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62 Chapter 3 Modeling Electrical and Electromechanical Systems

The complete mathematical model of the DC motor consists of the electrical system equation (3.87) and the
mechanical system equation (3.88)

La İ a + Ra Ia = ein (t) − Kb 𝜃̇ (3.89a)

J 𝜃̈ + b𝜃̇ = Km Ia − TL (3.89b)

Therefore, we see that the mathematical model of the DC motor is third order: one first-order ODE for the
armature circuit (one energy-storage element, La ) and one second-order ODE for the mechanical rotor. The
dynamic variables are armature current Ia and rotor angle 𝜃, and the system input variables are armature
voltage ein (t) and load torque TL . Equations (3.89a) and (3.89b) are linear and coupled because they cannot
be solved separately. The right-hand side of the mechanical system equation (3.89b) shows that a positive
armature current produces a positive motor torque that in turn accelerates the armature rotor. However, the
right-hand side of the armature equation (3.89a) shows that positive angular velocity of the rotor creates a
negative induced voltage (the back emf) that in turn reduces the net voltage of the circuit.
Because the rotor’s angular position 𝜃 does not appear in Eqs. (3.89a) and (3.89b), we may substitute
𝜔 = 𝜃̇ and 𝜔̇ = 𝜃̈ in order to develop a reduced-order model:

La İ a + Ra Ia = ein (t) − Kb 𝜔 (3.90a)

J 𝜔̇ + b𝜔 = Km Ia − TL (3.90b)

Now, the mathematical model of the DC motor is second order and consists of two coupled first-order ODEs.
The solution to the second-order model will yield information for dynamic variables current Ia (t) and angular
velocity 𝜔(t) but not angular position 𝜃(t).

Solenoid Actuator
A solenoid actuator is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy (voltage source) to mechan-
ical energy (translational motion) by utilizing the same basic current–magnetism principles that govern the
operation of a DC motor. Solenoids can deliver a translational force to either push or pull a mechanical load
such as a valve in hydraulic or pneumatic systems. A solenoid actuator consists of a coil of wire with an iron
core (the armature or plunger) that moves in and out of the center of the coil. Figure 3.21 shows the compo-
nents of a push-type solenoid actuator. Energizing the voltage source ein (t) causes current to flow through the
coil that in turn establishes a magnetic field. The energized coil acts as an electromagnet and applies a force
to the armature (plunger), drawing it toward the center of the coil (to the right in Fig. 3.21). The push-type
solenoid shown in Fig. 3.21 uses a push-pin to move a load (e.g., valve mass) to the right. A return spring is
typically used to deliver a force to the displaced load mass so that it returns to its original position when the
current is zero.

Current, I
Coil Actuator stroke Return
spring,
+ k
Armature
ein(t) m
(plunger)
‒
Load mass
(e.g., valve)
Push-pin

Figure 3.21 Armature and coil for a solenoid actuator.

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3.5 Electromechanical Systems 63

Spool valve
Seated Return
Coil Air gap Supply spring
position pressure Drain

Electrical
input

Armature Push rod Fluid flow

(plunger)

Figure 3.22 Solenoid actuator–valve system.

The coil inductance of a solenoid actuator is a nonlinear function of the armature position. Inductance
(and hence magnetic flux) decreases the farther the armature is moved out of the coil and increases the closer
the armature is drawn into the center of the coil. Figure 3.22 shows the solenoid actuator–valve system from
Example 2.1 (recall that we derived the mechanical model for this system in Chapter 2). Note that Fig. 3.22
shows a push-type solenoid where energizing the coil draws the armature toward the center of the coil and
therefore pushing the valve to the right. One accepted method for modeling the coil inductance is to use the
nonlinear expression [1, 2]
c L0
L(x) = = (3.91)
d − x 1 − (x∕d)
where x is the armature displacement (measured positive to the right from the seated position; see Fig. 3.22).
The constants c and d depend on the geometry and material properties of the solenoid coil. Note that coil
inductance L(x) is minimum when x = 0 (seated armature) and increases when x > 0 and the armature moves
to the right to close the air gap. The inductance when x = 0 is

𝜇AN 2
L0 = (3.92)
l
where N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the area of the air gap, l is the coil length, and 𝜇 is the magnetic
permeabilities of air and the iron core. The minimum coil inductance L0 is a known constant given the values
for A, N, l, and 𝜇.
Figure 3.23 shows a schematic diagram of the solenoid actuator. The armature circuit (coil) is
composed of the voltage source ein (t), armature coil inductance L(x), and armature resistance R. A single
lumped mass m represents the sum of the armature (plunger) and the load (valve) masses. The energized
solenoid coil produces the electromagnetic force Fem that pushes on mass m to the right. Displacement of
the mass is x (positive to the right), and the return spring k and viscous friction b act on the armature–valve
mass m.
As with the DC motor, we develop the complete mathematical model of the solenoid actuator by apply-
ing Kirchhoff’s laws to the armature circuit and Newton’s laws to the single inertia element. To begin, we
apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the loop

−eR − eL + ein (t) = 0 (3.93)

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64 Chapter 3 Modeling Electrical and Electromechanical Systems

R
x

+ L(x) Return spring,

Fem k
ein(t) m
‒ I

Viscous friction, b
Armature circuit
Armature + valve mass

Figure 3.23 Schematic diagram of a solenoid actuator.

