energies

Article
Variable Pitch Propeller for UAV-Experimental Tests
Maciej Pods˛edkowski 1, *, Rafał Konopiński 1 , Damian Obidowski 2 and Katarzyna Koter 1
1 Institute of Machine Tools and Production Engineering, Lodz University of Technology,
90924 Łódź, Poland; konopinski33@gmail.com (R.K.); katarzyna.koter@p.lodz.pl (K.K.)
2 Institute of Turbomachinery, Lodz University of Technology, 90924 Łódź, Poland;
damian.obidowski@p.lodz.pl
* Correspondence: mpodsedkowski@gmail.com




Received: 1 September 2020; Accepted: 3 October 2020; Published: 10 October 2020


Abstract: Growth in application fields of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and an increase in their
total number are followed by higher and higher expectations imposed on improvements in UAV
propulsion and energy management systems. Most commercial vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL)
UAVs employ a constant pitch propeller that forces a mission execution tradeoff in the majority
of cases. An alternative solution, presented here, consists of the use of a variable pitch propeller.
The paper summarizes experimental measurements of the propulsion system equipped with an
innovative variable pitch rotor. The investigations incorporated characteristics of the rotor for no wind
conditions and a new approach to optimize pitch settings in hover flight as a function of UAV weight
and energy consumption. As UAV battery capacity is always limited, efficient energy management is
the only way to increase UAV mission performance. The study shows that use of a variable pitch
propeller can increase the maximal takeoff weight of the aircraft and improve power efficiency in
hover, especially if load varies for different missions. The maximal thrust measured was 31% higher
with respect to the original blade settings. The coefficient of thrust during hover showed an increase
of 2.6% up to 7.5% for various pitch angles with respect to the original fixed propeller.

Keywords: UAV; variable pitch propeller; drone rotor; energy optimization; drone;
experimental aerodynamics

1. Introduction
Since the early 1990s, dynamic development of small unmanned flying vehicles [1] can be observed.
An important issue when designing and building them is to ensure best performance, which includes
flight time [2], load capacity [3], the maximal distance that the unit can cover [4] and the maximal
speed [5].
Currently, great emphasis is placed on high flight parameters resulting directly from the quality
of propulsion system [6] and trajectory optimization [7]. Such a system usually consists of a battery,
an engine speed controller (ESC), an engine and a propeller [8]. Propellers, which are usually used,
have a constant pitch due to their simple construction [9]. Consequently, such propellers are adapted
to specific flight conditions [10]. Therefore, it is impossible to achieve optimal performance while
changing flight conditions.
A significant increase in interest in the commercial use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for
moving packages is visible [11,12]. It allows parcels to be delivered on time, even when the area is
geologically unfavorable. Considering this advantage, many companies such as Amazon or DHL
decided to introduce unmanned aerial vehicles into the transport industry [13]. There are also attempts
to introduce small autonomous units to transport people [14].
The main priority in newly developed transport UAVs is the possibility of vertical takeoff and
landing combined with a large operational range of these units. This goal requires the highest possible

Energies 2020, 13, 5264; doi:10.3390/en13205264 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 5264 2 of 16

efficiency from the drone propulsion system. Since the drone flies in two basic configurations, with and
without load, operating conditions of UAVs in the air are significantly different.
Flight conditions largely depend on the total weight of unit; therefore, the weight of load compared
to the weight of drone has to be considered. To achieve optimal flight conditions, the right propeller
should be selected for each configuration. However, it is practically impossible to exchange the
propeller during flight. Therefore, a suitable solution would be to install mechanisms to change the
rotor geometry, which would allow the propulsion system to adapt to flight conditions.
Many innovative designs of the powered-lift aircraft have been presented, such as a plane airframe
structure with additional engines for vertical flight [15], a tail-sitter [16–18], a tiltrotor [19,20] and a
tiltwing [21]. The majority of these solutions involve the use of fixed pitch propellers. They affect the
selection options of propellers, since flight of the aircraft involves at least three phases, namely, takeoff,
landing and cruise flight.
Although takeoff climb speed is low for powered-lifts, very high thrust during takeoff is necessary
to lift up the entire aircraft with load. This requires propellers adapted to low flight speeds, i.e., those
with a small pitch. For cruising flight, larger pitch propellers are demanded to maintain optimal
performance. Since cruising speed can be very high, propeller selection is averaged. As a result,
tradeoff must be defined; the outcome of this is a situation where the rotor does not reach its maximal
speed and thrust during the start due to a high resistance torque of the propeller, and, on the other
hand, the maximal speed is limited by the propeller pitch.
A solution to problems with limited propeller pitch capabilities is to use variable pitch propellers.
This is a direction of drone development that was once seen for flying units. At the beginning of
aviation development, propellers with a fixed pitch were used to propel the aircraft, but soon it turned
out to be inefficient. Therefore, mechanisms allowing the pitch of propellers to be changed began
to be used. At first, a ground adjustable pitch propeller, which allows pitch to be changed only on
the ground when the device is stationary, was introduced. Then, mechanisms that could change the
blade wedge angle during flight were introduced. The cause of those attempts was to achieve the
best flight performance, especially speed. Nowadays, the drone market is entering a similar phase
of development.
A technological development entails a possibility to miniaturize flying units. However, further
extension of their capabilities requires optimization of flight parameters and an increase in performance.
In order to adjust to this development trend, it is necessary to conduct research in the field of pitch
change mechanisms adapted to small aircrafts and to analyze available propellers in terms of their
applicability and performance.
Experimental and numerical studies were carried out on fixed pitch propellers for UAVs [22,23].
The research included examination of propeller parameters in stationary air [24] and in the wind
tunnel [25,26], where the characteristics of propeller work during flight were examined. The research
also concerned noise generated by propellers [27] and propeller behavior in crosswinds [28]. Rotors with
variable pitch blades, intended for drones, were tested for helicopters [29–31], but there are still no
data for small rotors for small unmanned fixed-wing or multi-rotor drones. The main reason for this is
that on the market there are no readily available mechanisms that allow for a change of the blade pitch
in an effective way. However, there are mechanisms adapted to small units [32–34]. These systems are
primarily designed for elastic propellers with a diameter of about 10 inches and are not suitable for use
in industry where a high load capacity is required. In addition, variable pitch propellers are used in
flight control of quadrotor drones instead of controlling engine speed [35].
Mathematical models of variable pitch propellers, characterized by different levels of complexity,
to calculate thrust and torque in particular, were investigated in [36]. A possible method to control
motors in order to reduce drag was developed based on those models. The models were experimentally
tested on a symmetrical airfoil blade propeller and one of them fits best the experimental data for this
specific solution.
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Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

