Introduction to

Earthquake
Engineering
CIV 414 STRUC04
What is seismology?
Seismology is the study of the generation, propagation and measurement of seismic waves
through earth and the sources that generate them.

❑ Seismology originated from Greek word:

“seismos” meaning earthquake and “logos” meaning science

What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is a trembling or shaking of the ground caused by the sudden release of energy
stored in the rocks beneath Earth’s surface.

EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE

Three main zones of Earth’s interior shown in the figure:

The crust is the outer layer of rock, which forms a thin skin on Earth’s surface. Below the crust
lies the mantle, a thick shell of rock that separates the crust above from the core below. The
core is the central zone of Earth. It is probably metallic and the source of Earth’s magnetic field.
The Crust

Crust is the outer part of the earth,

where the life exists. The average
thickness of crust beneath continents
is about 40 km (varies from 20 to 70
km) where as it decreases to as much
as 7km beneath oceans, varying about
5 to 8 km.

Studies have shown that the seismic

waves travel faster in oceanic crust
than in continental crust. Because of
this velocity difference, it is assumed
that the two types of crust are made
up of different kinds of rock.

Seismic P waves travel through

oceanic crust at about 7 km per
second while it travels more slowly
through continental crust—about 6 km
per second.
The Mantle

A 2900 km thick layer. The mantle consists of:

Upper mantle reaching a depth of about 400km. Because P waves travel at about 8 kilometers per
second in the upper mantle, it appears that the mantle is a different type of rock from either oceanic
crust or continental crust. It consists of ultramafic rock such as peridotite. Ultramafic rock is dense
igneous rock made up chiefly of ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine and pyroxene.

➢ Lithosphere formed by the crust and uppermost mantle, the outer shell of Earth that is relatively
strong and brittle. The lithosphere makes up the plates of plate-tectonic theory. The lithosphere
averages about 70 kilometers (43.4 miles) thick beneath oceans and may be 125 to 250
kilometers thick beneath continents. Its lower boundary is marked by a curious mantle layer in
which seismic waves slow down.

➢ Asthenosphere is beneath the lithosphere. Generally, seismic waves increase in velocity with
depth as increasing pressure alters the properties of the rock. Beginning at a depth of 70 to 125
kilometers, however, seismic waves travel more slowly than they do in shallower layers, and so
this zone has been called the low-velocity zone. This zone, extending to a depth of perhaps 200
kilometers (124miles), is also called, in plate-tectonic theory, the asthenosphere. The rocks in this
zone may be closer to their melting point than the rocks above or below the zone. Without a weak
asthenosphere, plates would be locked in place, unable to move as they do now.
If the rocks of the asthenosphere are close to their melting point, this zone may be important for
two reasons:
(1) it may represent a zone where magma is likely to be generated; and
(2) the rocks here may have relatively little strength and therefore are likely to flow. If mantle
rocks in the asthenosphere are weaker than they are in the overlying lithosphere, then the
asthenosphere can deform easily by ductile flow. Plates of brittle lithosphere probably move
easily over the asthenosphere, which may act as a lubricating layer below
Lower mantle made of more homogeneous mass of magnesium and iron oxide and quartz. It
extends from about 660 kilometers (410 miles) to about 2,700 kilometers (1,678 miles) beneath
Earth's surface. The lower mantle is hotter and denser than the upper mantle, much less
ductile and transition zone.

The Core

Seismic-wave data provide the primary evidence for the existence of

the core of Earth. Seismic waves do not reach certain areas on the
opposite side of Earth from a large earthquake. Figure 2.8 shows how
seismic P waves spread out from a quake until, at 103° of arc (11,500
kilometers) from the epicenter, they suddenly disappear from
seismograms. At more than 142° (15,500 kilometers) from the
epicenter, P waves reappear on seismograms. The region between 103°
and 142°, which lacks P waves, is called the P-wave shadow zone.
What are the types of earthquake?
There are four different types of earthquakes:

•A tectonic earthquake is one that occurs when the earth's crust breaks due to geological forces on
rocks and adjoining plates that cause physical and chemical changes.
•A volcanic earthquake is any earthquake that results from tectonic forces which occur in
conjunction with volcanic activity.
•A collapse earthquake are small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines that are caused
by seismic waves produced from the explosion of rock on the surface.
•An explosion earthquake is an earthquake that is the result of the detonation of a nuclear and/or
chemical device.
https://www.un-spider.org/disaster-type/earthquake