Chapter 1

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic Science Defined :

The word “forensic” is from the Latin (1659) word “forensis” which means forum
(Merriam Webster’s 11th Collegiate Dictionary).

Forum means: belonging to, used in, or suitable to courts of judicature or to

public discussion and debate: relating to or dealing with the application of
scientific knowledge to legal problems (Merriam Webster’s 11 th Collegiate
Dictionary).

Forensic Science is a science relating to or dealing with the application of

scientific knowledge to legal problems (Maglaque, 2001).
 
Forensic science is the application of the scientific method to legal questions
(Elkins, 2019, p. 2)
 Chapter 7
HAIR

LESSON 7.1

Learning Outcomes: The learner will be able to:

1.Identify the differences between hairs and fibers.
2.Explain how medullary index is obtained.
3.Apply the study of hair in criminal investigation.

Definition of Hair

Hair is a slender threadlike outgrowth of the epidermis of an animal. It is an

appendage of the skin that grows out of an organ known as hair follicle.

Parts of the Hair

1. Root or Bulb
2. Shaft
3. Tip

Three Layers of Shaft

1. Cuticle – The outer layer of hair.

2. Cortex – Consists of longitudinal fibers bearing the pigment.
3. Medulla – Contains air bubbles and some pigments.
 Part of
Description Forensic Value
the Hair
 Formed by overlapping scales that  The variety of scale
always point toward the tip end of patterns formed by
each hair. animal hair makes it an
 The scales are formed from important feature for
specialized cells that have hardened species identification.
Cuticle
(keratinized) and flattened in  Plant fiber and animal
progressing from the follicle. hair can be easily
 Scales of the most animal hair can be recognized through the
best described as having the appearance of cuticle.
appearance of shingles on a roof.
 Made up of spindle shaped cortical  Criminalists compare
cells that are aligned in a regular hairs of different
Cortex array, parallel to the length of the hair. individuals through color,
 It is embedded with the pigment shape, and distribution of
granules that impart hair with color. these granules.
 Medullary index indicates
 Is a collection of cells having the
whether the hair being
Medulla appearance of a central canal running
examined is of animal or
through a hair.
human origin.

Table 1. The layers of hair shaft, its description and forensic significance (Solis, 1987).

Classification of Medulla

1) Continuous
2) Interrupted
3) Fragmented
4) Absent

Interesting Feature of a Medulla According to Its Shape

Specie Description of Medulla

Humans as
 Medulla is nearly cylindrical in
well as many
appearance.
animals
 Medulla resembles to a string
Cat
of pearl.
Deer Family  Medullary structure consisting
of spherical cells occupying the
 entire hair shaft.
(Solis, 1987)

What is Medullary Index?

Medullary index (MI) is the relation between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair (Solis, 1987).
. It is expressed in the formula:

Diameter of medulla
Medullary
= Diameter of whole
Index
hair

Differences Between Hair Forcibly Extracted and Naturally Shed Hair:

Forcibly Extracted Naturally Shed

The bulb is irregular in form due to The bulb has a rounded extremity, a
rupture of the sheath and shows an smooth surface, and most probably
undulating surface, together with shows signs of atrophic or fatty
excrescences of different shapes and degeneration, especially in an elderly
sizes. person.
Table 2. Differences between hair forcibly extracted and naturally shed hair (Solis,
1987).

Distinctions Between Human and Animal Hair

Points of Comparison Animal Human
Medulla:
Air network large or small sacks. fine grains
easily visible invisible without treatment in
Cells
water
Value of I higher than 0.5 lower than 0.3
Fuzz with medulla without medulla
Cortex:
Looks like a fairly thin looks like a thick muff
Appearance
hollow cylinder
irregular grains larger than fine grains
Pigments
that of human’s
Cuticle:
Thick and protruding, do not not protruding, covering to
Scales cover one another to the one another to about 4/5.
same degree as humans.
(Solis, 1987)

Other Points in the Identification of Hair

 1. Characteristics of the hair:
a. Hair on body surfaces is fine while those from the beard, mustache and scalp
are very thick.
b. Hair from the eyebrows and lashes is tapering gradually to fine points.

2. Length of the hair

a. Hair from the scalp grows 2.5 cm a month
b. Beard hair grows at a rate of 0.4 mm a day.

3. Color of the hair

The color of a hair is mostly due to a chemical called melanin.