Currently, commercially available unmanned aerial vehicles solutions based on fixed pitch
propellers
demand. Aare not always
solution that cansufficiently efficient;
significantly therefore,
increase they are of
the capabilities notdrones
able to is meet
to useglobal
rotorsmarket
with a
demand. A solution that can significantly increase the capabilities of
variable pitch mechanism. A propulsion system equipped with a mechanism changing the rotor drones is to use rotors with a
variable pitch mechanism. A propulsion system equipped with a mechanism
blade pitch angle can increase hovering thrust. This mechanism is especially devoted to vertical changing the rotor blade
pitch
takeoffangle
andcan increase
landing hovering
(VTOL) thrust.where
systems, This mechanism
takeoff andis landing
especially devoted
require high to vertical
thrust. takeoff and
It is worth
landing
mentioning(VTOL) thatsystems,
the timewhere takeoff
of these and landing
operations requiremuch
is usually high thrust.
shorterItcompared
is worth mentioning
to the timethat
of the
the
time of these operations is usually much shorter compared to the time of the entire
entire flight. Thus, after takeoff, it is necessary to adjust the pitch of the blades to the flight speed flight. Thus, after
in
takeoff,
order toitmaximize
is necessary to adjust the pitch of the blades to the flight speed in order to maximize efficiency.
efficiency.
The present paper
The present paperpresents
presentstest test results
results of aofmodified,
a modified, commercially
commercially available available
Fluxer Fluxer
16 × 6
16 × 6 propeller. A novelty of the solution, with respect to current UAV power
propeller. A novelty of the solution, with respect to current UAV power and thrust control systems, and thrust control
systems, lies in a possibility
lies in a possibility to controltovariable
control variable pitch to increase
pitch to increase efficiency efficiency of the hovering
of the hovering propulsion
propulsion system
system
and to produce large thrust. The research method and obtained results for this propeller are
and to produce large thrust. The research method and obtained results for this propeller are
presented
presented in in the
the following
following sections.
sections.
In
In order
order to to conduct
conduct thethe investigations,
investigations, aa dedicated
dedicated test
test stand
stand was
was designed
designed and and built.
built. The
The tests
tests
conducted in standing air allowed one to determine basic characteristics
conducted in standing air allowed one to determine basic characteristics of forces and moments, of forces and moments,
together with efficiency
together with efficiency for
for different
differentangles
anglesofofattack
attackofofblades.
blades.OnOn thethe basis
basis of ofthethe characteristics,
characteristics, an
an analysis aiming at altering optimally the propeller pitch in order to adjust it with
analysis aiming at altering optimally the propeller pitch in order to adjust it with the engine speed to the engine speed
to
thethe required
required thrust
thrust waswas performed.
performed.

2. Materials and Methods

2. Materials and Methods
The investigations of the variable pitch propeller were performed with use of the dedicated test rig.
The investigations of the variable pitch propeller were performed with use of the dedicated test
Figure 1 presents the overall view of measuring station with all necessary equipment and its placement.
rig. Figure 1 presents the overall view of measuring station with all necessary equipment and its
The propeller is attached to the motor equipped with a motor controller. The controller is designed to
placement. The propeller is attached to the motor equipped with a motor controller. The controller is
drive the motor to the appropriate power speed based on the length of signal time. The period of the
designed to drive the motor to the appropriate power speed based on the length of signal time. The
set signal falls in the range from 1 to 2 ms, which is converted into motor speed. This controller also
period of the set signal falls in the range from 1 to 2 ms, which is converted into motor speed. This
has a current limiter, which limits the supplied power in order to protect the controller and motor from
controller also has a current limiter, which limits the supplied power in order to protect the controller
damage. The current protection of 30 A was introduced to prevent overheating of the controller and
and motor from damage. The current protection of 30 A was introduced to prevent overheating of
motor during all tests.
the controller and motor during all tests.

Figure measuring station

Figure 1. Scheme of the measuring station for
for testing
testing forces
forces and
and moments
moments for
for different
different stroke settings:
1-Computer
1-Computer with
with Labview
Labview software; 2-Motor controller HOLYBRO ESC TEKKO32 35A; 3-Variable
pitch
pitch propeller
propellercontroller;
controller;4-Measuring
4-Measuringcard cardATI
ATIFTIFPS1 SI-40-2;
FTIFPS1 5–6-axis
SI-40-2; force
5–6-axis andand
force torque sensor
torque F/T
sensor
Sensor Mini40;
F/T Sensor 6-Servo
Mini40; drivedrive
6-Servo of theofvariable pitchpitch
the variable propeller mechanism;
propeller 7-Motor
mechanism; Mad Mad
7-Motor 5008 from Mad
5008 from
Components
Mad Componentsand 8-Variable pitch propeller
and 8-Variable mechanism.
pitch propeller mechanism.