Computing the solenoid inductor voltage eL is more complicated than the inductor voltage for the DC motor
because solenoid inductance changes with the plunger position. Therefore, we use Eq. (3.9) to equate the
solenoid inductor voltage to the time derivative of magnetic flux linkage

𝜆̇ = eL (3.94)

where flux linkage is defined by Eq. (3.8) as the product of inductance and current, or 𝜆 = L(x)I. Because
both inductance and current can change with time, the time derivative of the flux linkage is

dL dI
𝜆̇ = I+L (3.95)
dt dt
Using the chain rule to expand dL∕dt, Eq. (3.95) becomes

dL dx dI
𝜆̇ = I+L (3.96)
dx dt dt
or, using the compact notation
̇ + L(x)İ
𝜆̇ = Lx xI (3.97)

where Lx is the short-hand notation for the derivative dL∕dx. Using Eq. (3.91), the derivative dL∕dx is

dL L0
Lx ≡ = ( )2 (3.98)
dx d 1 − (x∕d)

Finally, we can substitute Eq. (3.97) into Kirchhoff’s loop equation (3.93) for inductor voltage eL along with
resistor voltage drop eR = RI to yield the mathematical model of the solenoid circuit

L(x)İ + RI = ein (t) − Lx xI

̇ (3.99)

̇ in Eq. (3.99) acts like the back-emf term in the DC motor modeling
Note that the right-hand-side term Lx xI
equation (3.89a): when the actuator mass moves with positive velocity toward the center of the coil, it induces
̇ for the
a negative voltage that decreases the net voltage in the circuit. Furthermore, the induced voltage Lx xI
solenoid is nonlinear whereas the back emf of the DC motor is a linear term (Kb 𝜃). ̇
The mathematical model of the mechanical component of the solenoid actuator is derived using the
methods developed in Chapter 2. Figure 3.24 shows the free-body diagram of the armature–valve mass with
̇ and return spring force (kx). We have assumed that
electromagnetic force (Fem ), viscous friction force (bx),
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3.5 Electromechanical Systems 65

+x
Return spring
Electromagnetic force, kx
force, Fem m
Friction
Figure 3.24 Free-body diagram of the
Actuator–valve mass force, bẋ
solenoid actuator.

no preload force (initial compression) exists in the return spring and hence there is no wall-contact force.
Summing forces on the mass and applying Newton’s second law yields
∑
+→ F = Fem − kx − bẋ = m̈x

Grouping all terms involving displacement x yields

m̈x + bẋ + kx = Fem (3.100)

In order to complete the model we need an expression for the electromagnetic force Fem , which is generated
by the energy stored in the solenoid coil. From work and energy principles, we know that the product of the
electromagnetic force and an incremental displacement dx is equal to an incremental change in energy d𝜉

Fem dx = d𝜉

or, solving for the electromagnetic force

d𝜉
Fem = (3.101)
dx
Equation (3.11) states that the energy stored in an inductor is due to the inductance and the current
1 2
𝜉= LI
2
Therefore, taking the derivative of energy with respect to displacement x and substituting the result into
Eq. (3.101) yields an expression for the electromagnetic force
1 dL 2
Fem = I (3.102)
2 dx
We see that the electromagnetic force is a nonlinear function of current and displacement as Eq. (3.98) shows
that the derivative Lx is a nonlinear function of x.
The complete mathematical model of the solenoid actuator consists of the electrical system equation
(3.99) and the mechanical system equation (3.100) with Eq. (3.102) used to define the electromagnetic force

L(x)İ + RI = ein (t) − Lx xI

̇ (3.103)
1 2
m̈x + bẋ + kx = LI (3.104)
2 x
We see that the mathematical model of the solenoid actuator is third order: one first-order ODE for the solenoid
circuit and one second-order ODE for the mechanical mass. The dynamic variables are the coil current I
and plunger displacement x, and the system input variable is armature voltage ein (t). Equations (3.103) and
(3.104) are coupled nonlinear differential equations. The reader should recall that Eqs. (3.91) and (3.98) are
also needed to define inductance L(x) and its derivative Lx , both of which are nonlinear functions of plunger
displacement.