Introduction to

Earthquake
Engineering
CIV 414 STRUC04
SEISMIC WAVES

The point within the Earth where

seismic waves first originate is called
the focus (or hypocenter) of the
earthquakes (Figure 7.3). This is the
center of the earthquake, the point of
initial breakage and movement on a
fault. Rupture begins at the focus and
then spreads rapidly along the fault
plane.

The point on the Earth’s surface directly

above the focus is the epicenter.
Two types of seismic waves are generated during earthquakes.

Body waves are seismic waves that travel through the Earth’s interior, spreading outward from
the focus in all directions.

Surface waves are seismic waves that travel on Earth’s surface away from the epicenter, like
water waves spreading out from a pebble thrown into a pond. Rock movement associated with
seismic surface waves dies out with depth into the Earth, just as water movement in ocean waves
dies out with depth.

Body Waves
There are two types of body waves, both shown in figure 7.4.

▪ A P wave (Primary Wave) is a compressional (or longitudinal) wave in which rock vibrates
back and forth parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

➢ Because it is a very fast wave, traveling through near-surface rocks at speeds of 4 to 7

kilometers per second (9,000 to more than 15,000 miles per hour), a P wave is the first (or
primary) wave to arrive at a recording station following an earthquake.
▪ An S wave (Secondary wave) and is a slower, transverse wave that travels through near-
surface rocks at 2 to 5 kilometers per second. An S wave is propagated by a shearing motion
much like that in a stretched, shaken rope. The rock vibrates perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation, that is, crosswise to the direction the waves are moving.

➢ Both P waves and S waves pass easily through solid rock. A P wave can also pass through a
fluid (gas or liquid), but an S wave cannot.
FIGURE 7.4
Particle motion in seismic waves. (A) A P wave is illustrated by a sudden push on the end of a stretched
spring or Slinky. The particles vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation. (B) An S wave is
illustrated by shaking a loop along a stretched rope. The particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation. (C) Love waves behave like S waves in that the particle motion is perpendicular to
the direction of wave travel along Earth’s surface. (D) Rayleigh waves are like ocean waves and cause a
rolling motion on Earth’s surface. The particle motion is elliptical and opposite (counterclockwise) to the
direction of wave propagation.
Body Waves
Surface Waves
Surface waves are the slowest waves set off by earthquakes. In general, surface waves cause
more property damage than body waves because surface waves produce more ground movement
and travel more slowly, so they take longer to pass.

➢ Surface waves are th last to be recorded in the seismic station at th time of occurrence of the
earthquake.

The two most important types of surface waves are Love waves and Rayleigh waves, named after
the geophysicists who discovered them.

▪ Love waves are most like S waves that have no vertical displacement. The ground moves side
to side in a horizontal plane that is perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling or
propagating (figure 7.4C). Like S waves, Love waves do not travel through liquids and would not
be felt on a body of water. Because of the horizontal movement, Love waves tend to knock
buildings off their foundations and destroy highway bridge supports.
▪ Rayleigh waves behave like rolling ocean
waves. Unlike ocean waves, Rayleigh waves
cause the ground to move in an elliptical
path opposite to the direction the wave
passes (figure 7.4D). Rayleigh waves tend
to be incredibly destructive to buildings
because they produce more ground
movement and take longer to pass

•The “Ring of Fire” also called the Circum-Pacific belt,

is the zone of earthquakes surrounding the Pacific
Ocean — about 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur
there. The next most seismic region (5-6% of
earthquakes) is the Alpide belt (extends from
Mediterranean region, eastward through Turkey, Iran,
and northern India.
▪ It is estimated that there are 500,000 detectable
earthquakes in the world each year. 100,000 of
those can be felt, and 100 of them cause damage.

Japan is the country where most earthquakes occur.

The most recorded earthquakes happen in Japan.

This is because Japan is within something known as
‘The Pacific Ring of Fire’. This is on the edge of the
Pacific Ocean and is where there is a tectonic plate
edge.

Other countries that are affected are Philippines, United

States, Chile and more. Due to this, they suffer more
earthquakes than some other countries, like the UK for
example.
An earthquake caused
Everest to shrink

On 25 April 2015, a
magnitude 7.8
earthquake inflicted
severe damage to the
nation of Nepal, causing
several Himalayan
mountains to shrink,
including Mount Everest
which shrunk by one
inch.