UNIT -4

PART - A

1) Sources of Automobile Pollutants:

i. Hydrocarbons:
A class of burned or partially burned fuel, hydrocarbons are toxins
and are a major contributor to smog, which can be a major problem in
urban areas.

ii. Carbon monoxide (CO)

A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide reduces the
blood’s ability to carry oxygen.

iii. Nitrogen oxides (NOx):

Generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high
temperature and pressure inside the engine.

iv. Particulate matter:

Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometre size range:

v. Sulfur oxide (SOx):

A general term for oxides of sulphur, which are emitted from motor
vehicles burning fuel containing a high concentration of sulphur.

2) Formation of NOx in Engines.

There are three main causes of NOx emissions:-

 High temperature combustion of fuels where the temperature is hot enough (above
about 1300°C/ 2370°F) to oxidize some of the nitrogen in air to NOx gases. This includes
burning hydrogen, as it burns at a very high temperature. Comments on diesel engines are
shown below.
 Burning plant material releases nitrogen oxides, as all plants contain nitrogen.
 Chemical and industrial processes which use nitric acid, nitrates or nitrites will release
NOx gases.
 Diesel engines operate at a higher temperature and pressure than petrol engines. These
conditions favour the production of NOx gases. The quantity depends on the volume and
duration of the hottest part of the flame.
 By lowering the combustion temperature, typically by Exhaust Gas Recirculating (EGR).
Some exhaust gas is cooled and injected back into the combustion chamber. There is less
oxygen in the exhaust gas because some has been consumed by previous combustion, so
there is not as much to feed the flame. The exhaust gas also has a higher heat capacity
than air, so it takes longer to heat up.

Mechanism of formation of nitric oxide (NO)

At high combustion temperatures, the following chemical reactions take place
behind the flame:

N2+ O2 2NO
N2+ 2H2 O 2NO+2H2
Chemical equilibrium calculations show that a significant amount of NO will be formed
the end of combustion. The majority of NO formed will however decompose at the low
temperature of exhaust. But due to very low reaction rate at the exhaust temperature a
part of NO formed remains in exhaust. It is far in excess of the equilibrium composition
at that temperature as t formation of NOx freezes at low exhaust temperatures. The NOx
formation will be less in rich mixtures than in lean mixtures.

3) Pollutant formation and Control in Combustion

NITROGEN OXIDES
Nitrogen oxides are important air pollutants, the primary anthropogenic source of which
is combustion. Motor vehicles account for a large fraction of the nitrogen oxide
emissions, but stationary combustion sources ranging from electric power generating
stations to gas-fired cooking stoves also release nitrogen oxides. Both nitric oxide, NO,
and nitrogen dioxide, NO2, are produced in combustion, but the vast majority of nitrogen
oxides are emitted as NO. Because NO is converted to N02 in the atmosphere, emissions
of both species frequently arc lumped together with the designation NO,. When NO,
emissions are presented in mass units, the mass of NO, is calculated as if all the NO had
been converted to NO2. Because NO is the predominant NO, species formed in
combustion, we shall concentrate on it in this section.
Nitric oxide is formed both from atmospheric nitrogen, N 2, and from nitrogen contained
in some fuels. The latter source depends on the fuel composition and is not important for
fuels with low nitrogen contents but is a major source of NO, in coal however, when any
fuel is burned in air because of the high-temperature oxidation of N2
• We begin our discussion with the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
CARBON MONOXIDE
we saw that carbon monoxide is an intermediate species in the oxidation of hydrocarbon
fuels to CO2 and H20. In fuel-rich regions of a flame, the CO levels are necessarily high
since there is insufficient oxygen for complete combustion. Only if sufficient air is mixed
with such gases at sufficiently high temperature can the CO be oxidized. Thus, imperfect
mixing can allow carbon monoxide to escape from combustors that are operated fuel-lean
overall. Even in premixed combustion systems, carbon monoxide levels can be relatively
high due to the high equilibrium concentrations at the flame temperature, particularly in
internal combustion engines where the gases are hot prior to ignition due to compression.
As the combustion products are cooled by heat or work transfer, the equilibrium CO level
decreases. If equilibrium were maintained as the temperature decreased, carbon
monoxide emissions from automobiles and other well-mixed combustors would be very
low in fuel-lean operation. The extent to which CO is actually oxidized, however,
depends on the kinetics of the oxidation reactions and the manner of cooling. In this
section we explore the kinetics of CO oxidation and the mechanisms hat allow CO to
escape oxidation in locally fuel-lean combustion.
The predominant reaction leading to carbon monoxide oxidation in hydrocarbon
combustion is
CO+1 + OH- CO2 + H
SULFUR OXIDES
In fuel-lean combustion, the vast majority of this sulfur is oxidized to form SO 2'
Sulfides, predominantly H2S and COS, may survive in fuel-rich flames.All of these
compounds are considered air pollutants. The sulfides are odoriferous as well. Sulfur
removal, either from the fuel or from the combustion products, is required for emission
control.
A fraction of the sulfur is further oxidized beyond SO 2 to form SO3. Sulfur trioxide is a
serious concern to boiler operators since it corrodes combustion equipment. When
combustion products containing S03 are cooled, the S03 may react with water to form
sulfuric acid,
SO3 + H20 ~ H2S04
which condenses rapidly at ambient temperatures to form a fine sulfuric acid aerosol that
frequently appears as a blue fume near the stack outlet.
The equilibrium level of S03 in fuel-lean combustion products is determined by
the overall reaction
S02 + ~ O2 • ~ S03
We see that the equilibrium yield of S0 3 increases with decreasing temperature. In
combustion products below about 900 K, S03 would be the dominant species at chemical
equilibrium. Actual conversion of S02 to S03 is too slow to reach the equilibrium level.
S03 is formed primarily by the reaction I

