ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY AESTHETIC AND COMMUNICATION: that contributes to skin color and It contains melanocytes, the cells
It contains melanocytes, the cells that
Module IV A - INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
The largest body system, includes the
skin & accessory structures (hair, nails,
& sebaceous & sweat glands. It covers
an area measuring 10 3/4 to 21 ½ sq.
ft. & accounts for about 15% of body
weight.
SKIN – is the outer covering of the
body. It is the largest organ of the
integumentary system made of
multiple layers of epithelial tissues and
guards the underlying muscles, bones,
ligaments, and internal organs.
FUNCTIONS:
PROTECTION: an anatomical barrier
from pathogens and damage between
the internal and external environment
in bodily defense
SENSATION: contains a variety of
nerve endings that react to heat and
cold, touch, pressure, vibration and
tissue energy
HEAT REGULATION: the skin contains
a blood supply for greater than its
requirements which allow control of
heat
loss by radiation, convection,
conduction and evaporation. Dilated
blood increase perfusion & heat loss
while constricted vessels greatly
reduce blood flow in the skin and
conserve heat.
Deep to the subcutaneous layer is the
other see our skin and can assess our
physical state and attractiveness.
STORAGE AND SYNTHESIS: acts as a
storage center for liquids and water,
as well as a means of synthesis of
Vitamin D (calcitriol) by action of UV
on certain parts of the skin
EXCRETION: sweat contains urea;
excretion by sweating is atmost
secondary function to temperature
regulation.
ABSORPTION: oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbon dioxide can diffuse into the
epidermis. In addition, medicine can
be administered through the skin by
ointments or by means of adhesive
patch. The skin is an important site of
transport.
WATER RESISTANCE: skin acts as a
water-resistant barrier so essential
nutrients aren’t washed out of the
body.
HYPODERMIS: is loose connective
tissue that attaches the skin to
underlying tissue, about ½ of the
body’s fat is stored.
THE LAYERS OF THE HUMAN SKIN
EPIDERMIS - The outer thinner portion
which is composed of epithelial tissue.
KERATINOCYTE: produce the protein
keratin that helps waterproof and
protect the skin and underlying
tissues. It is the major epidermal cell.
MELANOCYTE: produces the pigment
melanin – a brown – black pigment
absorbs UV light from the sun.
LANGERHAN CELL: interacts with
WBC’s called t-cell in immune
responses and are easily damaged by
UV radiation.
MERKEL CELL: located on the deepest
layer of epidermis (Stratum Basale). It
makes contact with the ending of a
sensory neuron and are thought to
function in the sensation of touch.
DERMIS - Dead skin cells are called
STRATUM CORNEUM.
STRATUM CORNEUM:
is composed of cells called KERATIN.
Is AVASCULAR blood (no)
Has no nerve tissue (can’t feel pain)
STRATUM LUCICLUM:
Found only on the palms of the hands,
fingertips and sole of the feet.
Clear skin and dead keratinocytes.
STRATUM GRANULOSUM:
where part of keratin production
occurs. Keratin is a protein which is
the main component of the skin.
Almost dead, 5 layers are nucleated
cells.
STRATUM SPINOSUM:
Gives strength as well as flexibility.
Thickest layer.
Mature keratinocyte. Melanin
granules and Langerhans cells.
STRATUM BASALE:
Where the skin most important cells,
called keratinocytes are formed before
moving up to the surface of the
epidermis are being shed into the
environment a dead skin.
are responsible for determining the
color of skin and protecting from the
harmful effects of UV radiation. These
harmful effects include; burn in short
term and cancer long term. (For
mitosis).
True skin dermis
PAPILLARY LAYER – more superficial
(thin)
RETICULAR LAYER – deeper
(connective tissues)
Accessory organs begin in dermis. The
dermis contains blood vessels and
nerve tissues. Blood vessels also allow
immune system cells to come to the
skin to fight an infection. The vessels
also help carry away waste products.
