Harvesting should commence as soon as 80 % of the sunflower heads are brown in order to minimize losses caused by
birds, lodging and shattering. The leaves turn yellowish during harvesting maturity. The sunflower plant is physiologically
mature when the back of the head has turned from green to yellow and the bracts are turning brown, about 30 to 45 days after
bloom, and seed moisture is about 35 %. The total growing period (from seeding to harvesting) for sunflower ranges from 125
to 130 days.

Harvesting methods

Harvesting is done either manually or mechanically. Manual

harvesting is practiced by cutting the crop with a sickle or knife.
Commercially available sunflower headers are useful in decreasing loss
of seed as the crop is direct combined. The combines are used to
perform several operations such as cutting the crop, separating the
grain from the straw, cleaning the grain from chaff and transporting
grains to the storage tank. This equipment usually includes 20 to 90 cm
width metal pans for catching matured seed and a three-armed or
similar reel. A narrower (23 cm) pan width enables harvesting diagonal
to the row, which produces smaller harvest losses in some situations.
Harvesting with a combine harvester will save more time than manual
harvesting.
Figure 7-15. Harvesting of sunflower

Source: shutterstock.com shorturl.at/gjFK7

(n.d.)
Post-Harvest Handling

Sorting

After harvesting all foreign materials, weed seeds, undesired seeds, stones
Figure 7-16. Sunflower Seed Color Sorting and leaves should be sorted out from the desired seeds. Seeds should be
Machine sorted small according to their colours and size in order to meet the market
standards.
Source: akyurekltd.com
shorturl.at/fkCWY (n.d.) Grading Classes of sunflower seed

Sunflower seed shall be classified as:

 Class FH
 Class FS
 Class FGP

Standards for classes of sunflower seed

• A consignment of sunflower seed shall be classified as Class FH if it:

– consists mainly of sunflower seeds with a high oil content

– does not contain more than 20 % sunflower seed of Class FS or Class FGP

– complies with the standards for Grade 1 set out in regulation 6

• Class FS: – consists mainly of white sunflower seeds or clearly white-striped sunflower seeds or a mixture of white and white-
striped sunflower seeds registered and described as a variety suitable for bird feed, in terms of the Plant Improvement Act,
1976 (Act No. 53 of 1976)

– does not contain more than 20 % sunflower seed of Class FH or Class FGP

– complies with the standards for Grade 1 set out in regulation 6

• Class FGP: – consists of large sunflower seeds of which not more than 5 % passes through a 5.5 mm round hole screen

– complies with the standards for Grade 1 as set out in regulation 6

• Class Other Sunflower Seed: – does not comply with the requirements for Class FH, Class FS or Class FGP

Packing

Sunflower seed of different classes and grades should be packed in different containers or stored separately.

Storage

Seeds should be below 12 % moisture for temporary storage and below 10 % for long-term storage. Seed up to 15 % moisture is
satisfactory for temporary storage in freezing weather, however, spoilage is likely after a few days of warm weather. It is best to
have on-farm storage available; however, storage in silos is the usual approach in South Africa. Aeration is essential, especially
in the larger bins now available. Aeration may be accomplished with floor-mounted dusts or portable aerators. Sunflower
should be rotated between bins when aeration is not available. An air space should be left in the top of the bin to facilitate
checking the condition of stored seed. Sunflower can be stored more than one season under proper conditions (dry, clean,
aerated, and in tight bins), however, processors of non-oilseed sunflower for human consumption prefer not to use seed that
has been stored more than one season.

Transport

The most frequent mode of transport for sunflower grain is by road trucks, rail trucks and by ships.

Marketing

The sunflower marketing in South Africa commences on 1 January and ends on 31 December of the calendar year. No levies are
applicable and the marketing of oilseeds is free of statutory intervention. The seeds can be sold to the international and
domestic processing companies, firm or industries for multipurpose processing (e.g. oil, biodiesel and feedstock/ oilcake
production). The total demand for sunflower in South Africa decreased by 1.9 %, from 674 000 tons in 2004 to 661 tons in 2005
owing to carryover stocks. The demand is expected to increase because of the biofuel production initiative which will give rise
to maximizing of production. The most important countries from which seed were imported is the Ukraine, while exports are
mainly to Pakistan and Thailand.

Sunflower Future Technology Prospect

1. New non-GM technology platform for genetic improvement of sunflower oilseed crop

Scientists have developed techniques for the genetic improvement of sunflowers using a non-GMO based approach. The new
technology platform can harness the plant’s own genes to improve characteristics of sunflower, develop genetic traits, which
will improve its role as an important oilseed crop.

According to Dr Chatterjee: "Over the centuries, the sunflower has been cultivated for traits such as yield. However, along the
way many useful genetic variations have been lost. This new technology allows us to pinpoint key genetic information relating
to various useful traits in the sunflower, including wild sunflower species. It gives us a method to quickly create variability for
further breeding to enhance the quantity, quality and natural performance of the crop. In this era of increasing global food
crisis and changing climatic regimes, such ability is highly desirable."

2. Sunflower genome sequence to provide roadmap for more resilient crops

University of Georgia researchers are part of an international team that has published the first sunflower genome sequence.
This new resource will assist future research programs using genetic tools to improve crop resilience and oil production. Known
for its beauty and also as an important source of food, the sunflower is a global oil crop that shows promise for climate change
adaptation because it can maintain stable yields across a wide variety of environmental conditions, including drought. However,
assembling the sunflower genome has until recently been difficult, because it mostly consists of highly similar, related
sequences.