HYDROCARBONS
Like CO, hydrocarbon emissions from combustion systems result from incomplete
combustion. Equilibrium levels of hydrocarbons are low at the equivalence ratios at
which practical combustion systems are normally operated, and the oxidation reactions
arc fast. Hydrocarbons can escape destruction if poor mixing allows very fuel-rich gases
 to persist to the combustor exhaust or if the oxidation reactions are quenched early in the
combustion process. The composition and quantity of hydrocarbons in exhaust gases
depend on the nature of the fuel and of the process that limits oxidation. The range of
hydrocarbon species that are emitted from combustion systems is too broad to present a
detailed accounting here. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are a particularly
significant class of combustion-generated hydrocarbons since they include a number of
known carcinogens or mutagens. These compounds form in extremely fuel-rich regions
of the flame, where hydrocarbon polymerization reactions are favored over oxidation.
Figure illustrates pathways that are thought to lead to a number of PAH species. The
complexities and uncertainties in hydrocarbon oxidation mechanisms make a detailed
analysis beyond the scope of this book. Rough estimates of hydrocarbon emission rates
can be made using global oxidation models, but quantitative models have yet to be
developed.
4) Factors Influencing Motor Vehicle Emissions

1. Vehicle/Fuel Characteristics
• Engine type and technology—two-stroke, four-stroke; Diesel, Otto, Wankel, other engines; fuel
injection, turbocharging,
and other engine design features; type of transmission system
• Exhaust, crankcase, and evaporative emission control systems in place—catalytic converters,
exhaust gas recirculation, air
injection, Stage II and other vapor recovery systems
• Engine mechanical condition and adequacy of maintenance
• Air conditioning, trailer towing, and other vehicle appurtenances
• Fuel properties and quality—contamination, deposits, sulfur, distillation characteristics,
composition (e.g., aromatics, olefin
content) additives (e.g., lead), oxygen content, gasoline octane, diesel cetane
• Alternative fuels
• Deterioration characteristics of emission control equipment
• Deployment and effectiveness of inspection/maintenance (I/M) and anti-tampering (ATP)
program
2. Fleet Characteristics
• Vehicle mix (number and type of vehicles in use)
• Vehicle utilization (kilometers per vehicle per year) by vehicle type.
• Age profile of the vehicle fleet
• Traffic mix and choice of mode for passenger/goods movements
• Emission standards in effect and incentives/disincentives for purchase of cleaner vehicles
• Adequacy and coverage of fleet maintenance programs
• Clean fuels program
3. Operating Characteristics
• Altitude, temperature, humidity (for NOx emissions)
• Vehicle use patterns—number and length of trips, number of cold starts, speed, loading,
aggressiveness of driving behavior
• Degree of traffic congestion, capacity and quality of road infrastructure, and traffic control
systems
• Transport demand management programs
 5) Sources of atmospheric particulate matter

Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and
grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of
fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes, also generate
significant amounts of particulates. Coal combustion in developing countries is the
primary method for heating homes and supplying energy. Because salt spray over the
oceans is the overwhelmingly most common form of particulate in the atmosphere,
anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10
percent of the total mass of aerosols in our atmosphere

In general, the smaller and lighter a particle is, the longer it will stay in the air. Larger
particles (greater than 10 micrometers in diameter) tend to settle to the ground by gravity
in a matter of hours whereas the smallest particles (less than 1 micrometer) can stay in the
atmosphere for weeks and are mostly removed by precipitation. Diesel particulate matter
is highest near the source of emission. Any info regarding DPM and the atmosphere,
flora, height, and distance from major sources would be useful to determine health
effects.

Black carbon

Black carbon (BC), or carbon black, or elemental carbon (EC), often called soot, is
composed of pure carbon clusters, skeleton balls and buckyballs, and is one of the most
important absorbing aerosol species in the atmosphere. It should be distinguished from
organic carbon (OC): clustered or aggregated organic molecules on their own or
permeating an EC buckyball

6) Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

The NOx emissions reduction technique lies within the engine, wherein the engine re-circulates a
portion of the exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders depriving it of certain amount of oxygen
thereby leading to lower temperature burn. This reduces NOx emissions, but produces more PM
which is reduced using diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and particulate filter.
EGR technology will be beneficial for low or medium duty cycles (e.g. city bus applications,
short haul rated load applications etc.)
What is an EGR System?
EGR system recirculates the exhaust gas back in the engine, which contains unburnt fuel and
carbon, reduces the combustion temperature, hence bringing down NOx.
While doing so, PM increases, which is then controlled outside the engine using a filter. It is an
easy to use system with low initial cost. However the EGR system has a lower combustion
efficiency and a higher heat rejection. This causes unburnt carbon and fuel to enter the system,
and possibly impacts its reliability and durability.

EGR System Working

 7) SI ENGINE EMISSION CONTROL

The main methods, among various methods, for S.I. engine emission control are:
 Modification in the engine design and operating parameters.
 Treatment of exhaust products of combustion.
 Modification of the fuels.

Modification in the Engine Design and Operating Parameters

Modification of combustion chamber involves avoiding flame quenching zones
where combustion might otherwise be incomplete and resulting in high HC
emission. This includes: Reduction of surface to volume (SAT) ratio, Reduced
space around piston ring.

Lower compression ratio: Lower compression ratio reduces the quenching effect
by reducing the quenching area, thus reducing HC.Lower compression ratio also
reduces NO emissions due to lower maximum temperature. Lower compression,
however, reduces thermal efficiency and increases fuel consumption.
Treatment of exhaust products of combustion.
The exhaust gas coming out of exhaust manifold is treated to reduce JIC and CO
emissions. The devices used to accomplish are After burner , Exhaust manifold reactor
and Catalytic converter.
After-burner: is a burner where air is supplied to the exhaust gases and mixture is burnt with
the help of ignition system. The HC and CO which are formed in the engine combustion
because of inadequate 02 and inadequate time to burn are further brunt by providing air in a
separate box, known as after-burner.
Exhaust manifold reactor is a further development of after-burner where the design is
changed so as to minimize the heat loss and to provide sufficient time for mixing of
exhaust and secondary air. 3. Catalytic converter:
A catalytic converter is a device which is placed in the vehicle exhaust system to reduce
HC and CO by oxidizing catalyst and NO by reducing catalyst.