NERVES that help us relay signals
coming from the skin. These signals
include touch, temperature, pressure,
pain and itching.
Glands
Hair follicles
Collagen, 70% a protein that is
responsible for giving skin strength
and a bit of elasticity.
HYPODERMIS: SUBCUTANEOUS
FATHYPODERMIS
Subcutaneous fat or superficial fascia.
the deepest layer of the skin is called
hypodermis, like the dermis, the layer
contains blood vessels and nerves. It is
composed of adipose (fat) tissue, a
form of connective tissue.
fascial layer that covers the muscles
beneath.
GLANDS
SEBACEOUS GLANDS
Occur in all parts of skin except the
palms & soles, most prominent –scalp,
face, upper torso & genitalia
Produce sebum (oil secreting gland of
the skin), lipid substance & secrete it
into the hair follicles through
sebaceous duct, then exits through the
hair follicle opening to reach the skin
surface
Sebum- help to water-proof the hair &
skin, promote absorption of fat-
soluble substances into the dermis,
involved in vitamin D3 production &
have an antibacterial function.
SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS
are sweat glands, under the control of
autonomic NS and located at dermis
(except the nipples & parts of the
external genitalia).
Two types of sweat glands:
 eccrine- widely distributed
throughout the body,
produce an odorless, watery
fluids with a sodium
concentration equal to
plasma. In the palms & soles
it secrete fluid in response to
emotional stress. The
remaining 3 million eccrine
gland respond to thermal
 stress, regulating
temperature.
 apocrine- located chiefly in
the axillary & anogenital
areas, lies deeper in the
dermis, a duct connects an
apocrine gland to the upper
portion of the hair follicle. It
begins to function at puberty
& no known biological
function.
- Produce an organic secretion that
can be broken down by bacteria to
cause body.
- Ceruminous glands are modified
apocrine glands found in the lining of
the
external ear canal. They secrete
yellow, waxy substance – cerumen or
earwax,
this protects the ear from insects
& other foreign materials.
HAIR:
 Columns of dead, keratinized
epithelial cells. Each hair
consists of a shaft (above the
skin), root (below the skin), &
hair bulb (site of hair cell
formation).
 Have a growth phase & a
resting phase.
 Muscles- contraction of the
erector pili which are smooth
muscles, causes hair to “stand
on the end” & produce a
“goose flesh”.
NAILS:
 Consists of the nail body &
nail root.
 Nail matrix produces the nail,
which is stratum corneum
containing hard keratin.
BURNS
 1st degree burn- partial-
thickness burns damage only
the epidermis.
 2nd degree burn- partial-
thickness burns damage the
epidermis & dermis.
 3rd degree burn- full-thickness
burn destroy the epidermis,
dermis & usually underlying
tissues.
Skin Cancer:
 Basal cell carcinoma- involves
the cells of the stratum
basale & is readily treatable.
 Squamous cell carcinoma-
involves the cells immediately
superficial to the stratum
basale & can metastasize.
 Malignant melanoma-
involves melanocytes, can
metastasize & can be fatal.
Effects of aging on the Integumentary
System:
 Blood flow to the
skin reduced, skin
becomes thinner &
elasticity is lost.
 Sweat & sebaceous -BLOOD GLUCOSE CONTROL
gland are less active, -IMMUNE SYSTEM REGULATION
& the number of -REPRODUCTION FUNCTIONS
melanocytes CONTROL
decrease.
OVERALL FUNCTIONS: To regulate the
activities of various body organs
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chemical Signals or Ligands (to bind)
Module IV B - ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Autocrine-released by cells & have a
local effect on the same cell type.
THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE Chemical that are released from
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
smooth muscle cells & agregation of
platelets- blood vessels dilate & blood
GLANDS – SPECIALIZED CELL CLUSTERS clot.
