AS Music Technology Unit 2

Recording, Processing & Mixing Keywords

MICROPHONES
Condenser microphones
• Wide, extended frequency response
• Detailed clear sound with good high-frequency
pickup
• Sensitive with good transient response
• Require battery or phantom power
• More fragile than dynamic mics – therefore
more suitable for recording than live applications
• High output so less gain required at mixer input generates less noise
(hiss)
Dynamic microhpones
• Rougher frequency response
• Good for high volume levels
• Poor transient response
• More robust than condenser mics. Will
withstand hotter/colder climates/humidity
• Lower output level requires higher gain at input.
• Less performer handling noise

NOTE:
Transient - The initial high-energy peak at the beginning of a waveform,
such as one caused by the percussive action of a pick or hammer hitting the
string, etc.

Transient Response - Response to signals whose amplitudes rise very

quickly, such as drum beats and waveforms from percussive instruments.

PICKUP PATTERNS
• Omni-directional – wide, flat frequency response
- good pickup of low to high frequencies
- will pick up room reverberation
- poor isolation unless very close to sound source
- not affected by Proximity Effect - In directional microphones, the
boost in the microphone's output for bass frequencies as the mic is
moved closer to the sound source.
• Cardioid family
- reject reverberation, background noise and spill (from other
 AS Music Technology Unit 2
Recording, Processing & Mixing Keywords

instruments)
- better isolation
- good for stereo coincident or near-coincident miking.
- exhibit the proximity effect in relative level of bass frequencies
• Cardioid
• Super cardioid
• Hypercardioid
• Figure of eight

MICROPHONE CHOICE
For most multi-tracking application you would use close miking techniques.

VOCALS
Condenser most commonly used with a large diaphragm using a cardioid
pattern. Possibly try a dynamic microphone for a powerful male vocal with
large dynamic range. You have to watch out for exaggerated sibilance (over-
emphasis of ‘s’ and ‘sh’ sounds) and early reflections from flat surfaces. Use a
pop shield to reduce these unwanted “plosives”.

GUITARS
Electric – mic amp close to speaker, slightly off axis (to one side) with
dynamic microphone. If using two mics, you could experiment with a
condenser mic too, further away from the speaker to capture ambience. 30-
60cm away.
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Recording, Processing & Mixing Keywords

Acoustic – use condenser close to where the fingerboard joins the body – you
could experiment with more than one mic to capture different aspects, i.e. fret
noise. Usually between 30-60cm away.
Bass – usually D.I. (direct injection), though you could experiment with a
dynamic or condenser mic in front of a speaker.

DRUMS
Kick drum – cardioid dynamic mic in kick drum close to skin – AKG D112.
Snare – cardioid dynamic –Sure sm57 or sm58 – experiment with distance
to drum to achieve variable proximity effect.
Hi-hat – condenser – AKG C1000, watch for miking too close to the edge of
the Hi-hat where you will capture a huge ‘puff’ as Hi-hat is opened and closed.
Tom-toms – cardioid dynamic close to the edge – individually miked.
Cymbals – usually picked up with two cardioid condenser overhead mics
working as a stereo pair. AKG C1000, SE1a.

EQ and EFFECTS PROCESSING

An equalizer (commonly abbreviated as EQ) shapes the sound of incoming
audio by changing the level of specific frequency bands.
You can use EQ to subtly or significantly shape the sound of an audio file,
instrument, or project by adjusting specific frequencies or frequency ranges.
All EQs are specialized filters that allow certain frequencies to pass through
unchanged while raising (boosting) or lowering (cutting) the level of other
frequencies. Some EQs can be used in a “broad-brush” fashion, to boost or cut
a large range of frequencies. Other EQs, particularly parametric and
multiband EQs, can be used for more precise control.
The simplest types of EQs are single-band EQs, which include low cut and
high cut, lowpass and highpass, shelving, and parametric EQs. A parametric
EQ allows continuous control of each of the three primary EQ parameters;
frequency, gain and bandwidth as independent properties
Multiband EQs (such as the Channel EQ or Fat EQ) combine several filters in
one unit, enabling you to control a large part of the frequency spectrum.
Multiband EQs allow you to independently set the frequency, bandwidth, and
Q factor of each frequency spectrum band. This provides extensive, and
precise, tone-shaping on any audio source, be it an individual audio signal or
an overall mix.
Equalisation - EQ.
Three basic bands of EQ:
HI – Typically above 10kHz
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Recording, Processing & Mixing Keywords