A
A variable
variable pitch
pitch propeller
propeller driver
driver was
was built
built on
on the
the Arduino
Arduino Mega
Mega platform.
platform. An
An in-house
in-house code
code
was
was prepared
prepared to
to control
control the
the variable
variable pitch
pitch servo
servo drive and arrange
drive and arrange the
the signal
signal to
to the
the motor
motor controller.
controller.
The code allowed us to receive and collect telemetry data that the controller generated for further
analysis. The collected data are electronic rotation speed, supply voltage, current, temperature of the
controller and the amount of energy consumed since the time the device was switched on. The
Energies 2020, 13, 5264 4 of 16

The code allowed us to receive and collect telemetry data that the controller generated for further
analysis. The
Energies 2020, 13,collected
x FOR PEERdata are electronic rotation speed, supply voltage, current, temperature of
REVIEW the
4 of 15
controller and the amount of energy consumed since the time the device was switched on. The electronic
rotation
electronicspeed is converted
rotation speed isinto the rotational
converted speed
into the of the motor
rotational speedbyofdividing it bybythe
the motor numberitofby
dividing pairs
the
of motor poles. An ATI FTIFPS1 SI-40-2 measuring card from ATI Industrial Automation,
number of pairs of motor poles. An ATI FTIFPS1 SI-40-2 measuring card from ATI Industrial compatible
with LabViewcompatible
Automation, software, was
withused in order
LabView to receive
software, a signal
was used set from
in order a six-axis
to receive force
a signal setsensor.
from a All
six-
connections and their types are shown schematically in Figure 2.
axis force sensor. All connections and their types are shown schematically in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Connection diagram on the propeller force and moments measuring station for various
Figure 2. Connection diagram on the propeller force and moments measuring station for various pitch
pitch settings.
settings.
A measuring station with the software was built to conduct investigations and collect results.
A measuring station with the software was built to conduct investigations and collect results.
The input datum to the program is voltage received from the amplifier connected to the force sensor
The input datum to the program is voltage received from the amplifier connected to the force sensor
and telemetry data from the engine speed controller. A vector of forces and moments around all three
and telemetry data from the engine speed controller. A vector of forces and moments around all three
motor axes was determined from voltage values ordered into a vector when multiplied by a calibration
motor axes was determined from voltage values ordered into a vector when multiplied by a
matrix. Data from the force sensor are collected at a frequency of 10,000 Hz for 1 s in packages of
calibration matrix. Data from the force sensor are collected at a frequency of 10,000 Hz for 1 s in
1000 measurement samples. Use of Arduino Mega allows one to average the force from each packet
packages of 1000 measurement samples. Use of Arduino Mega allows one to average the force from
and save it into a file along with the corresponding telemetry datum. An automatic measurement
each packet and save it into a file along with the corresponding telemetry datum. An automatic
procedure, which consists of setting the propeller blade in a given angular position related to the
measurement procedure, which consists of setting the propeller blade in a given angular position
spinning motor and then gradually increasing the engine motor speed, was developed. After the
related to the spinning motor and then gradually increasing the engine motor speed, was developed.
engine motor speed stabilizes, the thrust and torque generated by the propeller are measured, and the
After the engine motor speed stabilizes, the thrust and torque generated by the propeller are
telemetry datum is collected into a text file. This procedure is repeated for different propeller pitch
measured, and the telemetry datum is collected into a text file. This procedure is repeated for different
values. After the measurements, the data file was processed in MatLab software. All measurement
propeller pitch values. After the measurements, the data file was processed in MatLab software. All
data collected at the same settings were averaged. On that basis, further parameters necessary to
measurement data collected at the same settings were averaged. On that basis, further parameters
evaluate the tested drive system were determined.
necessary to evaluate the tested drive system were determined.
Electrical power was measured based on voltage and current supplied to the motor. Due to a
Electrical power was measured based on voltage and current supplied to the motor. Due to a
rapid change in current and voltage values, the average value of these parameters was used:
rapid change in current and voltage values, the average value of these parameters was used:
e ==U
P𝑃 𝑈I𝐼 (1)
(1)
Mechanical power
Mechanical power was
was calculated
calculated on
on the
the basis
basis of
of measurement
measurement of
of rotational
rotational speed
speed and
and drive
drive
torqueof
torque ofthe
theengine:
engine:

𝑃 ==Q𝑄ΩΩ
Pm (2)
(2)
Efficiency of the motor drive system is expressed by a ratio of mechanical power to electric
power:
𝑃
𝜂 = (3)
𝑃
Energies 2020, 13, 5264 5 of 16

Efficiency of the motor drive system is expressed by a ratio of mechanical power to electric power:

Pm
ηm = (3)
Pe

Coefficients of thrust and power are commonly used to describe propeller performance in general
aviation, and it is easy compare propellers with each other based on those. The coefficients were
calculated on the basis of the following well-known formulas:

T
CT = (4)
ρn2 D4

Pm
CP = (5)
ρn3 D5
The thrust coefficient during hover was calculated as a ratio of weight balanced by thrust to
mechanical power. During the test, the highest possible value of the index is important, in particular
for UAV units, since efficiency of the entire flying unit when hovering depends on the thrust coefficient.
The higher the coefficient, the better the propeller performance. Usually for lower rotational speed,
the coefficient of thrust during hover (CTh ) is greater than for high speed. Then, it is necessary to
determine the level of energy used to stay in the air:

T
CTh = × 1000 (6)
gPe

Measurement uncertainties of the experiment were determined on the basis of the accuracy of
measuring devices and on the basis of the number of measurements taken. The uncertainty calculation
method was the standard method combining type A uncertainty with type B uncertainty. For these
parameters, coefficients were calculated on the basis of the following formulae:
s
2 2 2 2
nπ Tπ −Tnπ −Tnπ
   
Uηm = UT + Un + UU + UI (7)
30UI 30UI 30U2 I 30UI2
s
!2 !2
UT −2TUn
UCT = + (8)
ρn2 D4 ρn3 D4
s
!2 !2
πUT −2πTUn
UP = + (9)
30ρn2 D5 30ρn3 D4
30000
UCTh = Un (10)
gn2 π
The object under analysis is an innovative variable pitch propeller mechanism. It is equipped
with a modified Fluxer carbon fiber propeller with a diameter of 16 inches (406.4 mm) and a nominal
stroke of 6 inches (152.4 mm). The propeller before modification is shown in Figure 3. The modification
consisted of cutting the propeller blades and fixing them in the rotary mounts of the pitch change
mechanism. The mechanism with the propeller and engine is shown in Figure 4. Use of the propeller
rotation mechanism caused the propeller blades to be slightly apart, and thus the outer diameter of the
propeller increased by 1.6% and was equal to 16.26 inches (413 mm). In Figure 4, the mechanism after
removing the hub cover for better imaging of the device is shown.
Energies 2020, 13, 5264 6 of 16
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2020, 13,
13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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Figure 3.
3. Unmodified
Figure 3.
Figure Unmodified propeller (16
propeller (16 ×× 6).
(16 × 6).