The difference between black and brown hair is due only to the amount of this
pigment and not to a difference in it. Red hair is thought to be due to iron.

Some other factors may be considered in the color of hair such as:

1. The color of the hair may be black, blonde or brunette.

2. Hair from older persons may be white or gray.
3. The hair may be artificially colored by bismuth, lead or silver salts. It may
be bleached by addition of:
a. Hydrogen peroxide;
b. Chlorine;
c. Diluted hydrochloric or nitric acid.

How to detect Presence of Coloring or Bleaching Material in Hair:

1. Examination of hair may show pigments at nodes.

2. The new portion of the hair recently grown has a different color from the
treated part.
3. The hair in other parts of the body may not correspond in color.
4. The scalp may be dyed.
5. The texture of the hair may be altered.

Does a hair belong to male or a female?

In many instances it is quite impossible to state the sex from the hair, but certain
points may be worthy of mention:
a. Hairs on the scalp of male are shorter, thicker and more wiry than that of
the female’s.
b. Eyebrow hair of a male is generally long and more wiry than that of a
female’s.

Shape of Hair
 A hair is not completely round but may be oval or flattened. The amount of flattening
determines whether the hair is straight or curly:
1. Round hair – straight
2. Oval hair – curly
3. Flattened hair - kinky

Collection of Hair as Evidence:

1. Violent crimes:
a. Victim’s hand
b. Clothing
c. Weapons
d. Bed sheets, etc.
2. Sexual Crimes
a. Victim’s hand
b. Clothing & undergarments
c. Bed sheets, etc.

Identification and Comparison of Hair

The primary purpose for the examination of hair in crime laboratory are:

1. Establish whether the hair is human or animal in origin;

2. Determine whether human hair retrieved at a crime scene compares with

the hair that is known to have come from a particular individual.

Hair can be identified in two ways, namely:

a. Microscopic Examination – the presence of medulla, appearance of cuticle

and other morphological features of the hair can be used to establish identity of
an individual.

b. DNA Examination – personal identity can be established through DNA

examination. Hair follicles can be easily used in this process.

Primary Purpose for the Examination of Hair in Crime Laboratory

1. Establish whether the hair is human or animal in origin;

2. To determine whether human hair retrieve at a crime scene compares with
hair that is known to have come from a particular individual.

Hair Features that are Particularly Important in Hair Identification

1. Scale structure
2. Medullary Index,
 3. Medullary Shape

Accuracy of Hair in Personal Identification

It was estimated that if one human head hair found at the crime scene is found to
be similar to a representative hair from a suspect’s head, the odds against it
originating from another person are about 4500 to 1 .

Another study conducted along the same lines revealed that the odds against
two similar pubic hairs originating from two different individuals are about 800 to 1 .

The Hair Growth Cycle

Hair follicles grow in repeated cycles. One cycle can be broken down into three
phases.

1. Anagen (Growth Phase) – Approximately 85% of all hairs are in the

growing phase at any one time. The Anagen phase or growth phase can vary
from two to six years. Hair grows approximately 10cm per year and any individual
hair is unlikely to grow more than one meter long.
2. Catagen (Transitional phase) – At the end of the Anagen phase
the hairs enters into a Catagen phase which lasts about one or two weeks,
during the Catagen phase the hair follicle shrinks to about 1/6 of the normal
length. The lower part is destroyed and the dermal papilla breaks away to rest
below.

3. Telogen (Resting Phase) – The resting phase follows the catagen phase and
normally lasts about 5-6 weeks. During this time the hair does not grow but stays
attached to the follicle while the dermal papilla stays in a resting phase below.
Approximately 10-15 percent of all hairs are in this phase at one time.
 CHAPTER 8

Learning Outcomes: The learner will be able to:

1.Identify fibers.
2.Explain fiber classification.
3.Apply the study of fibers in criminal investigation.

Fiber is a fine hair-like structure of animal, vegetable, mineral, or synthetic origin. It is a

threadlike strand that can be spun or woven.

Forms of Fiber

1. Staple or chopped – short fibers

2. Monofilament – continuous single fibers
3. Tow – untwisted bundles of continuous filaments.
4. Yarn – twisted bundles of continuous filaments.

