SCHOOL OF LAW AND FEDERALISM

DEPARTMENT OF FEDERALISM AND LOCAL

GOVERNMENT STUDIES

INDIGENIZATION OF LANGUAGES IN SNNPR OF

ETHIOPIA: CRITICAL ANALYSIS ON POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS
AND PRACTICAL CHALLENGES RELATED WITH ADOPTION
OF 'SILTEGNA' IN SILTE ZONAL ADMINISTRATION

BY:

ABAS LUKMAN SHEWAJO

ADVISOR:

MUSSIE MEZGEBO (LECTURER OF LAW)

JUNE, 2018

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

 School of Law and Federalism

Department of Federalism and Local Government Studies

Indigenization of Languages in SNNPR of Ethiopia: Critical Analysis on

Potential Contributions and Practical Challenges Related With Adoption
of 'Siltegna' In Silte Zonal Administration

By:

Abas Lukman Shewajo

Advisor:

Mussie Mezgebo (Lecturer of Law)

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Law and Federalism of Ethiopian Civil Service
University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters in
Federalism and Local Government Study

JUNE, 2018

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

 Declaration

I, Abas Lukman Shewajo, hereby declare that this thesis entitled “Indigenization of Languages in
SNNPR of Ethiopia: Critical Analysis on Potential Contributions and Practical
Challenges Related With Adoption of 'Siltegna' in Silte Zonal Administration” has been
prepared by me under the guidance of Mussie Mezgebo (Lecturer of Law), as a part of partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the MA Degree in federalism and local government studies at
Ethiopian Civil Service University. It is my original work with citations and quotations where
other people’s works have been used. It has not been submitted partially or in full by other
persons for an award of degree in any other university. All the material sources used to develop
this thesis have been duly recognized.

Name of the researcher: Abas Lukman Shewajo

Signature: _____________________

Place: Ethiopian Civil Service University, School of Law and Federalism

Date of Submission: 4 June, 2018

i
 Advisors’ Approval Sheet

College of Leadership and Governance

School of Law and Federalism

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Indigenization of Languages in SNNPR of

Ethiopia: Critical Analysis on Potential Contributions and Practical Challenges Related With
Adoption of 'Siltegna' in Silte Zonal Administration” submitted in the partial fulfillment for the
requirement for the degree of Masters with specialization in Federalism and Local Government
in the Graduate program of Master of Arts (MA) and has been carried out by Abas Lukman
Shewajo ID.NO.ECSU1600572 under my supervision. Therefore I recommend that the student
has fulfilled the requirements and hence hereby can submit the thesis to the Academic Unit.

Name of advisor: Signature: Date:

______________________ ______________ _______________

ii
 Approval

This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Abas Lukman Shewajo, entitled “Indigenization of
Languages in SNNPR of Ethiopia: Critical Analysis on Potential Contributions and Practical
Challenges Related With Adoption of 'Siltegna' in Silte Zonal Administration” and submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Federalism and Local
Government Studies complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted
standards with respect to originality and quality.

Signed by Board of Examiners

Name of Chair Person Signature Date

______________________ ______________ _______________

Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date

______________________ ______________ _______________

Name of External Examiner Signature Date

______________________ ______________ _______________

iii
 Acknowledgment

First and foremost, I would like to praise the Almighty Allah for giving me patience throughout
the study period.

My special and sincere gratitude goes to my advisor Mussie Mezgebo (Lecturer of Law) for his
earnest and constructive comments throughout the whole parts of my thesis. Admittedly, his
genuine, polite and friendly cooperation and dedicated professional assistance have helped me to
complete the work within specified time.

I would like to express my thanks to my father Lukman Shewajo, my mother Hamdine Abdo,
my sister Hatiya Lukman and all my brothers (Mohammed Lukman, Kemil Lukman, Adabu
Lukman) for their unrestricted support from my childhood to now even with this investigation. I
also would like to special thanks to my wife Nejmia Nesru, my daughter Ekram Abas and my
son Farahan Abas for their patience to live with the absence of a father for two years and more
especially my wife for her moral and psychological support. She is shouldering all family and
social responsibility that concerns me.

I would like to expressly sincere thanks to Surur Bedru coordinator of Siltigna language
development project office, Kelil kedir language expert in Silte zone culture, tourism and
government for their professional assistance and their motivations to provide me all relevant
data. My gratitude also goes to Mr. Mohammed Yusuf for his commitment and willingness to
facilitate my work and his irreplaceable guidance, counseling, even he appreciate the title of my
investigation than the other concerned body.

Finally, I would like thanks all who participate in my investigation as an interviewee, FGD
participant for their wonderful interest to feed me for the purpose of this investigation.

iv
 Table of Contents

Title Page
Declaration ....................................................................................................................................... i
Advisors’ Approval Sheet ............................................................................................................... ii
Approval ........................................................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgment ........................................................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix
Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................ x
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 General Objective ........................................................................................................... 8
1.3.2 Specific Objectives of the Study .................................................................................... 8
1.4. The Basic Research Question of the Study .......................................................................... 9
1.5TheMain Research Question of the Study.............................................................................. 9
1.6. Specific Research Questions of the Study............................................................................ 9
1.7 Significances of the Study ..................................................................................................... 9
1.8 Research Method/ Research Methodology ............................................................................. 10
1.8.1 Research Design of the Study....................................................................................... 10
1.8.2Variables of the Study ................................................................................................... 10
1.8.3Target Populations of This Study .................................................................................. 10
1.8.4 Sampling Size and Sampling Technique ...................................................................... 10
1.8.5 Methods of Data Collection .......................................................................................... 11
1.8.6 Methods of Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 12
1.9 Delimitation of the study ..................................................................................................... 12
1.10 Limitation of the Study ..................................................................................................... 12
1.11 Organizations of the Research........................................................................................... 12