The authors concluded that this research reinforces the sunflower as a model for ecological and evolutionary studies and
climate change adaptation, and will accelerate breeding programs. "It will greatly facilitate our work to understand the
molecular mechanisms underlying key traits related to abiotic stress resistance -- things like drought, salinity and low nutrient
resistance," Burke said. "This genome sequence will essentially serve as a genetic road map to pinpoint the genes underlying
these sorts of traits."

3. Advances in sunflower breeding and production

New plant genetic transfer technique is called Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats or CRISPR. The CRISPR
breeding method involves proteins used to change the sequence and potentially “deactivate” certain undesirable genes. For
instance, CRISPR technology could disable a plant’s gene that allows disease or insect susceptibility, thus making the plant
resistant to specific pests, without using transgenic methods. This technology could make plants more insect or disease
resistant by turning off the bad genes and enabling the good genes to thrive, without inserting foreign genes into the plant. This
could also eliminate or reduce future pesticide applications to control pests. Sunflower breeders are incorporating all these
techniques to deliver the best traits possible.
As a result of improved crop production techniques, breeders are now able to reduce the time required to release a new and
improved sunflower variety equipped with targeted pest tolerant traits from ten years to approximately three years, in some
cases. Even without transgenic technology, sunflower enjoys herbicide resistance traits found in the wild and crossed into new
hybrids, giving producers advanced tools. New advances are also finding sunflower genes that are insect resistant, which could
eliminate or reduce future insecticide applications.

Trivia about Sunflower

“Did you know that sunflowers can grow to heights of 16 feet?

Because of their tall and stalky stems, they can grow to be several feet high. Another of their amazing trait is that they
can easily grow eight to 12 feet within only six months. The Guinness world record for the tallest sunflower reached
30 feet and 1 inch, grown by Hans-Peter Schiffer in Karst, Nordrhein Westfalen, Germany.”

What does a sunflower symbolise?

Sunflowers symbolise loyalty, adoration thanks to the myth of Clytie and Apollo. And, because of their association
with the sun, sunflowers are well-known for being a happy flower and the perfect bloom for a summer flower delivery
to brighten someone’s mood! But, they actually have different meanings across cultures. In China, sunflowers
symbolize long life, vitality and good luck. And to Native American’s sunflowers symbolized harvest and provision.
Basically no matter where you are, sunflowers are a positive flower that brings joy to many!

Sunflowers track the sun.

The French word for sunflower is “tournesol” which means turns with the sun. Young sunflowers track the sun, which
is referred to as heliotropism. At sunrise, the flower buds and young blossoms will face east and follow the sun during
the day. At sunset, the bloom will be facing the west. However, as the flower grows, the head of the plant becomes
heavier and the blossom will generally stay facing east.

How did sunflowers get their name?

In Greek mythology, the story goes that a nymph named Clytie was in love with Apollo, the God of Sun. In the
beginning, he loved her too, but then his head was turned toward another nymph. In a fit of jealous rage, Clytie told
the other nymphs father, who then buried his daughter alive as punishment. Pretty brutal! Apollo was so angry that
he then turned Clytie into a sunflower. But, as her love for him was so strong, she watched him move across the sky
every day, just how sunflowers follow the sun.

References

Anish PK Kumar, Adnane Boualem, Anjanabha Bhattacharya, Seema Parikh, Nirali Desai, Andres Zambelli, Alberto Leon, Manash
Chatterjee, Abdelhafid Bendahmane. SMART -- Sunflower Mutant population And Reverse genetic Tool for crop improvement.
BMC Plant Biology, 2013; 13 (1): 38 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-13-38

Casandra Maier Updated December 14, 2018 https://homeguides.sfgate.com/types-environments-sunflowers-grow-in-

69352.html

D.H. Putnam, E.S. Oplinger, D.R. Hicks, B.R. Durgan, D.M. Noetzel, R.A. Meronuck, J.D. Doll, and E.E. Schulte
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/sunflower.html

Dr. Billy E. Warrick, Extension Agronomist (Retired)ND https://sanangelo.tamu.edu/extension/agronomy/agronomy-

publications/sunflower-production-guide/

Dr. Kaushik Kumar Panigrahi Assistant Professor-Cum-Junior Scientist at Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology
https://www.slideshare.net/KAUSHIKKUMARPANIGRAH/presentation-on-breeding-techniques-of-sunflower
Glenda Mostek. Maine Organic Farmer & Gardener- Spring 2011, John Koster. Scott Haley, Colorado State University Wheat
Breeder Reprinted from Colorado State University Technical Report 17-6. https://www.journal-
advocate.com/2019/01/23/advances-in-sunflower-breeding-and-production/ Colorado Wheat Farmer

https://www.agricultureinindia.net/agronomy/sunflower/sunflower-origin-distribution-and-production-essay-agronomy/12316

https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/agriculture/plants/crops-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/insect-pest-
management-specific-crops/insect-pest-management-sunflowers

John Misachi April 25 2017 in Economics https://bit.ly/3DMSCiD

Nathaniel Geofani by June 17, 2021 https://natgeos.com/types-of-sunflowers/

National University of Ireland, Galway. "New non-GM technology platform for genetic improvement of sunflower oilseed crop."
ScienceDaily, 13 May 2013. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130513123223.htm

Patrick O'Hare Jan 29, 2021 https://www.plantsnap.com/plantblog/types-of-sunflowers/

shorturl.at/rsDFV Last updated:09Feb2018

The sunflower genome provides insights into oil metabolism, flowering and Asterid evolution. Nature, 2017; DOI:
10.1038/nature22380 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28538728/

University of Georgia. "Sunflower genome sequence to provide roadmap for more resilient crops." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily,
23 May 2017. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/05/170523081922.htm