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Variable
Variable pitch
pitch propeller
propeller with
with the
the engine.
engine.
Figure 4. Variable pitch propeller with the engine.
3.
3. Results
Results
Analysis
Analysis ofof the
the results is divided
results is divided into
divided into subsections.
subsections. The
into subsections. The first
first subsection
subsection illustrates
illustrates aa thrust
thrust with
with
respect to pitch angle dependence together with a trust and power
respect to pitch angle dependence together with a trust and power coefficient coefficient analysis.
analysis. The maximal
coefficient analysis. The maximal
trust
trust and
and aa pitch
pitch angle
pitch angle were
angle were determined.
determined. The
were determined. The second
The second subsection
second subsection is
subsection is devoted
is devoted to to system
system efficiency
efficiency
determined by the 𝐶 coefficient,
determined by the C𝐶Th coefficient,
determined illustrating
coefficient,illustrating the
illustratingthe mass
themass value
massvalue that
valuethat can
thatcan
canbebe lifted
belifted by
liftedby using
using 11 W of
by using 1 W of power
power
drawn from
fromthe
drawn from the source
thesource
sourceandand
and electric
electric
electric motormotor
motor measurements.
measurements.
measurements. The last subsection
Thesubsection
The last last subsection
presentspresents
possiblepossible
presents possible
control
control
control algorithms
algorithmsalgorithms and
and an
an assessment
and an assessment assessment
of the gain of
ofofthe
thegain
the gain of
of the
proposed proposed
thesolution
proposed solution
solution
to the to
to the
constant the constant
constant
pitch pitch
pitch
propeller.
propeller.
propeller.
3.1. Blade Characteristics
3.1.
3.1. Blade
Blade Characteristics
Characteristics
Figure 5 illustrates a series of measurements of thrust as a function of rotational speed for different
pitchFigure
angles.55The
Figure illustrates
illustrates aa series
pitch angle was of
series measurements
changed
of from 0 to of
measurements thrust
14.9,
of where
thrust as
as 0aacorresponds
function
function of rotational
of to speed
the original
rotational for
Fluxer
speed for
different
16 pitch
× 6 blade
different angles.
pitchsetting The
The pitch
pitch angle
angles.inclination was
defined
angle wasbychanged from
from 00 to
the producer.
changed to 14.9,
14.9, where
Within the 0tested
where 0 corresponds
range of
corresponds to the
the original
topitch angle,
original
Fluxer
an 16
16 ×× 66in
increase
Fluxer blade setting
thrust
blade inclination
was observed.
setting inclinationThedefined
RPMby
defined the
the producer.
byrange is not equal
producer. Within
Within the
the tested
for various range
pitches
tested of
of pitch
pitch angle,
rangebecause of the
angle,
an increase
electrical
an increase in
current thrust was
protection
in thrust observed. The
enabled inThe
was observed. RPM
theRPM range
ESC software. is
range is notnot
Highequal
values
equal for
forofvarious pitches
uncertainty
various pitches because
arebecause of
of the
visible for the
electrical
electrical current protection enabled in the ESC software. High values of uncertainty are visible for
measurement current protection
point located enabled
near 4800 in the
RPM ESC
for thesoftware.
maximal High
pitch values
angle of uncertainty
caused by the are
ESC. visible
Very high
for
the
the measurement
torque caused high
measurement point located
current
point locatedandnear 4800
4800 RPM
fluctuations
near RPM infor the
the maximal
voltage.
for pitch
pitch angle
Consequently,
maximal caused
current
angle by
by the
the ESC.
measurement
caused ESC.inVery
the
Very
high
ESC torque
torque caused
high caused turninghigh
caused high current
on and and
off the
current fluctuations
andcurrent in
in voltage.
protection
fluctuations Consequently,
circuit,
voltage. whereas in the
Consequently, current measurement
next measured
current measurement in
point,
in
the
for ESC
4900 caused
RPM, turning
the on
current and off
protectionthe current
is on protection
during the circuit,
whole time whereas
of in the
measurement,
the ESC caused turning on and off the current protection circuit, whereas in the next measured point, next someasured point,
fluctuations of
for
for 4900
4900 RPM,
rotational speed
RPM, the current
current protection
disappeared.
the protection isis on
on during
during the the whole
whole time
time of of measurement,
measurement, so so fluctuations
fluctuations of of
rotational
rotational speed
speed disappeared.
disappeared.
 Energies 2020, 13, 5264 7 of 16
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Figure 5. Thrust for various pitch angles.