OR ORGANS Paracrine- released by cells that have
HORMONES – CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
effects on other cell types near the
SECRETED BY GLANDS IN RESPONSE
cells from which they are released. A
TO STIMULATION peptide (somatostatin) released by
RECEPTORS - PROTEIN MOLECULES cells in the pancreas & function locally
THAT BIND WITH OTHER MOLECULES,
to inhibit the secretion of insulin from
SUCH AS HORMONES, TO TRIGGER
other cells of the pancreas.
SPECIFIC PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES IN A
Pheromones- secreted into the
TARGET CELL. environment that modify the behavior
& physiology of other individuals.
MAJOR GLANDS: Produced by women can influence the
1. Pituitary timing of the menstrual cycle of other
2. Pineal women.
3. Thyroid
4. Parathyroid Receptors:
5. Thymus Chemical signals bind to receptor sites
6. Adrenal on receptor molecules to produce a
7. Pancreas response.
8. Gonads (ovaries & testes)
Hormones:
FUNCTIONS: -Are released into the circulatory
-WATER BALANCE system & travel some distance, where
-UTERINE CONTRACTION they act on target tissues to produce a
-GROWTH, METABOLISM, AND TISSUE response.
MATURATION -A target tissue for a given hormone
-ION REGULATION has a receptor molecule for that
-HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE hormone.
REGULATION
ENDOCRINOLOGY
- Study of the endocrine
system.
- Hormone levels in the blood
are maintained by negative
feedback.
- A stimulus or low hormone
levels in the blood triggers
the release of more hormone.
- Hormone release stops once
an appropriate level in the
blood is reached.
PTH
Capillary Blood contains low
concentration of the calcium which
stimulates.
Secretion of the parathyroid hormone
(PTH).
GLAND – Any organ that produces a
certain secretion.
HORMONES – Are chemical
substances which regulate the
activities of various body organs.
- Is the second messenger
system of the body, allow
cells to communicate with
each other to regulate bodily
activities.
- Uses chemical messages
(HORMONES ) that are
replaced into the blood.
HORMONES control several major
processes.
- Growth and development
- Mobilization of body
defenses
- Maintenance of much of
homeostasis
- Regulation of metabolism
- Sexual function, Reproduction
 - Sleep and Mood
HORMONES - are produced by
specialized cells. Cells secrete
hormones into extracellular fluids,
blood transfers hormones to target
sites. These hormones regulate the
activity of other cells
Amino acid – based hormones
Protein, Peptides, Amines
Steroids – made from cholesterol
Prostaglandins - made from highly
active lipids
MAJOR ORGANS
Pituitary gland (hypophysis or master
gland)
 Pea-sized gland weigh less
than 1/8 oz (less than 0.75g)
 Connects with the
hypothalamus via
infundibulum-it receives
chemical & nervous
stimulation
 Protected by the sphenoid
bone at the base of the brain
2 MAIN REGIONS
Anterior pituitary: (adenohypophysis)
produces six hormones
1. GROWTH HORMONE (GH) or
somatotropin
 General metabolic hormone
 Major effects are directed to
growth of skeletal muscles
and long bones
 Causes amino acids to be
built into proteins
 Causes fats to be broken
down for a source of energy
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
or thyrotropin
3. Corticotropin
4. Follicle –Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
stimulates follicle development in
ovaries; stimulates sperm
development in testes.
5. Leutenizing Hormone (LH)
6. PROLACTIN (PRL):
 Stimulates and maintain milk
production following
childbirth
 Function in males in unknown
POSTERIOR PITUITARY:
 Makes about 25% of the
gland
 Serves as storage area for
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) &
oxytocin which are produced
by the hypothalamus
THYROID GLAND:
 Lies directly below the larynx,
partially in front of the
trachea. Its two lateral lobes-
one on either side of trachea-
join with a narrow tissue
bridge- isthmus to give its
butterfly shape.
Produces hormones:
Triiodothyronin (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
T3 & T4 body’s major metabolic
hormones, regulating metabolism by
speeding cellular respiration.