Modification of the fuels

The ability of a fuel to burn in mixtures leaner than stoichiometric ratio is a rough
indication of its potential emission reducing characteristics and reduced fuel
consumption. If gasoline is changed to propane as engine fuel CO emission can
substantially be reduced with reduced HC and NO and in changing from propane to
methane the CO as well HC emission touch zero level and only the NO remains as a
significant factor.• From pollution point of view both methane and steam reformed
hexane are very attractive fuels but we are unable to use at present for want of
technological progress.
 Part- B;
1) Explain the principle of operation of three-way catalytic converter.
A3-way catalytic converter is a sophisticated device used in the exhaust system of many modern
petrol engine vehicles. It converts harmful gases in the engine exhaust to relatively harmless
gases.Three-way catalytic converters (TWC) have the additional advantage of controlling the
emission of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (both together abbreviated with NOx and
not to be confused with nitrous oxide (N2O)), which are precursors to acid rain and smog
use 3-way catalytic converters;
The exhaust gases from an engine contain harmful substances such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO) and Hydrocarbons (HC). These substances produce extreme environment
hazards. 3-way catalytic converters convert these harmful substances to less harmful nitrogen
(N2), carbon-di-oxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Working:
A three-way catalytic converter makes use of two catalysts to convert harmful gases to harmless
gases. They are:
 Reduction Catalyst and
 Oxidation Catalyst
The reduction catalyst is made of platinum and rhodium while the oxidation catalyst is made of
platinum and palladium. Both the catalysts have a ceramic honeycomb structure.
Block Diagram of a 3-way Catalytic Converter;
 Stage 1 – Reduction Catalyst: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen (N2)
The exhaust gases are first sent over the reduction catalyst (which is made of platinum and
rhodium). It converts oxides of nitrogen (NO x) to nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). The following
reactions take place when the exhaust gases pass over the reduction catalyst

 2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO2 + N2
 hydrocarbon + NO → CO2 + H2O + N2
 2 H2 + 2 NO → 2 H2O + N2

Stage 1 - Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide

Exhaust gases that are free of oxides of nitrogen (NO x) are then sent over the oxidation catalyst
(made of platinum and palladium). The oxidation catalyst coverts carbon-monoxide (CO) and
hydrocarbons (HC) in the gases into carbon-di-oxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
HC + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Dangers of pollutants;

Nitrogen oxides: These compounds are of the same family as nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid, nitrous
oxide, nitrates, and nitric oxide. When NO x is released into the air, it reacts, stimulated
by sunlight, with organic compounds in the air; the result is smog.

Carbon monoxide; This is a harmful variant of a naturally occurring gas, CO 2. Odorless and
colorless, this gas does not have many useful functions in everyday processes.

2) Explain the principle of operation of FID

A flame ionization detector (FID) is a scientific instrument that measures analyte in a gas
stream. It is frequently used as a detector in gas chromatography. The measurement of ion per
unit time make this a mass sensitive instrument. [1] Standalone FIDs can also be used in
applications such as landfill gas monitoring, fugitive emissions monitoring and internal
combustion engine emissions measurement[2] in stationary or portable instruments.
Working operation; The diagram shows the flame ionization detector used in gas
chromatography. It consists of a burner in which the effluent in the burner is mixed with
hydrogen and air. This mixture is then ignited electrically.
Most of the organic compounds when paralyzed at the temperature of H 2/air flame, they produce
ions and electrons which can conduct electrically through flame.

The flame ionization detector is powerful detector for the analysis of organic samples because of
insensitivity of flame ionization detector towards the functional groups like carbonyl, alcohol,
halogen and amine as well as the non-combustible gases like H2O, CO2, NOx. It is particularly
used for the detection of pollutants in natural water sample.

The operation of the FID is based on the detection of ions formed during combustion of organic
compounds in a hydrogen flame. The generation of these ions is proportional to the
concentration of organic species in the sample gas stream. FID measurements are usually
reported as "as methane", meaning as the quantity of methane which would produce the same
response. Hydrocarbons generally have molar response factors that are equal to the number of
carbon atoms in their molecule, while oxygenates and other species that contain heteroatom’s
tend to have a lower response factor. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are not detectable by
FID.
Advantages of flame ionization detector:
High sensitivity (10^-13 gm/sec.)
Large linear response range (10^7)
Low noise
Rugged and easy to use Low maintenance requirements: Apart from cleaning or replacing the
FID jet, these detectors require little maintenance.
Disadvantages;
Flame ionization detectors cannot detect inorganic substances and some highly oxygenated or
functionalized species like infrared and laser technology can.
In some systems, CO and CO2 can be detected in the FID using a methanizer,

3) Explain the principle of operation of NDIR gas analyser.