v
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 14
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 14
2.1 Definition of language, language rights .............................................................................. 14
2.2. Definition of Language Rights ........................................................................................... 14
2.3. Language Rights and Internal Self determination .............................................................. 14
2.4. The Concepts of Language Maintenance, Shift and Revitalization ................................... 15
2.4.1 Language Shift .............................................................................................................. 15
2.4.2 Language Maintenance ................................................................................................. 15
2.4.3 Language Revitalization ............................................................................................... 16
2.5. History of Language Policy and Planning in Ethiopia ....................................................... 16
2.5.1Language Policy in Ethiopia Before 1991 ..................................................................... 16
2.5.2. Post-1991 Language policy and planning in Ethiopia ................................................. 17
2.6Theoretical Background of the Study................................................................................... 18
2.6.1. Theories of Language Revitalization ........................................................................... 18
2.6.2. The Tier Stratification Model of Language Planning in a Multilingual Setting ....... 19
2.7 Language Planning and Policy ............................................................................................ 20
2.7.1 Language Policy in Federal States as a Mechanism to Accommodate Ethnic Diversity
............................................................................................................................................... 20
2.7.1.1 Personality Model .................................................................................................. 20
2.7.1.2. Territorial Model ................................................................................................... 21
2.7.2Language planning ........................................................................................................ 21
2.7.2.1Type of Language Planning .................................................................................... 21
2.7.2.2 Status planning ....................................................................................................... 21
2.7.2.3. Corpus Planning .................................................................................................... 22
2.7.2.3.1. Graphitization ................................................................................................. 22
2.7.2.3.2. Standardization ............................................................................................... 22
2.7.2.3.3. Modernization ................................................................................................ 23
2.7.2.4. Prestige Planning .................................................................................................. 23
2.7.2.5. Acquisition Planning............................................................................................. 23
2.8. Controversies Concerning the Use of Local or Indigenous Languages ............................. 24
2.8.1. Arguments Against the Use of Indigenous or Local Language ................................... 24

vi
 2.8.2. Arguments for the Use of the Local Language............................................................ 24
2.9. Importance of Language..................................................................................................... 25
2.9.1. Language and Group Identity ...................................................................................... 25
2.9.2. Language and economic development ........................................................................ 26
2.9.3. The Political Advantage of Using the Local Language ............................................... 27
2.9.4. Language and Culture .................................................................................................. 28
2.10. Experience of the different federation on the protection of linguistic human rights ....... 29
2.10.1. South African Experience .......................................................................................... 29
2.10.2. Switzerland’s Experience .......................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 31
3.1. Place of Language Rights in International Human Rights Instrument............................... 31
3.1.1 Place of Language Rights under ICCPR .......................................................................... 31
3.1.2. Place of Language Rights Under ICESCR .................................................................. 31
3.2. Place of Language Rights Under UNESCO Convention ................................................... 32
3.3. Linguistic Rights Under African Human Rights System ................................................... 33
3.4 Linguistic Rights Under the Ethiopian Legal System ......................................................... 34
3.5. Linguistic Rights Under SNNPR Regional constitution. ................................................... 34
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 35
ADOPTION OF SILTEGNA LANGUAGE IN SILTE ZONE: CONTRIBUTION AND
CHALLENGES ......................................................................................................................... 35
4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 35
4.2. Methods to Indigenize Siltigna Language in Silte Zone .................................................... 35
4.2.1Adopting Siltigna as zonal administrative language ..................................................... 37
4.2.2. Ensuring Quality of Using Siltigna as MOI ................................................................ 38
4.2.3. Adopting Siltigna as Media Language ........................................................................ 38
4.2.4. Adopting Siltigna as a technology language ............................................................... 39
4.2.5. Using Siltigna as a Literature and art language ........................................................... 40
4.3. Language Attitude .............................................................................................................. 40
4.4. The Practice of Adopting Siltigna as Working Language.................................................. 41
4.5. The Advantage of Adopting Siltigna as Working Language ............................................. 43
4.5.1. Ensures Practicability of the Constitutional Rights of the Community....................... 43

vii
 4.5.2. It Helps to Develop a Language .................................................................................. 44
4.5.3. Improves Communication and Public Services ........................................................... 45
4.5.4. It contributes to Stability and Conflict-Prevention ...................................................... 48
4.5.5. It Promotes Diversity ................................................................................................... 49
4.5.6. It Promotes Identity ..................................................................................................... 49
4.6. Challenges Related with the Adoption of Siltigna as Working Language ......................... 51
4.7. Mechanism to Accommodate the Language Rights of Non-indigenous Groups. .............. 56
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 59
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................... 59
5.1. Synthesis of the Analysis and Findings ............................................................................. 63
5.2. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 63
5.3. Recommendation ................................................................................................................ 64
Reference
Appendixes

viii
 List of Figures

Title Page

Figure 1.1: The Administrative map of SNNPR and Silte zone ................................................... 13

Figure 4.1: Diagram shows methods to indigenize language ...................................................... 36

Figure 4.2: Shows the advantage of using local language as working language .......................... 44

Figure 4.3: Shows the challenges of using local language as working language ......................... 54

ix
Acronyms

ACC African Charter of Culture

ACWC African Charter on the Welfare of Child

DRI Declaration on the rights of indigenous people

EU European Union

FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

FGD Focus group Discussion

GIDS Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

MOI Medium Of Instruction

OAU Organization of African charter

SNNPR Southern, nation, nationalities and peoples region

UDCDAP Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity and its Action Plan

UN United Nation

UNESCO United nation education science and cultural organization

ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICESCR International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

x
 Abstract

Following the incorporation of the right to ethnic self-determination in the FDRE Constitution,
previously underutilized languages have become the working language of respective regional
states and special administrative zones of regional states. Despite the existence of the right, there
are still challenges in the practical usage and development of indigenous languages, particularly
in the SNNPR. Even, some languages are facing the danger of extinction. Within this framework,
this study aims to assess the contribution of the adoption of Siltegna language in the
development of the language, as well as the challenges in the operationalization of the language
into practical usage. The qualitative approach with descriptive case study research design was
employed. Interview, observation, FGD, document analysis, legal analysis, and literature was
used to collect data. Thematic method of data analysis was employed. By purposive sampling out
of nine, five woredas were selected, five institutions were selected, 25 civil servants for interview
were selected, 2 language experts and 10 elders were selected as the source of data. According
to the finding of the study even though there are awareness problems related with the use of
local language it helps to develop the language itself, enhance inclusiveness and active
participation of the community at grassroots level, it improves communication and public service
delivery, it contributes to stability and conflict prevention and ethnic tension, promote diversity
and identity. To ensure these contributions the finding of the study shows that there are different
methods that the zonal government planned to indigenize Siltigna which include adopting
Siltigna as zonal working language. However, this general and status language planning in Silte
zone is not effective as it is planned due to different practical challenges. The main challenges
that affect the adoption of Siltigna in Silte zone are the younger, educated and partially officials
negative attitude towards one's heritage language, lack of awareness concerning the advantages
of using mother tongue ,higher and middle officials lack of commitment and motivation to
implement what they plan, stakeholders failure to follow-up and evaluate the plan, lack of
trained manpower in Siltigna language, lack of standardization and terminology development,
absence of using the language at home and other social gathering, absence of prestige planning.
Based on these finding different remedy was recommended to make the language development
plan effective such as the middle and higher official should follow up the plan, short-term and
long –term training should be given to middle and higher officials and civil servants, to solve
the standardization problem Siltigna language development board, technique committee, Siltigna
language standardization committee should be functional, to solve problems related to the
attitudes of younger society language engineering (modernization) is essential, the nearby
Universities such as Worabe, Wachamo And Wolkite should provide Siltigna at degree level as
one field of study, to solve problems related to lack of trends in using Siltigna at family and
community level it is necessary to adopt Joshua Fishman's intergenerational language reversing
methods, to solve problems related to ones identity crisis that leads negative attitude towards
once language and identity especially on younger generation it is essential to have prestige
planning.