Calcitonin- maintains blood calcium
level by inhibiting the release of
calcium from bone.
PARATHYROID GLAND:
- Body’s smallest endocrine
glands on the posterior
surface of the thyroid.
- Produce parathyroid
Hormone (PTH)- helps
regulate the bloods calcium
balance.
- Adjusts the rate at which
calcium & magnesium ions
removed from the urine.
- Increases the movement of
phosphate ions from the
blood to urine for excretion
ADRENAL GLAND:
1. Two glands sit on top of the
kidney
2. Almond –shaped glands
contain two distinct
structures:
ADRENAL CORTEX
Large outer layer region. Has three
zones or layers:
Zona glomerulosa- outermost zone,
produces mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone); helps maintain fluid
balance by increasing sodium
reabsorption.
Zona faciculata- middle & largest
zone, produces glucocorticoids
cortisol(hydrocortisone), cortisone, &
corticosterone & small amount of sec
hormones androgen & estrogen.
Glucocorticoids help regulate
metabolism & resistance to stress.
Zona reticularis- innermost zone,
produces some sex hormones.
ADRENAL MEDULLA
- Inner layer of the adrenal
gland, functions as part of the
symphatetic nervous system
& produces 2
catecholamines: epinephrine
& norepinephrine.
- Cathecolamines play an
important role in the
autonomic nervous system
(ANS), adrenal medulla is
considered a neuroendocrine
structure.
PANCREAS:
 Triangular organ lies across
the posterior abdominal wall,
its head & neck nestle in the
curve of the abdomen, its
body stretches horizontally
behind the stomach & its tail
extends to the spleen.
 Performs both endocrine &
exocrine functions:
 Endocrine cells of the
pancreas (islet cells or islets
of Langerhans). Islet contain
alpha, beta, & delta cells-
produce important
hormones:
 reproduction
HORMONES:
INSULIN
- Released from beta cells
GLUCAGON
- Released from alpha cells
SOMATOSTATIN
- Released from delta cells
MEDULLA – Inner neural tissue region
HORMONES OF MEDULLA:
CATECHOLAMINES
- Short term stress
EPINEPHRINE
- Is called adrenalin
NOREPONEPHRINE
- When the body is under
stress. Fight or flight response
GLUCOCORTIDOIDS
- Cortisol, promote normal cell
metabolism.
- Help resist long term stress
- Released in response to
increased blood levels of
ACTH
CUSHING SYNDROME
- High levels of cortisol, large
amounts of ACTH
ADDISON DISEASE
- Adrenal glands produce
insufficient steroid hormone
(glucocorticoids and of then
mineralocorticoids)
PINEAL GLAND
- Lies at back of the third
ventricle of the brain secrete.
HORMONES:
Melatonin
- Helps establish the body’s
wake and sleep cycles
- Regulate circadian rhythms,
body temperature,
cardiovascular function &
Thymus gland
- Located posterior to the
sternum & contains lymphatic
tissue.
- Largest in infants and children
- Reaches maximal size at
puberty & then starts to
atrophy.
- Produces T cells important in
developing the immune
system
- Produces peptide hormones
& thymopoietin-promotes
growth of peripheral
lymphoid tissue.
GONADS: OVARIES
HORMONES:
Estrogen
- Produced by graafian
follicles / the placenta.
- Stimulates the secondary
female characteristics
- Matures female reproductive
organs
- Help prepare the uterus to
receive a fertilized egg
- Helps maintain pregnancy
- Prepares the breasts to
produce milk
- Hyperfunction of OVARIES:
- Poor development of
secondary sex characteristics
in female.
- PROGESTERONE
- Produced by corpus luteum.
- Acts with estrogen to bring
about the menstrual cycle.