General Kinds of Fibers

1. Natural Fiber
a) Plant Fibers
1) Abaca (Manila hemp )
2) Coconut fiber (coir)
3) Cotton, etc.

b) Animal Fibers
1) Hair of different animals
a) Furry coats – Ex.: Wool- from sheep
b) Silk – from abdomens of various insect (spider or
worms) – made of fibroin protein.
(1) Wild silk
(2) Cultivated/cultured silk

c) Mineral Fiber
1) Asbestos
2) Glass fiber
3) Copper
4) Aluminum, etc.

2. Synthetic Fiber or Man-Made Fiber

a. Cellulose fibers that are made chiefly from wood pulp:
 a) Rayon
b) Arnel
c) Chromspun

b. Synthetic Fibers that are made entirely from chemical substances:

a) Dacron
b) Orlon
c) Nylon
d) Acrilan

Mnemonics: DONA

Most Dominating (Big Three) Synthetic Fibers

1. Nylon
2. Acrylic
3. Polyester

Mnemonics: NAP
Kinds of Animal Fibers According to Source

1. Scalp hair – human being

2. Fur – from mink and beavers

Chemical Properties of Animal Fibers

1. All animal fibers are complex proteins;

2. They are resistant to most organic acids and to certain powerful mineral acids
such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
3. Protein fibers are damaged by mild alkalies (basic substances) and may be
dissolved by strong alkalies such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
4. They can also be damaged by chlorine-based bleaches, and undiluted liquid
hypochloride bleach will dissolve wool or silk.

Classification of Plant Fibers Based on its Source

1. Leaf Fibers or Hard Fibers are obtained from the leaves of certain tropical plants
such as sisal, henequen and abaca. Mnemonics: SHA
2. Surface Fibers are fibers that are obtained from the surface of a stem, seed, leaf,
or fruit. Example: cotton and kapok.

There are four major types of vegetable fibers:

a. Seed fibers, which are the soft hairs that surround the seeds of certain plants;
b. Bast fibers, the tough fibers that grow between the bark and stem of many
dicotyledonous plants;
 c. Vascular fibers, the tough fibers found in the leaves and stems of
monocotyledons; and
d. Grass-stem fibers.

Other fiber types of limited utility include:

a. Strips of leaf skins, such as raffia;

b. The fiber of fruit cases, such as coir; and
c. Palm fibers.

Seed Fibers of Commercial Importance:

Two seed fibers that have commercial importance:

a. Cotton fibers – are useful for producing woven fabrics with a multitude of
colors and designs.
b. Kapok – hollow and buoyant fiber used in flotation devices such as life
preservers.

Bast Fibers

A wide variety of bast fibers are used in applications ranging from fine woven

textiles to cordage.

a. Linen cloth is made from flax.

b. Coarser clothes and rope are produced from jute, hemp, ramie, and sunn.

Vascular Fibers:

Vascular fibers are used almost exclusively for making cordage includes

a. Manila hemp,
b. Agave (sisal),
c. Henequen, and
d. Yucca
Mnemonics: MAHY

The vascular fibers of pineapple have been used in the production of textiles.
Entire stems of some grasses and straws, such as esparto, are woven as fibers
for hats and matting.

Vegetable Fibers Used in Making Paper

a. Fine rag papers – Cotton and flax form the basis for fine rag papers.
b. Wrapping papers and other coarse papers – Grasses, hemp, jute, and Manila
c. Newsprint and kraft papers – are produced from wood fiber after appropriate
chemical treatment.
 d. Building board – wood fiber and bagasse (the fiber of sugarcane) are made
by a process analogous to papermaking.

Chemical Properties of Vegetable Fibers

a. Vegetable fibers are predominantly cellulose.
b. They resist alkalies.
c. Resist most organic acids but are destroyed by strong mineral acids.

Mineral Fibers

Glass, which is made from silica sand, is the only inorganic (mineral) fiber widely

used in commercial applications.

There are two main forms of glass fibers:

a. Continuous – made by drawing molten glass into threads, is used in textile

materials.
b. Staple – The use of air, steam, or gas to disrupt the flow of the molten glass
stream produces staple fibers.

Ceramic fibers include:

a. aluminum oxide, (also called alumina [Al 203]),

b. silicon carbide (SiC), and
c. boron carbide (B 4C)

Commonly Used Mineral Fibers in Industry:

a. Fibers  of  asbestos, formerly used for insulation and fireproofing, were found
to be carcinogenic and are no longer used.
b. Thin metal wires are used for the production of gauze.
c. Aluminum fibers coated with plastics possess a bright glitter and are used in
decorative yarns.