A no dispersive infrared sensor (or NDIR sensor) is a simple spectroscopic sensor often used
as a gas detector. It is no dispersive in the sense of optical dispersion since the infrared energy is
allowed to pass through the atmospheric sampling chamber without deformation

Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR) detectors are the industry standard method of measuring the
concentration of carbon oxides (CO & CO2).

Each constituent gas in a sample will absorb some infra red at a particular frequency. By shining
an infra-red beam through a sample cell (containing CO or CO 2), and measuring the amount of
infra-red absorbed by the sample at the necessary wavelength, a NDIR detector is able to
measure the volumetric concentration of CO or CO2 in the sample

NDIR Gas Measurement;All gas molecules vibrate and rotate atparticular frequencies. These
vibration/rotational frequencies causeasymmetric molecules to absorb lightat very specific
wavelengths.The NDIR technique of gas measurement targets thesewavelength absorptions in
the infrared as a way to identifyparticular gases.
Design Layout for the Single-Beam Methodology;
HH
Design Layout for the Double-Beam Methodology;

4) Discus about particulate traps.

Diesel particulate filter;
A diesel particulate filter (or DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from
the exhaust gas of a diesel engine.
Definition. Diesel particulate filters (DPF) are devices that physically capture diesel particulates to
prevent their release to the atmosphere. Diesel particulate filter materials have been developed that show
impressive filtration efficiencies, in excess of 90%, as well as good mechanical and thermal durability.
Diesel particulate filters have become the most effective technology for the control of diesel particulate
emissions—including particle mass and numbers—with high efficiencies.
Wall-flow diesel particulate filters usually remove 85% or more of the soot, and under certain conditions
can attain soot removal efficiencies approaching 100%. Some filters are single-use, intended for disposal
and replacement once full of accumulated ash.
Diesel engines produce a variety of particles during combustion of the fuel/air mix due to incomplete
combustion. The composition of the particles varies widely dependent upon engine type, age, and the
emissions specification that the engine was designed to meet.
Two-stroke diesel engines produce more particulate per unit of power than do four-stroke diesel engines,
as they burn the fuel-air mix less completely. [

The term “diesel particulate trap” is sometimes used as a synonym for “diesel particulate filter”,
especially in older literature. The term “trap” covers a wider class of particle separation devices.

Variants of DPF;
Unlike a catalytic converter which is a flow-through device, a DPF retains bigger exhaust gas particles by
forcing the gas to flow through the filter

There are a variety of diesel particulate filter technologies on the market. Each is designed
around similar requirements:

1. Fine filtration
2. Minimum pressure drop
3. Low cost
4. Mass production suitability
5. Product durability

5) Discus the mechanism of formation of CO, HC and NO x emission

NOx emission;

This article is about nitrogen oxides produced during combustion. For a more extensive list of
nitrogen oxides, see nitrogen oxide. For other meanings of "NOx", see NOx.

In atmospheric chemistry, NOx is a generic term for the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for
air pollution, namely nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).[1][2] These gases contribute to
the formation of smog and acid rain, as well as tropospheric ozone.
In atmospheric chemistry, the term NOx denotes the total concentration of NO and NO 2. During daylight,
these concentrations together with that of ozone are in steady state; the ratio of NO to NO2 is determined
by the intensity of sunshine (which converts NO2 to NO) and the concentration of ozone (which reacts
with NO to again form NO2).

NO + O3 → NO2 + O2

Formation of nitric acid and acid rain

NO2 is further oxidized in the gas phase during daytime by reaction with OH

NO2 + OH (+M) → HNO3 (+M),

where M denotes a third molecule required to stabilize the addition product. Nitric acid (HNO3)
is highly soluble in liquid water in aerosol particles or cloud drops.