Helps in the implementation
of an embryo in the uterus
Gonads: Testes
HORMONES:    2. ASTROCYTES
Testosterone 
- Most important androgen
- Responsible for male
secondary characteristic
- Promotes growth and
maturation of male
reproductive system
- Required for sperm cell
reproduction
Hypofunction of testes:
- Delay in sexual maturation of
a boy
- In men – a lack of interest in
the opposite sex
Other hormone:
PLACENTA:
- During pregnancy, the
placenta serves as an
endocrine gland.
- It produces chorionic
gonadotropin hormone
(HCG), estrogen, and
progesterone
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Module IV C – NERVOUS SYSTEM
The network of nerve cells and
fibers which transmits nerve
impulses between parts of the
body.
ORGANS:
- Brains, Spinal Cord,
Nerves, & Sensory
Receptors
FUNCTIONS:
- Fast-acting central control
system
- Responds to external /
internal stimuli via nerve
impulses (electrical
messages)
- Is the master controlling
and communicating
system of the body.
- Controls and coordinates
all essentials functions of
the human body.
- It includes the brain,
cranial nerves, the spinal
cord, and spinal nerves
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. SENSORY FUNCTION
Nervous system uses its millions of
sensory receptors to monitor
changes occurring both inside and
outside of the body. Those changes
are called STIMULI and the
gathered information is called
SENSORY INPUT.
1. INTEGRATIVE FUNCTION
The nervous system process and
interprets the sensory input and
makes decisions about what
should be done at each moment.
The important integrative function
is perception, the conscious
awareness of sensory stimuli.
1. MOTOR FUNCTION
The nervous system then sends
information to muscles, glands,
and organs (effectors) so they can
respond correctly, such as
muscular contraction or grandular
secretion.
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
–consist of brain and spinal cord.
The master’s body control unit.
 SPINAL CORD – a column
of nerves between the
brain and peripheral
nervous system
 BRAIN STEM – connects
the brain to the spinal
cord.
 BRAIN – divided into 3
major parts
Hindbrain (lower part)
Midbrain
Forebrain
1. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM - the body’s link to
the outside world. Consists
of nerves with their
receptors, synapses and
ganglia which lie outside
the CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM.
Cardiac, smooth muscles, glands:
1. AUTONOMIC NS
 Involuntary bodily
processes.
Communicates
with internal
organs and glands
2. SYMPATHETIC NS
 Prepares the body
and stress. Called
“fight or flight”
3. PARASYMPATHETIC NS
 Calms the body
and helps the body
to conserve energy
SKELETAL MUSCLE
 SOMATIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
- Carries sensory Information.
Communicates with sense organs
and voluntary muscles
Sensory division Peripheral
Nervous System transmit action
potentials to the CNS; motor
divisions carries action potentials
away from the CNS.
Somatic motor nervous system
innervates skeletal muscle & is
mostly under voluntary control.
The Autonomic Nervous System
innervates cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle & glands & it is mostly
under involuntary control.
Autonomic Nervous System is
divided into sympathetic,
parasympathetic & enteric
portions.
CELLS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
NEUROGLIA - Support, nourish and
protect the neurons and maintain
homeostasis in the interstitial fluid
that bathes them.
Supporting cells of the nervous
tissue
Types of neuroglia
1. EPENDYMAL CELLS
 Cuboidal / columnar cells
that line the ventricles of
the brain and spinal cord.
 Largest of neuroglia.
Located at white matter,
the process make contact
with blood capillaries
neurons and the pia matter
3. MICROGLIA
 Small cells with slender
processes, they function as
phagocytes. PNS
4. OLIGODENDROCYTE
 Small than astrocytes,
responsible for forming
and maintaining the myelin
sheath around CNS axon.
5. SCHWANN CELL
  Same with
oligodendrocytes,
NEURON
- Provide most of the unique
techniques / functions of
the N.S - sensing, thinking,
remembering. controlling,
muscle activity, and
regulating glandular
secretion (Nerve Cell).
- Receives stimuli & transmit
action potentials.