List of Man-made or Synthetic Fibers

1. Acetate Fiber: a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is

cellulose acetate. Where not less than 92% of the hydroxyl groups are
acetylated. It has silk-like qualities and low cost.
2. Acrilan: Trademark for an acrylic fiber. (Acrylic fiber- a manufactured fiber in
which the fiber-forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed
of at least 85% by weight of acrytonitrile units)
3. Acrylic – are wool-like in nature, except that they make lighter weight fabrics.
4. Arnel: trademark for an acetate fiber made from cellulose triacetate.
 5. Cellulose: A natural carbohydrate high polymer (polysaccharide) consisting of
anhydroglucose units joined by an oxygen linkage to form long molecular chains
that are essentially linear. It is a colorless solid
6. Chromspun: trade for solution-dyed acetate fiber.
7. Dacron: a trademark for a polyester fiber made from polyethelene terephthalate.
Available as filament yarn, staple, tow, and fiber fill.
8. Nylon – the first non-cellulose fiber manufactured in 1938 by E.I. Du Pont de
Munours Company. It is sensitive to heat and is sometimes called a
thermoplastic fiber. It has exceptional strength, elasticity, abrasion resistance and
transparency. Uses: hosiery, lingerie, stretch fabrics, carpets, and automobiles
tires.
9. Nylon: Generic name for a family of polyamide polymers characterized by the
presence of the amide group.
10. Olefin – the lightest in weight of all textile fabrics.
11. Orlon: a trademark for a synthetic acrylic fiber somewhat like nylon.
12. Polyester – is outstanding for wash-and-wear characteristics. It is a silk-like
material.
13. Polyester Fiber: Generic name for a manufactured fiber (either as staple or
continous filament) in which the fiber-forming substance is any long chain
synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of an ester of a dihydric
alcohol and terepthalic acid
14. Rayon – were derived from cellulose. It was found to resemble cotton but it lacks
cotton’s washability and strength. In 1960 rayon was developed and became
washable. It is a generic name for a semi-synthetic fiber composed of
regenerated cellulose as well as manufactured fibers composed of regenerated
cellulose in which substituents have replaced not more than 15% of the hydrogen
of the hydroxyl groups.
Spandex – is elastic and valuable for foundation garments and stretch fabrics.

Forensic Classification and Examination of Fibers

In criminalistics, fibers are classified into four general groups:

a) Mineral
b) Animal
c) Vegetable
d) Synthetic

Importance of Fiber in Criminal Investigation

Fibers are a better source of information about a crime scene than hairs that
belong to the suspect because fibers are actually more distinguishable than
human hair. The following are the microscopic points of comparison of fibers:

1. Uniformity of thickness of strands,

2. The actual number of fibers in every strand,
3. Color or dye origins,
4. The direction of fiber twist, and
 5. Thread count.

Test Methods for Identifying Fibers

1. Burning test:

Point of
Animal Plant
Comparison
Rate of burning Burn slowly Fast
Burned Burned
Odor
feather wood
Charred No charred
Tip
bead bead
Fumes Basic Acidic

2. Fluorescence Test:

Animal – Blue fluorescence

Plant – Yellowish

3. Microscopic Examination:

Cotton – unicellular, flat and ribbon-like

Linen – multi-cellular filament, straight and cylindrical
Silk – smooth and lustrous (like a clear glass rod)
Artificial silk – dissolved in chromic acid rapidly
Wool – have overlapping scales

4. Chemical Test

Fiber
Chemical
Vegetable Wool Silk
Concentrated
Nil* Yellow Yellow
Nitric Acid
Picric Acid Nil* Yellow Yellow
Millon’s
Black Brown Brown
Reagent
Tannic Acid Black No change Nil*
Heated with
Nil* Dissolve Dissolve
10% NaOH
*Nil – No changes

Some Modern Tests for Fiber

 1. Microscopic Examination – morphological features
2. Visible Light Microspectrophotometer – for color comparison
3. Chromatographic Separation – determine fiber’s dye constituents
4. Fourier Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) – spectral absorption of organic substance.
Chapter 9
CORDAGE FIBERS

LESSON 9.1

Learning Outcomes: The learner will be able to:

1. Identify cordage fibers.
2. Explain the difference between cord and rope.
3. Apply the study of cordage fibers in criminal investigation.