Key words: Indigenous language, minority language, language rights, group rights

xi
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study

Originally indigenization is defined as the process of making imported Western values and
practice fit to the local context of a developing country.1According to Gray and Coates, the
notion of indigenization was first introduced almost four decades ago to address how
developing countries developed their social work by adopting imported ideas to fit local
needs2. The indigenization literature mostly focuses on the international level. Because of
colonization, most African countries develop and adopt the culture and language of the
colonized states. After independence African countries try to indigenize their culture and
language to be consistent with their local needs. However, at the national level, a number of
perspectives (e.g. cross-cultural and anti-oppressive social work) are parallel and related to the
indigenization literature.3 These perspectives aim to develop social work that is appropriate
and relevant to the minority ethnic groups, immigrants, and indigenous peoples. In general,
these perspectives resemble developing a social work that is ‘indigenous' or ‘authentic' to the
groups different from the dominant group within a country.4

Indigenization of language is the act of making languages more native; original especially
through the use of more indigenous people in the administration, employment, using local
language as a medium of instruction and adopting once vernacular language as working
language.5 Indigenous language refers to the language spoken uniquely by an indigenous
community and with origins in a given community or country. 6According to Condorcet,
which is cited by Will Kimilika, the greatest threat to progress is the monopolization of truth

1
Law, K.Y. and Lee, K.M., (2016). Importing Western values versus indigenization: Social work practice with
ethnic minorities in Hong Kong. International Social Work, 59(1), pp.60-72.available at http: //journals.
sagepub.com /doi/full/10.1177/0020872813500804, last accessed on 12/21/2017
2
Ibid
3
Ibid
4
Ibid
5
Coupland, N. ed., (2011).The handbook of language and globalization (Vol. 64). John Wiley & Sons.pp.3,
available at https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/31108455/ Handbook_of_Language _and
_Globalisation_ draft_3.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId= AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires= 1527929162&Signature=
loK%2BMy9CsmOncO7sZirFKrJc9EU%3D&response-content disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3 DHas _God_
Gone _ Global_ Religion_ Language _an.pdf, last accessed on 5/26/2018
6
Norton, B., (2001). Non-participation imagined communities and the language classroom. Learner
contributions to language learning: New directions in research, 6(2), pp.159-171.

1
 claims by elites using one dominated language.7Will Kimilika supports the idea of Condorcet
by arguing politics is only democratized when it is conducted in vernacular, so science is only
democratized when it is conducted in vernacular language.8Indigenization is crucial in
building up knowledge relevant to the local context that is inherited from the past and the
legacies of different cultures in the communities and histories.9

Language is one of the main identity markers. However, these linguistic human rights do not
explicitly and adequately protected in international human rights instrument.10 This does not
mean linguistic rights does not protected in the international instrument or it does not mean
none existence of linguistic rights at all. Even if the protection of individual rights can be
taken as the first step in the protection of minority rights, that is not sufficient, because it
cannot ensure accommodation of diversity within a country.11 For example, decisions on
group rights like language policy (which language has to be recognized), which history has to
be taught in schools), will be left from being addressed. After WWII, the recognition of group
rights was discouraged due to the experiences of the Nazi movements and the destructions
they brought to the Jews and to the world.12 More focus was given to individual rights. This
was reflected in the 1948 UDHR. But soon after, it was recognized that formal equality does
not necessarily lead to substantive or general equality. As a result, more concern began to be
given to the rights of minorities under international law through the charter of the UN. This
can be taken as the first attempt to recognize group rights under international law. The Charter
also provided for rights such as the right to self-determination.

Self-determination has both internal and external components. The external aspect refers to
unilateral secession understood in the context of colonies and implies that all colonized people

7
Will K.,(2001)politics in vernacular: multiculturalism and citizenship, Oxford University Press, Oxford New York
pp.216
8
Ibid
9
Teshome A.(2017), Indigenization for Restoration of Ethiopians, International Journal of Multidisciplinary
Research and Development, Volume 4; Issue 10; Page No. 60-63, available on https: //www.
researchgate.net/profile/Teshome_Abera/publication/320346912_Indigenization_for_Restoration_of_Ethiopia
nism/links/59df40b30f7e9b2dba82e612/Indigenization-for-Restoration-of-Ethiopianism.pdf, last accessed
on11/28/2017
10
Fessha, Y.T., (2009). A tale of two federations: Comparing language rights in South Africa and Ethiopia.
African Human Rights Law Journal, 9(2), pp.503, available at https://journals.co.za/content/ju_ ahrlj/9/ 2/EJC5
2150, last accessed on 10/27/2017
11
Van der Beken, C (2012), Unity in diversity-Federalism as a mechanism to accommodate ethnic diversity: The
case of Ethiopia, Deutsche nationalbibliothek, Berlin, Zurich, pp.32
12
Van der Beken, C.(2018), class lecture on federalism and human rights in Ethiopian Civil Service University

2
have the right to liberate themselves from their colonizers.13 Outside the context of colonies,
the external aspect of self-determination is related to secession.14 On the other hand, the
internal dimension of self-determination consists of different rights including language rights,
culture and etc as a mechanism for protecting minorities.15 The rights of language and culture
as part and parcel of internal self-determination are a precondition to claim the rights to self-
determination. The second development under international law concerning group rights
including language rights is manifested under the ICCPR. Even if the ICCPR gives much
focus to individual rights by restating what is provided under the UDHR, article 27 of the
ICCPR deals with the group dimension of individual rights. 16 Although article 27 of the
ICCPR gives group dimension of individual rights, it does not fully recognize group-specific
rights. The third important development in the recognition of group rights is the 1992UN
Declaration of minority rights. Even if this law is not binding one, it goes little further than
article 27 of the ICCPR.17