LOW – Typically below 100Hz

MID – in between the above
Mixing desks allow you to select a band (or bands) – usually around 1000Hz if
fixed. Most desks allow you to dial in any value you wish within the mid-range
limits. These are called ‘sweepable’ mids. They have two controls – a gain
control which either cuts or boosts the selected mid frequency range, which
is set by the ‘frequency’ control.

Terms to use to describe the use of EQ.

Use the terms cut and boost and try to be precise when describing the use of
EQ. For example, if a mix sounds muddy or indistinct you might describe the
sound as having a ‘limited frequency range’ or lacking ‘Hi frequency
clarity’. To cure this you might ‘cut some low-mid frequencies’.
Remember that EQ is most effective when you cut rather than boost. This is
because boosting frequencies tends to stand out more in a mix and cause
imbalance (and potential distortion) whereas cutting can achieve the same
result in a more subtle way.

DYNAMIC PROCESSING & EFFECTS

PROCESSING
Dynamic processors include: noise gates and compressors and
limiters,
Effects processors include: reverb, delay, modulation effects (chorus,
flanger, phaser) and overdrive/distortion. Other effects processing that
you must be aware of is guitar effects processing: Wah wah, flanger,
phaser, etc.

DYNAMIC PROCESSING
COMPRESSION
These behave like an automatic volume control, lowering the volume
whenever it rises above a certain level, called the threshold. By reducing the
highest parts of the signal, called peaks, a compressor raises the overall level
of the signal, increasing the perceived volume. This gives the signal more
focus by making the louder (foreground) parts stand out, while keeping the
softer background parts from becoming inaudible. Compression also tends to
make sounds tighter or punchier because transients are emphasized,
depending on attack and release settings, and because the maximum volume
is reached more swiftly.
Key parameters:
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Threshold - Sets the threshold level—signals above this threshold value are
reduced in level.
Ratio—the ratio of signal reduction when the threshold is exceeded. It
normally ranges between 1:1 (which is read "one to one", and represents unity
gain, i.e., no attenuation at all) and 40:1 (forty to one). The ratios are
expressed in decibels, so that a ratio of, for instance, 6:1, means that a signal
exceeding the threshold by 6 dB will be attenuated down to 1 dB above the
threshold. Likewise, a 3:1 (three to one) ratio means that a signal exceeding
the threshold by 3 dB will be attenuated down to 1 dB.
Output gain - Since compression introduces attenuation, this can be
compensated by raising the output volume and in fact this control is often
referred to as "makeup gain", as it makes up for the compression-induced
attenuation.
Attack – Determines the amount of time it takes for the compressor to react
when the signal exceeds the threshold.
Release - Determines the amount of time it takes for the compressor to stop
reducing the signal after the signal level falls below the threshold.

LIMITING
Limiters (also called peak limiters) work in a similar way to compressors in
that they reduce the audio signal when it exceeds a set threshold. The
difference is that whereas a compressor gradually lowers signal levels that
exceed the threshold, a limiter quickly reduces any signal that is louder than
the threshold, to the threshold level. The main use of a limiter is to prevent
clipping while preserving the maximum overall signal level.

NOISE GATE
Whereas a compressor lowers the level when the signal is louder than the
threshold, a noise gate lowers the signal level whenever it falls below the
threshold. Louder sounds pass through unchanged, but softer sounds, such
as ambient noise or the decay of a sustained instrument, are cut off. Noise
gates are often used to eliminate low-level noise or hum from an audio signal.