Definition of Terms

Cord – a thick string

Rope – consists of three or more cords twisted together.
Strand – consists of two or more twisted yarns.
String or Twine – consists of a single yarn, or of two, three or more yearns twisted
together
Yarn – fibers combined and straightened out by machine, drawn into parallel positions,
and then twisted together.

Difference Between Cord and Rope

Generally, in trade, the following is the difference:

Cord – has a diameter of one-half inch or lesser.

Rope – has a diameter greater than one-half inch.

Analysis of Cordage

1) Physical Examination with the Use of naked Eye

a) Color
b) Odor
c) Texture
d) Size
e) Circumference and diameter (using Vernier caliper)
f) Twist (Z or S)
g) Number of yarns per strand
h) Number of fibers per yarn
i) Purity of Composition
j) Adhering debris
k) Evidence of burning
 l) Signs of wear and tear
m) Knots
n) Cut
(1) Scissor – “X”
(2) Single Blade – “Y”

2) Microscopic
a) Presence foreign particles (i.e. pollen grains)
b) Presence of stains, spots
c) Blade impressions/striations

3) Fluorescence

Fibers of different sources emit different fluorescence.

4) Chemical Examination

a) Examination of foreign particles (wax, dust, stains)

b) Chemical examination of fiber

Phlur Iodine
o- Aniline &
Fiber
glucin Sulfate Sulfuric
e Acid
Coconut Red Yellow Yellow
(Coir)
Date- Deep Yellowi Yellow
palm red sh
Flax Nil Nil Blue
Hemp Red- Yellowi Yellowi
(Canna violet sh to sh to
vis yellowis greenis
sativa) h h
brown
Jute Deep Bright Browni
-red Yellow sh
Yellow
*Nil–no reaction

Crimes Where Cord and Rope are Involved

1) Robbery
2) Murder
3) Kidnapping
4) Carnapping, etc
 Sometimes ropes are used to hang victims of murder or homicide and the culprit
arrange the crime scene to make it appear as suicidal.

Chapter 10
WOVEN FABRICS

LESSON 10.1

Learning Outcomes: The learner will be able to:

1.Identify
2.Explain
3.Apply

Definition of Terms

Fabric – cloth of any type made from thread or fibers, whether woven, knitted, or
felted
Figured fabric – is a fabric that has figures or designs.

Twilled fabric – is a strong woven material with diagonal ridges or ribs across its
surface

Warp – in textiles, it refers to the threads that run lengthwise on a loom or in a piece
of fabric.

Weft – in textiles, it refers to the horizontal threads of a woven fabric or a tapestry

Purpose of Woven Fabric Examination

The examination of woven fabric is usually made for the purpose of discovering a
clue that will establish the origin of some material found in connection with a crime.
The identity or non-identity of the questioned material with other material of similar
appearance is important in order to connect the suspect with the crime.

Analysis of Woven Fabrics

The cloth should be unraveled, and, the warp, i.e. those threads that are parallel to
the length of the cloth: and the weft, i.e. those threads that cross the cloth from the
edge, should be examined separately. The composition of the threads can be
examined similarly with fibers and cordage.

Method of Weaving

This may be ascertained by examining the fabric with a lens. As a rule, only broad
features are required, any elaborate dissection being unnecessary and it is generally
sufficient to ascertain whether the fabric is plain, twilled or figured (has pattern).
Fiber Count

The number of fibers per inch in both warp and weft directions of the cloth should be
counted. An apparatus may be set up to facilitate counting, as for example, the
fabric may be placed on top of a glass mounted on a box the inside of which is
illuminated by a tiny electric bulb. The number of twist per inch in a thread and
whether these are right (clockwise) or left (counter-clock wise) should also be
determined.

Stains and Marks

Any stains found on the fabric should be recorded. The size, position, and general
appearance should be described. The stains should be examined with a lens and by
ultra-violet light to determine if the stain has characteristic fluorescence. If the
amount of stain is insufficient, a chemical analysis may be made to establish its
composition. This is very helpful if the questioned material contains stains which
appear similar to those of the standard.

Dust and Dirt

If dust and dirt are present, these may be collected by the use of a vacuum cleaner.
The dust and dirt can be examined microscopically, spectroscopically or chemically.
The nature and composition of such dust and dirt may be important to establish the
relationship of the material in question with that of the crime.