Figure 5. Thrust for various pitch angles.
The data presented in Table 1 show the maximal force that can be obtained for particular blade
The data presented in Table 1 show the maximal force that can be obtained for particular blade
angle positions; however, this force is achieved for various rotational speeds. An increase in force
angle positions; however, this force is achieved for various rotational speeds. An increase in force
along with the blade angle increase can be noticed. However, this trend is not observed throughout the
along with the blade angle increase can be noticed. However, this trend is not observed throughout
whole range. From the 12.5◦ pitch, thrust begins to decrease. This is caused by increasing blade drag
the whole range. From the 12.5° pitch, thrust begins to decrease. This is caused by increasing blade
forces due to an increased pitch angle. Since the thrust for 14.9◦ is smaller than for 12.5◦ , we limited
drag forces due to an increased pitch angle. Since the thrust for 14.9° is smaller than for 12.5°, we
the pitch changes to 14.9◦ . No further increase in thrust was expected. The maximal thrust measured
limited the pitch changes to 14.9°. No further increase in thrust was expected. The maximal thrust
was 31% higher than the original blade settings.
measured was 31% higher than the original blade settings.
Table 1. Maximal thrust for various pitch angles.
Table 1. Maximal thrust for various pitch angles.
Blade Angle (Degree) Maximal Thrust (N) Maximal Rotational Speed (rev/min)
Blade Angle (Degree) Maximal Thrust (N) Maximal Rotational Speed (rev/min)
0.0 33.34 5902
0.0 33.34 5902
2.9 35.55 5883
2.9
5.5 35.55
39.30 5883
5668
5.5
6.6 39.30
41.79 5668
5498
9.5
6.6 42.95
41.79 5290
5498
12.4 43.78 5244
9.5 42.95 5290
14.9 40.06 4869
12.4 43.78 5244
14.9 40.06 4869
In further analysis, the rotational speed range lower than 1000 RPM was omitted due to significantly
unstable thrust,analysis,
In further a considerable measurement
the rotational speed error
rangeatlower
the beginning
than 1000 of RPM
the measuring
was omittedrangedue
andtoa
low practical significance of this rotational range for UAV rotors. The thrust,
significantly unstable thrust, a considerable measurement error at the beginning of the measuring moments and currents
measured
range and for small
a low values significance
practical of rotational of speed
this were very low
rotational rangeandfor
their
UAV characteristics
rotors. The were significantly
thrust, moments
distorted by measuring noise. Propeller blades are designed to obtain the maximal
and currents measured for small values of rotational speed were very low and their characteristics efficiency for much
higher rotational speeds, and thus values below 1000 RPM are not used during UAV
were significantly distorted by measuring noise. Propeller blades are designed to obtain the maximal operation, and an
analysis of the blade in this range is meaningless.
efficiency for much higher rotational speeds, and thus values below 1000 RPM are not used during
UAV The graph in
operation, andFigure 6 shows
an analysis of athe
relation
blade between power
in this range factor and rotational speed for different
is meaningless.
blade wedge angles in the range of 0 to 14.9 ◦ . The coefficient of thrust (C ) value changes by a
The graph in Figure 6 shows a relation between power factor and rotational P speed for different
maximum of ±6% from its average value, so it can be assumed
blade wedge angles in the range of 0 to 14.9°. The coefficient of thrust (𝐶 ) value that this relation is approximately
changes by a
constant. An increase in this factor is another property following a change
maximum of ±6% from its average value, so it can be assumed that this relation is approximatelyin pitch.
constant. An increase in this factor is another property following a change in pitch.
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Figure 6.
Figure 6. Coefficient
Coefficient of
of power
power (C
(CPP)) for
for various
various pitch
pitch angles.
angles.
Figure 6. Coefficient of power (CP) for various pitch angles.
The coefficient
coefficientofofthrust
thrust
(C(𝐶 ) coefficient,
T ) coefficient, which
which is shown
is shown in theingraph
the graph in Figure
in Figure 7, increases
7, increases slightly
slightly
withThe with increasing
coefficient
increasing propeller
of thrust
propeller ) coefficient,anwhich
speed. Additionally,
(𝐶Additionally,
speed. an increase
is shown
increase in the lift
in coefficient
in the lift the graphwithcoefficient
in Figure with
stroke 7, stroke
increases
increase can
increase
slightly can be
with
be observed. observed.
increasing propeller speed. Additionally, an increase in the lift coefficient with stroke
increase can be observed.

Figure 7. Coefficient of thrust (C ) for various pitch angles.

Figure 7. Coefficient of thrust (CTT) for various pitch angles.
3.2. Coefficient of Thrust Figureduring 7.Hover
Coefficient of thrust
and Motor (CT) forAnalysis
Efficiency various pitch angles.
3.2. Coefficient of Thrust during Hover and Motor Efficiency Analysis
The CTH coefficient represents the mass value that can be lifted with 1 W of power drawn from the
3.2. Coefficient of Thrust during Hover and Motor Efficiency Analysis
TheIt 𝐶strongly
source. coefficient
depends represents the mass value
on the components usedthat candrive
in the be lifted
system,within1 particular,
W of power thedrawn
motorfromand
the The 𝐶The
source.
propeller. It strongly
graph independs
coefficient Figure 8on
represents the
thecomponents
depicts mass value
a change of used
that in the
can drive
be lifted
this coefficient with system,
with 1 Winof
respect particular,
to power
changedrawn ofthe motor
from
propeller
and
the propeller.
source.
rotational The
It strongly
speed. graph in Figure
depends
It shows that on the
the 8 components
depicts
highest CTh avalues
change areof
used in thisdrive
the
achievedcoefficient
forsystem, with respect
RPMs. to
in particular,
the lowest change
the motor
Additionally,of
propeller
and
a decrease rotational
propeller.in theThe speed. It
graph in can
coefficient shows
Figure that the highest
8 depictswhile
be observed a change 𝐶 values
of this
the pitch are achieved
coefficient
angle increases.with for
One the
respect lowest
to change
can notice RPMs.
of
that the
Additionally,
propeller a
rotational decrease
speed.in the
It coefficient
shows that can
the be
highest 𝐶
observed while
values the
are
maximal CTh values near 16 g/W were obtained for much higher rotational speeds than in the case pitch
achievedanglefor increases.
the lowest One can
RPMs.
notice that the
Additionally,
of increased a maximal
decrease
pitch values. 𝐶 Moreover,
in thevalues near
one16
coefficient can g/W
must were
bebear in obtained
observed mind thatfor
while the themuch
pitch higher
angle
maximal rotational
increases.
thrust speeds
One
illustrated can
in
than
notice in
Figurethatthe case of
the maximal
5 requires 𝐶 values
increased
more energy pitch values. Moreover,
near 16and
consumption g/Wis were one must bear
obtained for
not unequivocal in
tomuchmind that
liftinghigher the
efficiency maximal
rotational thrust
with thespeeds
use of
illustrated
than in the in
the minimal caseFigure
energy 5stored
requires
of increased more
inpitch energy
values.
batteries. consumption
Moreover,
The and
one must
final efficiency ofis notwhole
bear
the unequivocal
in mind that the
system to lifting
maximal
depends efficiency
on thrust
motor
with the
illustrated use
in of
Figure
efficiency as well. the 5minimal
requires energy
more stored
energy in batteries.
consumption The
and final
is not efficiency
unequivocal of tothe whole
lifting system
efficiency
depends
with the on
usemotor
of theefficiency
minimalas well. stored in batteries. The final efficiency of the whole system
energy
depends on motor efficiency as well.
Energies 2020, 13, 5264 9 of 16
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Coefficient of thrust during hover
hover (C
(CTh)) for
for various
various pitch angles.
Figure 8. Coefficient of thrust during hover (CTh
Th) for various pitch angles.