By ratifying these international human rights instruments Ethiopia adopted the 1995 FDRE
constitution that incorporates language rights in Article 5 and 39. The FDRE constitution
comprises both internal and external types of self-determination in Article 39. The rights to
self-rule, language and cultural rights and equal representation in the Regional and Federal
institution to all nations, nationalities, and peoples of Ethiopia categorized as internal self-
determination, whereas the right to secession categorized as an external self-determination as
the last remedy to accommodate diversity.18The 1995 FDRE constitution recognizes the rights
of the nations, nationalities, and peoples of Ethiopia starting from the preamble of the
constitution.19 Article39(2)every nation, nationality, and people in Ethiopia has the right to
speak, to write and to develop its own language; to express, to develop and to promote its

13
Barten, U., (2016). Minorities, Minority Rights, and Internal Self-Determination. Springer.pp.194
14
Tesfaye Fessha, Y. and Van Der Beken, C., (2013). Ethnic federalism and internal minorities: the legal
protection of internal minorities in Ethiopia. African Journal of International and Comparative Law, 21(1),
pp.32-49, available at https: //repository.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10566/
2462/Fessha_Ethnic%20faderalism_2013 .pdf? sequence= 1&isAllowed=y, last accessed on 3/10/2017
15
Supra note, 13
16
Supra note, 11
17
Chere, M.M., (2009). The recognition of language rights under international human rights law: analysis of its
protection in Ethiopia and Mauritius.pp.35, available at https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/12644, last
accessed on 10/27/2017
18
Supra note, 14
19
FDRE constitution(1995)

3
culture; and to preserve its history. Moreover, the constitution recognizes all ethnic groups to
reflect their distinctive identity using their language. Article 5 of the FDRE constitution
recognizes the equality of all languages in Ethiopia and Regional states or the minorities with
their own zonal or woreda governments have the rights to determine their working language.20

SNNPR is one of the multi-ethnic and extremely heterogeneous regions. It is a region which
is similar in many ways to the Ethiopian Federation. Therefore, it allows all the rights which
are enshrined in FDRE constitution including language rights in Article 5 and 39 of the
revised 2001 Regional constitution. For the administrative purpose, the constitution in Article
5(2) declares Amharic as Regional working language and in Article 5(3) the zonal
administration can also determine zonal working language that enhances bilingualism at the
local level. In SNNPR even though the linguistic rights are constitutionally granted only a few
zones such as Sidama, Wolaita and Gedio use their local language as zonal working
language.21All languages are not properly planned to be used for different purpose in SNNPR.
Data from Research Institute for SNNPR Languages indicated that among 56 languages only
29(51.8) found at reading and witting status, 25(41.6) at speaking or oral status, 2(3.6) already
they are extinct.22

The Siltie people are one of the ancient Semitic speaking peoples of Ethiopia.23 They have a
very strong Islamic tradition; subsequently, Islam provides the central backbone of the Siltie
identity.24 The Siltie people have preserved its indigenous language and linguistic identity for
many centuries. However, this long and trans-generational linguistic identity preservation
journey has passed through various tough challenges in different political times. According to
Masheshe Meke indigenous language of Siltie has been used as a prominent means of
communication for its speakers without any significant language pressure from other
languages until the time of the conquest of Siltie by Shewa government in 1888.25 As Siltie
elders elaborate in their oral stories, the indigenous language of Siltie has been used side-by-

20
FDRE and SNNPR constitution Article 5 (1995,2001 revised)
21
Silte zone five years Siltigna language development strategic plan (2007-2012).pp.30
22
SNNPR languages research institute(2010)
23
Kairedin T.(2o13), Serra: Local governance of Siltie people in the Southern region, LAMP LAMBERT ACADEMIC
PUBLISHING,p.5
24
Hussein M., (2010), Siltie as a Medium of Instruction. Unpublished MA Thesis, AAU.pp.88.
25
Jobo, M.M.,( 2016). Indigenous language shift in Siltie: Causes, effects, and directions for revitalization.
Journal of Languages and Culture, 7(7), pp.69-78. available at http://www.academicjournals.org/journal/JLC/
article-full-text/1700B2560124, last accessed ,10/22/2017

4
side with the dominant language of Ethiopia Amharic after Menelik’s expansion to the South.
Since, then due to language contact Amharic dominates Siltigna. As Fishman stated in his
book when there is more than one language (as a contact to each other) in the same society, it
should be expected that the languages affect the growth of each other within that speech
community.26 As a result, the domination leads the dominated community to lose its social,
linguistic and cultural identity by the process of language shift. As indicated above, Siltigna
language is a typical example of being in a contact situation with the Amharic language for a
long time in Ethiopian history since 1888. To indigenize the language we should have proper
language planning and policy. Therefore, Status planning which is type of language planning
deals with language policy and its implementation, as well as the selection of languages used
for official purposes and education, is crucial to indigenize the language.27 In other words,
status planning refers to authoritative decisions to use a language for important official
functions thereby enhancing its social prestige28Therefore it is necessary to use indigenous
languages as working language to preserve its indignity.

Working language is defined as using languages for administrative purpose.29 It is part of

language policy which is determined by the government to preserve the language and the
culture of a given society.30 Offering government service on local language is a means to
reverse and develop the language itself.31 However, the Silte zone that got its identity request
since, 2001 by referendum does not practice these constitutional rights, even though they use
their mother tongue as medium of instruction at schools since 1988. Since then to indigenize
the Siltigna language the Silte zone administration design projects such as school-based
language preservation by making mother tongue as medium of the instruction following the

26
Ibid
27
Tiglu G.(2015), Language planning and policy in Siltie, Dissertation submitted to the department of English
and the school of graduate studies presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor
of philosophy in applied linguistics, Addis Ababa University, unpub.,p.48, available at http: // etd.aau.edu.et
/browse? type=title&sort_by=1&order=ASC&rpp=40&etal=10&null=&offset=8689, last accessed on
11/09/2016
28
Ibid
29
Philipson, R., (1996). Linguistic imperialism: African perspectives. ELT Journal, 50(2), pp.160-167.
30
Yonatan A.,(2014),multilingual language policy and language practice in Ethiopia: opportunity and challenges
for national unity and development, A Thesis Submitted to The School of Graduate Studies and departments of
Foreign Languages and Literature Presented in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy (Applied Linguistics and Development) Addis Ababa University, unpub.p.52
31
Fishman, Joshua. , (1991), Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to
Threatened Languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.p.401.