EFFECTS PROCESSING

REVERB – There are quite a few different types of reverb. You can call
them reverb modes, or room types. Some of the more common types include;
Room, Hall, Chamber, Spring and Plate. In our age, we have access to
digital reverb simulators, which can simulate, quite realistically, all of these
programmed room or reverb modes.
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Room reverb – These types simulate the sound of having recorded

something in a room. Whether the parameters are for a big room or a drum
room, they usually simulate smaller spaces than their Hall/Chamber
counterparts.
Hall reverb – Rich, warm and big are the first adjectives that come to
mind when thinking about Hall reverb. These types simulate halls, whether
they be medium halls, concert halls, or whatever lush parameter name the hall
has.
Plate reverb –Plate reverb is basically sound being sent to a metal plate
which vibrates back and forth. These vibrations are picked up and
transformed into an audio signal. Plate reverbs are very bright but clean, so
they suit vocals especially.
Spring reverb – I was once asked what reverb was when I was fooling
around with my guitar. I cranked up the reverb on my small practice amp and
then kicked it. “That boing you heard?” “Yeah?” “That’s reverb”. Although true
is some form, that boing wasn’t all reverb, it was spring reverb. The reverb
found on guitar amps so most usually used for guitar.
• When describing the use of reverb in a mix, use the terms “wet” and
“dry” to describe how much reverb is audible.

DELAY – Delay effects store the input signal—and hold it for a short
time—before sending it to the effect input or output.
The held, and delayed, signal is repeated after a given time period, creating a
repeating echo effect. Each subsequent repeat is a little quieter than the
previous one. Most delays also allow you to feed a percentage of the delayed
signal back to the input. This can result in a subtle, chorus-like effect or
cascading, chaotic audio output.
The delay time can often be synchronized to the project tempo by matching
the grid resolution of the project, usually in note values or milliseconds.
You can use delays to double individual sounds to resemble a group of
instruments playing the same melody, to create echo effects, to place the
sound in a large “space”, to generate rhythmic effects, or to enhance the stereo
position of tracks in a mix.
Key Parameters:
Delay time: Sets the current delay time in milliseconds
Feedback: Determines the amount of delayed and filtered signal that is
routed back to the input. i.e. how many repeats are audible.
Mix (or wet/dry): The blend between untreated signal and delayed signal.
• In Rock’n’Roll slapback echo was a common feature, especially used
on guitars and vocals.
• Delay/echo is a common feature of dub reggae
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• U2 guitarist the Edge has used tape delay as a feature of his style i.e.
Pride (In The Name of Love)

MODULATION EFFECTS - Modulation effects are used to add

motion and depth to your sound.
Effects such as chorus, flanging, and phasing are well-known examples.
Modulation effects typically delay the incoming signal by a few milliseconds
and use an LFO to modulate the delayed signal. The LFO may also be used to
modulate the delay time in some effects.
A low frequency oscillator (LFO) is much like the sound-generating oscillators
in synthesizers, but the frequencies generated by an LFO are so low that they
can’t be heard. Therefore, they are used only for modulation purposes. LFO
parameters include speed (or frequency) and depth—also called intensity—
controls.
You can also control the ratio of the affected (wet) signal and the original (dry)
signal. Some modulation effects include feedback parameters, which add part
of the effect’s output back into the effect input.
Other modulation effects involve pitch. The most basic type of pitch
modulation effect is vibrato. It uses an LFO to modulate the frequency of the
sound. Unlike other pitch modulation effects, vibrato alters only the delayed
signal.
More complex Logic Express modulation effects, such as Ensemble, mix
several delayed signals with the original signal.

OVERDRIVE/DISTORTION - You can use Distortion effects to

recreate the sound of analog or digital distortion and to radically transform
your audio.
Distortion effects simulate the distortion created by vacuum tubes, transistors,
or digital circuits. Vacuum tubes were used in audio amplifiers before the
development of digital audio technology, and they are still used in musical
instrument amplifiers today. When overdriven, they produce a type of
distortion that many people find musically pleasing, and which has become a
familiar part of the sound of rock and pop music. Analog tube distortion adds
a distinctive warmth and bite to the signal.
There are also distortion effects that intentionally cause clipping and digital
distortion of the signal. These can be used to modify vocal, music, and other
tracks to produce an intense, unnatural effect, or to create sound effects.
Distortion effects include parameters for tone, which let you shape the way the
distortion alters the signal (often as a frequency-based filter), and for gain,
which let you control how much the distortion alters the output level of the
signal.