(ηm ) versus
motor (𝜂(𝜂 )) versus
Figure 99 shows efficiency ofofthe electric motor its rotational speed. It is It
noticeable that
Figure 9 shows
shows efficiency
efficiency of the
the electric
electric motor versus its its rotational
rotational speed.
speed. It isis noticeable
noticeable
the
thatengine works withwith the efficiency above 80% 80%only at theatrotational speed of about 2700 RPMRPM and
that the
the engine
engine works
works with thethe efficiency
efficiency above
above 80% onlyonly at the
the rotational
rotational speed
speed of
of about
about 2700
2700 RPM
higher.
and Working at lower efficiency is inefficient and leads toleads
energy losses, which results inresults
reduced
and higher. Working at lower efficiency is inefficient and leads to energy losses, which results in
higher. Working at lower efficiency is inefficient and to energy losses, which in
working
reduced time.
reduced working
working time.
time.

Figure 9. Efficiency of the motor.

Figure 9. Efficiency of the motor.
Figure 9. Efficiency of the motor.
3.3. Recommendation towards a Pitch Control System Application
3.3.
3.3. Recommendation
Recommendation towards
towards aa Pitch
Pitch Control
Control System
System Application
Application
The main goal of the study was to determine possible pitch control algorithms to operate the UAV
The
in theThe
mostmain
main goal
efficient of
goal of the
way.
the It study
was was
study was to
decided determine
to focus on
to determine possible pitch
the best
possible waycontrol
pitch to use algorithms
control the energy to
algorithms of operate
to batteriesthe
operate to
the
UAV
performin
UAV in the the most
missions efficient
depending
most efficient way.
way. It was
on Itthe decided
mass
was to
of theto
decided focus
package
focus onon the
and best
theUAV. way
best On
way to
the use
tobasis the
use the energy
of the of
selected
energy batteries
goal of
of batteries
to
to perform
the mission,missions
perform depending
an appropriate
missions depending control on the
the mass
onalgorithm of
of the
mass can thenpackage
the be used.and
package TheUAV.
and UAV On
UAV. the
control
On basis
the unit of
of the
basiscan the selected
determinate
selected
goal
the of
of the
goalneeded mission,
the thrust
mission, an
an appropriate
during flight and set
appropriate control
a pitchalgorithm
control can
can then
angle to achieve
algorithm thenthebe used.
used. The
bemaximal UAV
range
The UAV of control
operation
control unit can
under
unit can
determinate
actual the
the needed thrust during flight and set a pitch angle to achieve the maximal range of
conditions.
determinate needed thrust during flight and set a pitch angle to achieve the maximal range of
operation
The under
main actual
purpose conditions.
of
operation under actual conditions. the propulsion system is to provide an appropriate amount of thrust, and
thus The main
main purpose
we intended
The to findof
purpose ofthethe propulsion
theleast system
system is
energy-consuming
propulsion is to provide
provide an
topropeller appropriate
setup.
an amount
amount of
The CTh coefficient
appropriate thrust,
of was and
chosen
thrust, and
thus
as we
thewe
thus intended
best to
indicator
intended find the least
of efficiency.
to find energy-consuming
Based on the collected
the least energy-consuming propeller setup.
data,
propeller The 𝐶
the following
setup. coefficient
The 𝐶 coefficient
mathematicalwas chosen
model
was chosen
as
as the
was best
best indicator
obtained:
the indicator ofof efficiency.
efficiency. Based Based onon the
the collected
collected data,
data, the
the following
following mathematical
mathematical modelmodel was
was
obtained:
obtained:
𝐶CTh =𝑝p00 ++𝑝p10𝑇T++𝑝p01𝜃θ++𝑝 p20𝑇T2++𝑝p11𝑇𝜃
Tθ +𝑝 p02 θ2 +𝑝 p21 T2 θ++𝑝 p12 Tθ2 +𝑝 p03 θ3 (11)
𝐶 = = 𝑝 + 𝑝 𝑇 + 𝑝 𝜃 + 𝑝 𝑇 + 𝑝 𝑇𝜃 + + 𝑝 𝜃 𝜃 + + 𝑝 𝑇 𝑇 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑝 𝑇𝜃 𝑇𝜃 + + 𝑝 𝜃
(11)
𝜃 (11)
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

Energies 2020, 13, 5264 10 of 16

The parametric identification of the proposed model was performed. The identification method
was based on minimalizing the root mean square error (RMSE). Below, in Table 2, we present the
results
Theobtained with
parametric the RMSE: 0.9712.
identification of the proposed model was performed. The identification method
was based on minimalizing the root mean square error (RMSE). Below, in Table 2, we present the
Table
results obtained with the RMSE: 2. Identification of coefficients of the model.
0.9712.

Coefficients 𝒑𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝟏𝟎 Table 2. 𝒑Identification

𝟐𝟎 𝒑of 𝒑𝟎𝟐 of the model.
𝟏𝟏 coefficients 𝒑𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟏𝟐 𝒑𝟎𝟑

p16.99 −0.3309 2.903

p × 10 −0.01114 p−0.00398 p1.639 × 10 1.13 × 10 p−8.362 × 10
Value
Coefficients p p p12
00 10 20 11 02 21 03