5
1991 transitional charter, the 1995 FDRE constitution, and the 1994 educational policy,
teaching Siltigna as one subject from 1-12. However, this school-based project cannot save
the language from extinction. As stated on research conducted by Institute for SNNPR
Languages Research Center per a year the Siltigna language lost 6% of its speakers.

According to Tiglu Geza language planning and policy is not successful in Silte zone because
of the zonal administration failures to adopt Siltigna as zonal working language. Following
research recommendations in yearly zonal cultural, historical and language symposium that
the language is in a way of extinction the Silte zone legislative council declare Siltigna as
zonal working language since 2008 E.C. This is one basic element of language development.
To do so, the zonal council decides times for exercise from 2008-2009E.C for consecutive
two years and they officially declare Siltigna as zonal working language since2010 E.C.
Therefore, the researchers motivated to investigate these issues because it is recent
phenomenon in Silte zonal administration to adopt the local language as administrative
language and indigenous language of Siltie community is at risk of extinction. As indicated
above per a year the Siltigna language loss6% of its speakers.32 Beside these we expect
challenges and contributions when making local language as working language. But no one
conduct investigation on the contribution and challenges of adopting Siltigna as working
language in Silte zone. So, it needs Critical investigation the plan to be successful to find
solutions for the practical challenges while adopting the local language as administrative
language. The purpose of this investigation is to assess the contribution and challenges related
with the adoption of Siltigna in Silte zone with the aim to ensure the effectiveness of the
current language plan.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The Regional constitution left constitutional space for zonal administration to select their
indigenous language as their working language. As stated in short magazine of an overview of
Siltigna language situation and strategic plan on its development, even though the rights are
constitutionally granted, only few zones such as Sidama, Wolaita and Gedio use their local
language as zonal working language.33 The Silte zone is one of newly emerged zones in

32
Supra note, 22
33
Supra note, 21

6
SNNPR, which determines Siltigna as zonal working language since 2008E.C. Even though,
the zonal council determines Siltigna as zonal working language, due to long dominance of
Amharic and pre 1991 assimilation policy affect the practice of using one’s indigenous
language for official purpose at the time of two years of preparation and exercise. Hence, the
language of Siltigna has been in a declined use in its linguistic landscape. As Tiglu stated:

“In the Siltie Zone, it is clearly observed that there is contest in languages use. The
coexistence of Amharic and Siltigna in the Silte zone caused the community to
become bilingual. Then gradually the young generations are shifting to the
dominant language, Amharic and losing their linguistic and cultural identity in the
process. This happens because Amharic is used in the overall community for social
interaction. It is noticed that Siltigna language speakers are forced to learn and
use Amharic for economic, political and social purposes. The community was not
able to balance the use of Siltigna along with Amharic and English. In Siltie there
are serious challenges of turning down the use of the local language of the
community”.34

From the above statement, we can understand that there is Siltigna language shift due to
different reason especially the young generation inclined to use Amharic in all domains and
they have no positive attitude towards their heritage language. The youngest and educated part
of the Silte people unable to balance the utilization of Siltigna and Amharic in all linguistic
domains. Therefore, Siltigna language is at risk of endangerment. As data from SNNPR
Languages Research Center the Siltigna language loss 6% of its speakers per year. 35

So, the Silte zone administration enters into practice by developing a five-year strategic plan
for Siltigna language development to solve problems in relation to dangers of losing one’s
identity in the future. In addition to attitudinal problems the researcher has also observed skill
problem to write, speak in Siltigna, some officials started to ask excuse to use Amharic while
using Siltigna. Except, simply observing the challenge anyone does not conduct an
investigation on practical challenges as the issue is recent since 2008 E. C. There are also
awareness gaps in relation to linguistic human rights of the community and the benefits

34
Supra note, 27
35
Supra note, 22

7
gained through using local language for different linguistic domains. No one is sure using
local language has contributions to the speakers of the language particularly and at the
national level at large. There are no any researchers or practitioner conduct investigation on
the contribution of using local language in the area. This gaps pressure the researcher to
conduct an investigation in the area. It is necessary to assess the practice and the challenges of
this zonal engagement whether they are practicing what is stated in the constitution of the
country and the effectiveness of the practice too. This assessment helps stakeholders to
practice in a better way by avoiding the obstacles in relation to practicing language rights by
creating wide range awareness concerning the benefits gained via using indigenous language.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The research has both general and specific objectives that we address at the end of this study.

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objective of the study is to:

 Assess the potential contribution and practical challenges related to adopting Siltigna as
zonal working language as one component of indigenization of languages in Silte zone.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of this study are:
 To assess the attitude of the Silte community towards adopting Siltigna as zonal working
language.
 To describe the practices of indigenization of the vernacular language in zonal
administration.
 To assess the effectiveness of the implementation of Siltigna as zonal working language.
 To identify the potential contribution of adopting Siltigna as a zonal working language for
indigenization of Siltigna language.
 To assess the practical challenges that affect the practice of adopting Siltigna as a zonal
working language in the Silte zone to indigenize the language.
 To identify how the language rights of non-indigenous groups can be accommodated or
protected.

8
1.4. The Basic Research Question of the Study

The study has main and sub-research questions intended to be answered at the end of this
investigation.

1.5TheMain Research Question of the Study

This study work is expected to answer the main research questions provided as follows:

 What are the potential contribution and practical challenges related to the adoption
Siltigna as zonal working language as one component of indigenization of languages in
Silte zone?

1.6. Specific Research Questions of the Study

This research expected to answer the following Specific questions:

 What are the attitudes of the Silte community towards adopting Siltigna as zonal
working language?
 To what extent the practice of indigenization of Siltigna language effective in Silte
zone?
 To what extent the adoption of Siltigna in Silte zone is effective?
 What are the contributions of adopting Siltigna as a zonal working language to the Silte
community?
 What are the practical challenges that affect the adoption of vernacular language
(Siltigna) as zonal working language?
 To what extent the zonal administrations design mechanisms to protect the language
rights of non indigenous groups?
1.7 Significances of the Study

The study under investigation has several significances. Firstly, it helps the Silte community
to preserve its indigenous language and culture as language and culture is a resource for the
community and the country at large. Secondly, this study supports community development
using indigenous knowledge by adopting vernacular language as medium of instruction and
working language. Thirdly, it helps zonal stakeholder to identify the practical challenges that
face after adopting Siltegna as zonal working language and to find the possible remedy.

9
Fourthly, the investigation can be additional experience for other indigenous groups in the
region in particular and in Ethiopia at large. Finally the research uses language planners in
their planning, policymakers in their policy decision making and for other researchers it can
a bases for further investigation in the area.