NO2 also reacts with ozone to form nitrate radical

NO2 + O3 → NO3 + O2.

During the day NO3 is quickly photolyzed back to NO2, but at night it can react with a second
NO2 to form dinitrogen pentoxide

NO2 + NO3 (+M) → N2O5 (+M).

N2O5 reacts rapidly with liquid water (in aerosol particles or cloud drops, but not in the gas
phase) to form nitric acid HNO3,

N2O5 + H2O(liq) → 2 HNO3(aq)

These are thought to be the principal pathways for formation of nitric acid in the atmosphere.[6]:224–
225
This nitric acid contributes to acid rain or may deposit to soil, where it makes nitrate, which is
of use to growing plants. The aqueous phase reaction

2 NO2 +  H2O → HNO2 + HNO3

Hydrocarbon (HC);
Hydrocarbon level in the exhaust gas in the range of 1000 – 3000 ppm. HC emission rises
rapidly as the mixture become substance richer then the stoichiometric.
HC emission formation mechanism of are dealt following;
Leaving a layer of unburned air fuel mixture to the adjacent wall is knows as flame quenching.
Crevice volume plays a vital role in HC emission.
The large crevice region in the volume between the piston, piston rings, cylinderwall, the threads
around the spark plug, the space around the plug center electrode, intake valve, exhaust vale and
gasket region is the crevice region which lest the unburned mixture to escape.
Carbon (CO);
CO is emitted with the exhaust gas due to the incomplete combustion of carbon. the incomplete
combustion occurs due to dissociation process.
The measured concentration of CO is greater than the equilibrium concentration. CO
concentration does not drop to zero when the mixture is chemically correct and leaner.
If we reduce CO emission we have to run the engine with lean mixture and this in turn reduces
the power output.
Thermal reactor is the device which inject the exhaust stream and flame to produce combustion
of CO and CO2.
This can all so be done with the help of catalytic converter.
 6) Clearly explain about the smoke measurement in engine.
Smog is a type of air pollutant. The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century as a
portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog, its opacity, and odour. [1] The
word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and
serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid-20th century. This kind of visible
air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, ozone, smoke or dirt particles
and also less visible particles such as CFC's. Human-made smog is derived from coal
emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and
photochemical reactions of these emissions.
Modern smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a type of air pollution derived from
vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the
atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog.
. The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Lahore, Mexico City,
Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground. It is
usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness, shortened life ordeath.
Coal emission;
Coal fires, used to heat individual buildings or in a power-producing plant, can emit
significant clouds of smoke that contributes to smog. Air pollution from this source has been
reported in England since the Middle Ages.[3][4] London, in particular, was notorious up
through the mid-20th century for its coal-caused smogs, which were nicknamed 'pea-soupers.'
Air pollution of this type is still a problem in areas that generate significant smoke from
burning coal.
Transportation emissions;
Traffic emissions – such as from trucks, buses, and automobiles – also contribute.[6] Airborne
by-products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the
creation of smog in some large cities.
The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO),[11][12] nitrogen
oxides (NO and NOx),[13][14][15] volatile organic compounds,[12][13] sulfur dioxide,[12] and
hydrocarbons.[12] (Hydrocarbons are the main components .

Photochemical smog; Photochemical smog is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides
and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, which leaves airborne particles and ground-
level ozone.[16] This noxious mixture of air pollutants may include the following:

 Aldehydes
 Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide
 Peroxyacyl nitrates
 Tropospheric ozone
 Volatile organic compounds

A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source. A secondary pollutant is
not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the
atmosphere. Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed when
hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NO x) combine in the presence of sunlight; nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), which is formed as nitric oxide (NO) combines with oxygen in the air; and
acid rain,
Health effects;
Smog is a serious problem in many cities and continues to harm human health. [23][24]Ground-
level ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are especially harmful for
senior citizens, children, and people with heart and lung conditions such as emphysema,
bronchitis, and asthma.[25] It can inflame breathing passages, decrease the lungs' working
capacity, cause shortness of breath, pain when inhaling deeply, wheezing, and coughing.