Value 16.99 −0.3309 2.903 × 10−3 −0.01114 −0.00398 1.639 × 10−4 1.13 × 10−4 −8.362 × 10−4
To provide a method for setting the optimum pitch angle for the specific thrust maximum of
𝐶 , a third-degree polynomial model with a set of coefficients was derived. The model which
To provide a method for setting the optimum pitch angle for the specific thrust maximum of CTh ,
describes a value of the pitch angle to achieve the maximal 𝐶 was determined and formulated as
a third-degree polynomial model with a set of coefficients was derived. The model which describes a
follows:
value of the pitch angle to achieve the maximal CTh was determined and formulated as follows:
𝜃 =𝑐 𝑇 +𝑐 𝑇 +𝑐 𝑇+𝑐 (12)
θ = c1 T3 + c2 T2 + c3 T + c4 (12)
For the propeller under testing, values of coefficients are presented in Table 3.
For the propeller under testing, values of coefficients are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Identification of coefficients of the model.
Table 3. Identification of coefficients of the model.
Coefficients 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝐜𝟑 𝐜𝟒
Coefficients
Value 6.808
c1 × 10 −3.634
c2 × 10 c3 −0.1669 c48.725
Value 6.808 × 10−5 −3.634 × 10−4 −0.1669 8.725
The graph depicted in Figure 10 shows an obtained model based on the collected data, where
the 𝐶The coefficient is represented
graph depicted in Figure 10versus
shows the thrust and
an obtained pitch
model angle.
based on Then, a red curve
the collected on thethe
data, where graph
was drawn to show the maximal 𝐶
CTH coefficient is represented versus the thrust and pitch angle. Then, a red curve on the graph was the
coefficient that can be obtained for a specific lift force with
best
drawnpitch anglethe
to show setting.
maximal CTH coefficient that can be obtained for a specific lift force with the best
pitch angle setting.

Figure10.10.CTh
Figure CThininfor
forvarious
various pitches
pitches at specific
at specific thrust.
thrust.

In the graph (Figure 11), the red curve of Figure 10 is shown for two variables. It can be seen that
in order to achieve the optimum pitch angle, i.e., when the 𝐶 coefficient reaches the highest value,
the pitch for a specific lifting force should be adjusted. A control algorithm based on pitch regulation
in the given range can be applied to control thrust and energy consumption, for example, when the
drone is to carry packages of different weight.
Energies 2020, 13, 5264 11 of 16

In the graph (Figure 11), the red curve of Figure 10 is shown for two variables. It can be seen that
in order to achieve the optimum pitch angle, i.e., when the CTh coefficient reaches the highest value,
the pitch for a specific lifting force should be adjusted. A control algorithm based on pitch regulation
in the given range can be applied to control thrust and energy consumption, for example, when the
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
drone
Energiesis to carry
2020, packages
13, x FOR of different weight.
PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Figure11.
Figure
Figure 11.Optimal
11. Optimalpitch
Optimal pitchfor
pitch forvarious
for variousthrusts.
various thrusts.
thrusts.

the 𝐶𝐶 obtained
The
Thegraph
graphininFigure
in Figure12 shows
12 shows
showstwo two
curves: the red
curves: theoneredrepresents the CThthe
one represents
represents obtainedobtained
for the constant
for the
the
The graph Figure 12 two curves: the red one for
pitch of the original
constant pitch
pitch of
of thepropeller
the original before modifications
original propeller
propeller before described
before modifications in Section
modifications described
described in2, and the
in Section blue
Section 2, one
2, and
and therepresents
the blue
blue one
one
constant
the pitch changed
represents the pitchaccording
changed to the curve
according to shown
the curvein shown
Figure in11Figure
for the11modified
for the propeller.
modified It can beIt
propeller.
represents the pitch changed according to the curve shown in Figure 11 for the modified propeller. It
observed
can be
can
that the that
be observed
observed that the 𝐶𝐶 obtained
CTh obtained
the
for the changed
obtained for the
for
pitch
the changed
changedis superior isto
pitch is
pitch
the oneto
superior
superior
obtainedonewith
the one
to the
the propeller
obtained
obtained with the
with the
of the fixedofpitch.
propeller the fixed
fixed pitch.
pitch.
propeller of the

Figure 12.Comparison
Figure12.
Figure 12. Comparison ofCCCTh
Comparisonof
of Th for
for optimal
optimal pitch
pitch and
and standard
standard constant
constant pitch.
pitch.
Th for optimal pitch and standard constant pitch.

Measurements for
Measurements for the
the fixed
fixed pitch
pitch propeller
propeller were
were conducted
conducted after
after modification
modification and
and installation
installation
of the pitch change mechanism. A constant blade pitch-as manufactured-as achieved
of the pitch change mechanism. A constant blade pitch-as manufactured-as achieved by locking by locking thethe
mechanism in
mechanism in position
position 0°. 0°. Although
Although the
the propeller
propeller work
work will
will not
not bebe the
the same
same as
as before,
before, itit was
was cut
cut
because the diameter changes slightly. Nevertheless, the goal is to show the tendency, not
because the diameter changes slightly. Nevertheless, the goal is to show the tendency, not the exact the exact
characteristics, of
characteristics, of aa particular
particular propeller.
propeller.
In Figure
In Figure 13,
13, aa graph
graph ofof 𝐶𝐶 coefficient
coefficient improvement
improvement while
while using
using aa variable
variable pitch
pitch compared
compared to to
the fixed pitch is shown. One can notice that coefficient of thrust during hover showed an increase of
 Energies 2020, 13, 5264 12 of 16

Measurements for the fixed pitch propeller were conducted after modification and installation
of the pitch change mechanism. A constant blade pitch-as manufactured-as achieved by locking the
mechanism in position 0◦ . Although the propeller work will not be the same as before, it was cut
because the diameter changes slightly. Nevertheless, the goal is to show the tendency, not the exact
characteristics, of a particular propeller.
In Figure 13, a graph of CTh coefficient improvement while using a variable pitch compared to the
fixed pitch is shown. One can notice that coefficient of thrust during hover showed an increase of 2.6%
up to 7.5% for various pitch angles with respect to the original fixed propeller. The highest profit can
Energies
be 2020, 13, x at
obtained FOR PEER
a low REVIEW
trust demand. 12 of 15