1.8 Research Method/ Research Methodology

1.8.1 Research Design of the Study

In order to conduct this investigation a qualitative research methodology has been used to
obtain adequate information concerning the issue under investigation. The qualitative
approach is selected because of the subjective nature of the data i.e. it seeks wide
understanding of the entire situation related with adopting Siltigna as zonal working language.
This research employed descriptive case study research design due to the problems identified;
the questions raised types of questions used to ask the respondents .Both primary and
secondary source of data has been used to gather relevant information on the issue under
study.

1.8.2Variables of the Study

The dependent variables of the study are “indigenization of languages”. The independent
variable of the study “is adopting Siltigna as zonal working language” because it is one of the
methods to indigenize the language in Silte zone.

1.8.3Target Populations of This Study

Target population of the study is the people who reside in Silte zone. Because of the Siltigna
language is adopted as zonal working language in the Silte zonal administration. So,
populations in Silte especially indigenous groups are the target population of the study,
specifically, elders, civil servants, language experts, teachers, and administrators of selected
sectors.

1.8.4 Sampling Size and Sampling Technique

For the purpose of this study the researcher has selected institutions such as the office of
culture, tourism and government communication office, the administrative council, the
legislative council, the office of education, Siltigna language development project office

10
which is established to support the practice of adopting Siltigna as zonal working language.
The selection of these institutions was based on purposive sampling technique because the
issues of indigenizing and developing one’s own language and culture relatively related with
the above mentioned institutions.

From eight woredas and one city administration, four woredas and the Silte zone
administration have selected as the source of data based on purposive sampling. For the
purpose of this study two elders for the interview from each woredas using purposive
sampling technique have been selected because all elders may not provide necessary
information concerning the issue, so selecting those who have more knowledge about their
indigenous languages are necessary. The FGD would have been conducted at zonal level with
participants from the above-mentioned institutions. Besides these, the researcher has chosen
five civil servants which are from above-mentioned sectors and from each woreda based on
purposive sampling because, of the qualitative nature of the study. In addition to civil
servants, two language experts in Silte zone that have good knowledge about indigenous
languages have been interviewed. The head of the above-mentioned institutions had
interviewed.

1.8.5 Methods of Data Collection

Due to the qualitative nature of the work the researcher has utilized the following data
collecting tools such as interview, FGD, observation, legal analysis, document analysis and
review of related literature. For the purpose of getting adequate and in-depth information, the
researcher has designed unstructured interview. This is because the above types of an
interview to give freedom to the interviewees and to dig out what they know the indignity of
the language and how to preserve the vernacular language. This type of interview helps the
researcher to modify questions while interviewing the respondents based on the interviewee
condition it enables us to get in-depth information concerning the issue.

A complete participatory observation to get deep uncovered data by assimilating what the
society looks like as the researcher is members of the society has been conducted. For the
purpose of this study, the researcher has analyzed documents such as yearly zonal language,
culture and historical symposium, five-year Siltigna language development strategic plan,
national language and cultural policy the FDRE constitution and the SNNPR constitution.

11
1.8.6 Methods of Data Analysis

For the purpose of this investigation, the researcher has been used thematic analysis to analyze
data collected using different instrument because of the qualitative and the subjective nature
of the study.

1.9 Delimitation of the Study

Conceptually the scope of this study is delimited to assess the potential contribution and
practical challenges related to adopting Siltigna as a zonal working language in Silte zonal
administration as one element of indigenization of language. Geographically the area of this
investigation was eight woreda and one city administration of Silte zonal administration.

1.10 Limitation of the Study

Collecting data for the research is not an easy task; particularly, obtaining information for the
purpose of research has been a burdensome task owing to the tedious bureaucracy in some
government organizations and at the same time it is also difficult to get relevant and organized
data. Due to their overburden the researchers would not easily access government officials for
an interview. So the researcher only interviewed three administrators of selected institutions.

1.11 Organizations of the Research

This study comprises five chapters, chapter one about introduction which contains back
ground of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, basic research
questions, significance of the study, limitations of the study, scope of the study, organization
of the study, Chapter two contains overall conceptual and theoretical background of the
study, chapter three contains the legal frame work of the study, chapter four about data
presentation and analysis thematically and the last chapter will be summary, conclusion, and
recommendation of the study.

Figure 1.1: The Administrative map of SNNPR and Silte zone

12
13
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition of Language, Language Rights

There is no universally accepted definition of language so far, different scholars define it

differently. The dictionary meaning of language is ‘the method of human communication,
either spoken or written, consists of the use of words in an agreed way. Languages are
culturally transmitted through symbolic communication systems that are unique to humans.36
As cited by Yonatan Araaya Sapir defined language as a method of communicating ideas,
emotions, and desires by means of socially constructed symbols. 37 In general from the above
definition given by different scholars it is possible to conclude language is not only means of
communication but also it is means of expression of once identity especially in multi-national
federations like Ethiopia.

2.2. Definition of Language Rights

“Language rights” and “linguistic human rights “are human rights which have an incidence on
language preferences of or use by state authorities, individuals and other entities.38 Linguistic
human rights can be described as a series of obligations on state authorities to either use
certain languages in a number of contexts, not interfere with the linguistic choices and
expressions of private parties, and may extend to an obligation to recognise or support the use
of languages of minorities or indigenous peoples.

2.3. Language Rights and Internal Self determination

Language rights and cultural rights are one of the major components of internal cultural self-
determination. As internal self-determination most often aims at the group, not the territory it
isclosest to minorities.39The language rights for minorities also are strong indicators for
preserving the culture. For many minorities, language remains a key instrument in their

36
Christian F., (2010), Strategies to Save Endangered Languages, Published by Wayne State University Press,
Vol. 82, No. 1,pp.47, available on http://www.jstor.org/stable/41466658, Last Accessed: 14-12-2017 18:42 UTC
37
Supra note 30,p.37.
38
Supra note 34
39
Supra note ,13

14
identification as a minority or member of a minority. 40There are several minority rights that
together make up the cultural dimension of self-determination such as having the right to learn
and speak the minority language the right to preserve once identity and culture. Of the rights
examined here, identity is a precondition for a discussion on or claim to the rights of self-
determination. Without identity, it is impossible to identify the group eligible for self-
determination.41 This means that self-determination only follows after an identity has been
constructed.