PARTS OF NEURON
1. CELL BODY -Also known as
perikaryon / soma,
contains a nucleus and
cytoplasmic organelles.
2. DENDRITES -Conduct
impulses to the cell body.
Receives impulses from
other neuron
3. AXON -Conduct impulses
away from the body
transmit impulses toward
another neuron.
4. SYNAPSE -Site of
communication between
two neurons
MULTIPOLAR NEURON
Possess single axon and many
dendrites
BIPOLAR NEURON
Has one axon and one dendrite for
sensory neuron for the
transmission of sense.
UNIPOLAR NEURON
Found only in invertebrates in multiple sclerosis or tay-sachs PONS: superior to the medulla to hypothalamic functions
which only one process called disease. (Ack of fat) oblongata SEAT OF EMOTION.
neurite extends from the cell body. FUNCTION: participates in the - “Nervous perspiration”
ACTION POTENTIAL MYELINATION regulation of respiration (emotional response)
Is an electrical signal that travels REFLEX: a fast, automatic, - Perspiration is initiated in
along the surface of the membrane unplanned sequence of actions MIDBRAIN: superior to the pons; response to stress
of a neuron. that occurs in response to a smallest region of the brainstem
particular stimulus. FUNCTION: connects pons and BRAIN: located at the cranial cavity
NAMES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS cerebellum; righting and adjusting if the skull
SPINAL REFLEX visual and auditory stimuli
ADRENALINE Ex. Slamming on the brake in an 4 brain regions: cerebral
Fight or flight emergency; patellar reflex (hitting 2. DIENCEPHALON: main hemisphere, diencephalon,
NORADRENALINE knee) components: thalamus, brainstem, cerebellum
concentration CRANIAL REFLEX pineal body, hypothalamus COVERINGS OF THE BRAIN:
DOPAMINE Tracking movement of the eye as  CRANIUM
pleasure you read THALAMUS: largest portion of the  MENINGES
SEROTONIN SOMATIC REFLEX diencephalon  DURA NATER ARANCHOID
mood Contraction of the skeletal muscle FUNCTION: influences mood, MATER PIA MATER
GABA AUTOMATIC (VISERAL REFLEX) registers an unconscious,
calming Involuntary contraction of the unlocalized, uncomfortable CSF – Cerebral spinal fluid
ACETYLCHOLINE smooth muscle. perception of pain. Shock absorber
learning
GLUTAMATE MAJOR REGIONS OF THE BRAIN PINEAL BODY: posterior to the CEREBERUM – largest portion of
memory 1. BRAINSTEM thalamus the brain
ENDORPHIN’S 2. DIENCEPHALON FUNCTION: may influence the FUNCTION: governs all mental
euphoria 3. CEREBRUM onset of puberty known to activities, reason intelligence, will,
4. CEREBELLUM influence annual behaviors (in interpretor of sensations, sleep
MYELINATION animals) such as migration in birds,
MYELIN SHEATH - a multiple layer MAJOR REGIONS OF THE changes in fur color and CEREBELLUM: involved in balance,
of lipid and protein material that 1. BRAINBRAINSTEM reproductive changes in some maintenance of muscle tone and
surrounds / cover the axon. It BRAINSTEM: consist of ff: medulla mammals. coordination of fine motor
serves to electrically insulate the oblongata, pons, midbrain movement.
axon of a neuron and increases HYPOTHALAMUS: most inferior If damaged, muscle tone
speed of nerve impulse MEDULLA OBLONGATA: inferior portion of the diencephalon. decreases and fine motor
conduction. portion of the brain FUNCTION: movements become very clumps
DEMYELINATION - refers to the FUNCTION: regulates heart rate, - controls body temp.
loss or destruction of myelin breathing, swallowing, vomiting, hunger and thirst, sexual
sheaths around axons. It may coughing, sneezing, balance and pleasures, feeling relaxed
result from disorders such as coordination (Reflex Activities) and “good” after a meal,
rage and fear are related