Figure
Figure 13.13.
Difference inCCTh
Differencein foroptimal
Thfor optimal pitch
pitchand
andstandard constant
standard pitch.
constant pitch.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Currently, fixed propellers are used widely for standard UAVs. This paper presents extensive
Currently, fixed
investigations propellers
for one commerciallyare available
used widely forpropeller,
popular standardincluding
UAVs. This paper presents
modification extensive
of its geometry,
investigations
in particular,for one commercially
to change the pitch angle available
of propellerpopular
blades. propeller, including modification of its
geometry, in of
One particular,
the congruousto change
works isthe
anpitch angle
analysis of a of propeller
helicopter blades.
propeller intended for flight to Mars [30].
The authors performed a similar analysis to that described
One of the congruous works is an analysis of a helicopter propeller in this article to select propeller
intended forparameters
flight to Mars
for difficult Martian flight conditions. They used the specific coefficient
[30]. The authors performed a similar analysis to that described in this article to select FM (figure of merit) to
propeller
describe propeller efficiency to the pitch angle, but this coefficient does not include
parameters for difficult Martian flight conditions. They used the specific coefficient FM (figure of a power loss in
the motor, in contrast to C . We believe that the CTh coefficient is better to analyze the optimal pitch
merit) to describe propeller TH efficiency to the pitch angle, but this coefficient does not include a power
angle. The plotted characteristics depict an efficiency index in the CT /CP ordinates depending on the
loss in the motor, in contrast to 𝐶 . We believe that the 𝐶 coefficient is better to analyze the
blade angle of attack. It is shown that there is an optimal blade pitch angle that yields the highest
optimal pitch angle.
thrust-to-drag ratio.The
Dueplotted characteristics
to the constant depict
mass of the unit an
andefficiency
the maximal index 𝐶 /𝐶
in thedrag
allowable ordinates
moment
depending
generated by the propeller, optimization of hovering efficiency by changing the propeller pitch was that
on the blade angle of attack. It is shown that there is an optimal blade pitch angle
yields
notthe highest thrust-to-drag ratio. Due to the constant mass of the unit and the maximal allowable
analyzed.
drag moment generated by the propeller, optimization of hovering efficiency by changing the
propeller pitch was not analyzed.
Similar mechanisms were tested in order to check a mathematical model of the rotor with a
symmetrical airfoil and not twisted blades [36]. The data show no correlation with the determination
of thrust. It should also be added that the authors, while building their mathematical model, focused
on optimization of the propeller in terms of drag torque. The mathematical model derived in [36]
describes a propeller with a pre-set factory pitch angle and focuses on flight optimization to make
the most effective use of energy supplied to the propulsion system, i.e., to obtain the maximal possible
𝐶 , which is important in UAV units. A comparison of the results with those obtained in the
conducted experiment indicates that trends are the same for the majority of the characteristics. The
Energies 2020, 13, 5264 13 of 16

Similar mechanisms were tested in order to check a mathematical model of the rotor with a
symmetrical airfoil and not twisted blades [36]. The data show no correlation with the determination
of thrust. It should also be added that the authors, while building their mathematical model, focused
on optimization of the propeller in terms of drag torque. The mathematical model derived in [36]
describes a propeller with a pre-set factory pitch angle and focuses on flight optimization to make the
most effective use of energy supplied to the propulsion system, i.e., to obtain the maximal possible CTH ,
which is important in UAV units. A comparison of the results with those obtained in the conducted
experiment indicates that trends are the same for the majority of the characteristics. The results of both
investigations are equal as regards to the order of magnitude, which confirms the tested principle and
proves the correctness of the experiments.
One can find partial characteristics of a similar propeller with the same engine on the website of
the engine manufacturer. However, the experiment shows that the behavior of the engine changes with
the type of power source. The differences arise when the voltage of the power source is not constant,
especially for batteries where voltage decreases with an increasing current. It can be observed in the
characteristics of the CTh coefficient, which are underrated in the manufacturer’s data. As another
propeller with a smaller nominal stroke of 16 × 5.4 was used, that can be a cause of the differences.
However, the exact propeller specification is not provided.
Compared to the analyzes carried out in the cited references, a significant difference consists of
the method of analyzing the CTh coefficient within the obtained thrust and blade pitch angle. A broad
range of measurements of rotational speeds allowed us to conduct a thorough analysis of the overhang
propeller efficiency and draw the following conclusions:

• Based on the dependence showed in Figure 5, it is indicated that the temporary load capacity can
be significantly increased by changing the pitch angle of blades. The increase in thrust measured
was 31% for 12.5◦ .
• Another benefit of using a variable pitch propeller is an ability to set the propeller pitch angle
according to the needed thrust. We have shown that thanks to our method, efficiency of the flight
in hover can be improved from 2.6% up to 7.5% depending on the needed thrust.
• The presented mathematical model can be used for similar propellers in a wide range of rotational
speeds inherent to UAV motors. There is one optimal blade pitch angle that allows hovering with
the least energy consumption for a particular thrust that is required for UAV hovering.

To summarize, energy consumption and lifting capacity are key parameters for UAVs to carry
out transport missions. Therefore, it is possible to improve the performance of these flying units by
using a mechanism for changing the pitch of propeller blades to match the current flight and machine
conditions. The equation to calculate the optimal pitch for the rotor provided in this article can be
easily used to achieve the best efficiency of the flying unit.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.P. and R.K.; methodology, M.P. and R.K.; software, M.P. and
R.K.; validation, D.O.; formal analysis, R.K. and M.P.; investigation, R.K. and M.P.; resources, K.K. and R.K.;
data curation, M.P. and R.K.; writing—original draft preparation, R.K., M.P., K.K. and D.O.; writing—review and
editing, D.O.; visualization, M.P.; supervision, D.O.; project administration, M.P. and R.K.; funding acquisition,
K.K. and D.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding. It was funded by the Institute of Machine Tools, Production
Engineering, the Institute of Turbomachinery and the Lodz University of Technology.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Malgorzata Jozwik for her significant linguistic help during the
preparation of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2020, 13, 5264 14 of 16

Nomenclature
Symbol/Abbreviation Units Description
CT - Coefficient of thrust
CP - Coefficient of power
CTh g/W Coefficient of thrust during hover
D m Propeller diameter
g m/s2 Acceleration due to gravity
I A Current
Q N·m Rotational torque
n, rpm rev/min Rotation per minute
Pm W Mechanical power
Pe W Electrical power
R m Rotor blade radius
T N Thrust
U V Voltage
Uncertainty of the corresponding
Uηm , UCT , UP , UCTh
measurement
α deg Angle of attack
ηm - Efficiency of the motor
ρ kg/m3 Air density
θ deg Blade pitch angle
Φ deg Inflow angle
Ω rad/s Rotor angular velocity (rad/sec)
ESC Electric speed controller
VTOL Vertical Takeoff Landing
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

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