2.4. The Concepts of Language Maintenance, Shift and Revitalization

2.4.1 Language Shift

According to Aitcheson language shift is defined as a socially dominant language gets used in
more and more circumstances so that, indigenous languages have little opportunities to be
used in different domains.42 Language shift is the gradual or sudden move from the use of one
language to another either by an individual or by a group.43 All scholars above in one or other
way agreed that language shift is a change in a use of a language for different reasons that
gradually lead to death or loss of indigenous language. Therefore, as they stated different
factors contribute to language shift such as modernization, economy, immigration and
political influence, language contact, the attitude of the language community.

2.4.2 Language Maintenance

In the Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Pauwels defines language maintenance in the

following way:“The term language maintenance is used to describe a situation in which a
speaker, a group of speakers, or a speech community continue to use their language in some
or all spheres of life despite competition with the dominant or majority language to become
the main/sole language in these spheres.”44Batibo defines that “Language maintenance” is a

40
Supra note,13
41
Supra note,13
42
Atchinson, Jean.(1991), Language Change, Progress or Decay? 2nd edition. Cambridge: Syndicate, p.204.
43
Supra note,27, pp.60
44
Eve K. Okura (2017)), language nests and language acquisition: An empirical analysis, A dissertation
submitted to the graduate division of the University of Hawai'i at Manoa in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy in linguistics, Unpub.p.13

15
situation in which a language maintains its indignity, even under pressure. 45This can be
possible when the given language is built in a stiff foundation to resist pressure from dominant
language. From the aforementioned statement, it is possible to justify that both language
maintenance or language revitalization is necessary to indigenize the language. The former is
by keeping the status quo of the languages and the latter by increasing the number of speakers
by using different mechanisms.

2.4.3 Language Revitalization

It is a general and overarching term. According to King” Language revitalization is the

attempt to add new linguistic forms or social functions to an embattled minority language with
the aim of increasing its uses or users. More specifically, language revitalization, as
conceptualized here, encompasses efforts which might target the language structure, the uses
of the language, as well as the user’s of the language.” 46According to the king, the primary
difference between revitalization and maintenance is revitalization efforts are intended to
increase vitality, rather than just to maintain the status quo. Language revitalization
encompasses mechanisms through which language communities and other concerned
stakeholders plan to revitalize endangered language through a combination of the political,
communal, and educational mechanism.

2.5. History of Language Policy and Planning in Ethiopia

2.5.1Language Policy in Ethiopia Before 1991

Although Ethiopia has no any domination of foreign language policy like other colonized
African countries there was no any protection of linguistic plurality. All the regimes favor the
use of only one language that is Amharic as a means of unification instrument. Many kings
including emperor Yohannes IV (1872 - 89) who was from non-Amharic speaking areas used
Amharic as national language.47 However clear recognition of Amharic as a national language
in written form was observed during Emperor Hailesellassie I(1930-1974). The full legal

45
Batibo, H., et al. (2005), Language Decline and Death in Africa: Causes, Consequences, and Challenges. UK,
USA, Canada: Multilingual Matters Ltd., p.102.
46
Supra note, 20
47
Supra note 17,pp.35

16
recognition of Amharic as an official language of the empire was done by 1955 Revised
Constitution.48

The language policy implemented during the imperial era promoted the use of one language
(i.e.) that is the use of Amharic language, with a big intention of developing and transforming
a homogenous society at all structures, practices, and events which aim to brings national
unification.49

As discussed above language policy at the time of imperial regime encourages mono-
lingualism i.e. using Amharic for all linguistic domains. In this regime, there was not any
ground to use, write, preserve and develop one's vernacular language other than Amharic. So
because of this and other reason the condition gives ways for the dominance of Amharic at the
expense of another indigenous language that belongs to diverse ethnic groups in the country.
This, in turn, leads to language shift and language endangerment.

The military regime that overthrew the emperor in 1974 and holds power still 1991 introduced
some reforms including language rights. One of the basic reforms related with language rights
were about 15(fifteen) indigenous languages including Siltigna were used in the campaign
which the military regime waged to eradicate illiteracy in the country. The 1987 military
government declared that all nationalities were equal, regional autonomies were guaranteed
and equalities of the language of different nationalities were ensured.50 By default, the regime
also makes Amharic as the only working language of the country.

2.5.2. Post-1991 Language Policy and Planning in Ethiopia

The downfall of the military regime in 1991 presented new opportunities to rebuild the
Ethiopian state. As discussed above the previous modern Ethiopian regimes opt state building
through assimilation policy. Contrary to this reality the new Federal system aspires to rectify
"historically unjust relationships" and promote the unity of the country through constitutional
recognition and democratic accommodation of diversity.51 To do so the FDRE constitution
guarantees all nations, nationalities, and peoples of the country by providing unconditional

48
The revised constitution of the empire of Ethiopia (1955) art (125)
49
Leyew, Z., (2012). The Ethiopian Language Policy: A Historical and Typological Overview. Ethiopian Journal of
Languages and Literature, 12(2), pp.1-59.
50
The constitution of People’s Democratic of Ethiopia(1987)
51
See the preamble of FDRE constitution(1995)

17
rights to self-determination up to secession.52 Article 5 of the FDRE Constitution, outlining
the basic principle of the language policy, it declares that all Ethiopian languages shall enjoy
equal state recognition, from all the languages of the country Amharic has opted as a working
languages of the Federal government, finally the constitution recognizes Regional states to
have the competence to determine their Regional working language.53 This is further
elaborated by article 39 of the Constitution, which “states that every ethnic group in Ethiopia
‘has the right to speak, to write, and to develop its own languages; to express, to develop and
to promote its culture and to preserve its history”.54 Based on these constitutional principles,
the Constitution declares that Amharic shall be the working language of the federal
government while allowing the Regional states to determine their respective working
language.

The constitutional stipulation that allows each regional state to adopt its working language
opens a room for the application of a territorial model of language planning, in which case the
working language of each member of the federation would be that of the majority of the area.
In practice, five of the nine regional states have endorsed unilingualism. This obviously
provides ample room for each ethnic community to develop its language and culture. It also
represents recognition of the linguistic identities of the constituent units. However, the above
constitutional principles did not applicable by all nation, nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia.
Because of these except few languages in Ethiopia most languages are not used for different
linguistic purpose especially for administrative purpose.

2.6Theoretical Background of the Study

2.6.1. Theories of Language Revitalization

Fishman’s Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) provides a model of possible

steps to reverse language shift, according to “the severity of intergenerational dislocation”55
One set of strategies is the recognition of official and national languages in education, the
local and Regional media, government services, work spheres and government operations at

52
Supra note ,19,Art.39(1)
53
Supra note, 19,(,Art.5)
54
supra note ,19,(Art.39)
55
Supra note , 31

18
higher and national levels.56Therefore, famous language planner Joshua Fishman has
proposed eight stage plan designed to bring language back to common usage. For the purpose
of this discussion the researchers inspired on stage six that is about intergenerational
transmission of the indigenous language. By following the Joshua Fishman’s eight stages it is
possible to reverse the language from shift and risk of endangerment. Especially stage six is
so important to transmit one’s indigenous language to the next generation. According to
Fishman this stage six is very essential, if this stage is not satisfied all else can amount to little
more than consuming time. It is related to promoting the use of the language in families and in
your communities. Increased use of your language in your everyday life and in public
57
gathering can help the transmission of your language from generation to generation. The
researcher inspired on this theory because this theory includes all activities that used to return
back the common use of indigenous language from stage 8-1. Therefore, this theory can be
best standing point for this investigation.

2.6.2. The Tier Stratification Model of Language Planning in a Multilingual

Setting

It is also now self-evident that multilingualism is not an obstacle for development but, merely
the challenge is policy formulation and implementation in the service of national
development.58 "The challenge of nationalism throughout history and more especially in the
present millennium is to build a strong economically viable pluralistic nation from
ethnolinguistic diversity."59 This model fits especially in multinational federations like
Switzerland, Belgium, and Ethiopia. The model seeks to make it possible for languages to be
maximally utilized in the public sphere, such that each language community can conserve,
preserve and maximize the development of its ethnolinguistic identity and ensure the optimal
use of its language at some level(s) of the public sphere while participating fully in the social,

56
Supra note, 31
57
Supra note , 31
58
Skutnabb‐Kangas, T. and Philipson, R.,(2008). A human rights perspective on language ecology,
In Encyclopedia of language and education, Springer US. (pp. 2898-2910). available at http://tove-skutnabb-
kangas. org/pdf /Human rights perspective _on_ecology_Tove_Skutnabb_Kangas_and_Robert_Phillipson.pdf,
last accessed 5/17/2018
59
Chumbow, B.S.,( 2012). The Challenge of Linguistic Diversity and Pluralism: The Tier Stratification Model of
Language Planning in a Multilingual Setting. In Social Sciences and Cultural Studies-Issues of Language, Public
Opinion, Education, and Welfare. InTech.,pp.6. available at file:///C:/Users/Admin/Downloads/39095.pdf, last
accessed on 5/26/2018

19
economic and political life of the nation.60In line with UNESCO's position in favor of the
maintenance of linguistic and cultural diversity, the researcher aspired, proposed and justifies
a Tier Stratification Model of Language Planning that seeks to guarantee nationalism and
pluralism over a foundation of a vibrant ethnolinguistic identity.

2.7 Language Planning and Policy

2.7.1 Language Policy in Federal States as a Mechanism to Accommodate Ethnic

Diversity

Multiethnic states have adopted different language policies. Some adopted the personality
principle for the whole issue of language rights to accommodate ethnic diversity, whereas
others adopted the territorial model of language policy. Let us see the two models in detail as
follows:

2.7.1.1 Personality Model

Under the personality principle, an individual speaker can exercise language rights
irrespective of his or her geographical location.61 According to the personality principle,
individuals are entitled to use their mother tongue in every part of the country with few
territorial restrictions. From this we can understand that the rights are given to peoples, not to
the territory, the individuals can practice their language rights without boundary restriction.
The language policy adopted by Canada represents this approach. In short, the personality
approach emphasizes an individualistic orientation of the rights in such a vision linguistic
differences are individual attributes protected from "coast to coast by the central state. 62A
common criticism directed against the personal approach is that it has the tendency to
perpetuate the dominant position that a historically privileged language group enjoys in the
state.63 This model results in effects of assimilation to historically dominant language groups.

60
Ibid
61
Supra note10,pp.505.
62
Supra note 10, pp.505
63
Supra note 10, pp.505

20
2.7.1.2. Territorial Model

Under the territorial approach, the rights to exercise language rights are restricted within the
defined territory of the minority language.64 Under such systems, the official language would
often be determined by majority principle. This model may result in effects of
monolingualism. A good example of the territorial model is Belgium, where both French-
speaking Flanders and Dutch-speaking Walloon endorse unilingualism with Brussels being
the only region that has adopted official bilingualism.65The territorial model of language
policy can protect the linguistic identities of the federating units. It also provides a good
opportunity for linguistic groups to develop its language and culture. From this point of view,
we can argue that this model enables all ethnic groups within a country can develop and
preserve their language as a building block for ensuring unity within diversity. One of the
clear criticisms of the territorial model is that it restricts the language rights within a given
territory. If one ethnic group internally migrant from one federating unit to the other their
language rights would not be respected which is clearly visible in Switzerland Belgium and
Ethiopia.66 So, it is necessary that this model must be supplemented by another non-territorial
model as Christophe stated.67

2.7.2Language planning

2.7.2.1Type of Language Planning

Language policy and planning activities are generally categorized into four types: (i) status
planning, (ii) corpus planning, (iii) acquisition planning; and (iv), prestige planning,

2.7.2.2 Status planning

Status planning which involves a decision about which language is to be used for an official
purpose like legislation and informal education etc.68Cooper defined status planning in terms
of policy describing it as “deliberate efforts to influence the allocation of functions among a

64
Supra note, 10,pp.508.
65
Supra note10,pp.508
66
Center for federal studies, Addis Ababa University, (2014), Ethiopian Journal of Federal Studies, Addis Ababa
University Press, vol.1.No.2.pp.28.
67
Supra mote, 22
68
Bernand Spolsky (2003), Sociolinguistics,4th edition, Oxford Newyork, Oxford University Press,pp.69.

21
community’s languages.”69Fishman defined status planning in terms of cultivation, that is, as
“seeking to restore societal resources in order to promote the use of a language or languages
in a wider and more important range of social functions among a wider group of people.” 70 In
general from statements raised by different writers above we can understand that status
planning deals with language policy and its implementation as well as the selection of
languages used for official purposes and education. This type of planning is necessary
especially to languages at risk of language shift.

2.7.2.3. Corpus Planning

Corpus planning- which deals with the development of written language such as orthography,
dictionaries, terminology development, standardization of the spoken forms in written
form.71As Ferguson identified there are three traditionally recognized types of corpus
planning which are graphitization, standardization, and modernization.72

2.7.2.3.1. Graphitization

Graphitization refers to the development, selection, and modification of scripts and

orthographic conventions for a language.73 This type of corpus planning mainly deals with the
development of a system of writing and orthography.

2.7.2.3.2. Standardization

As stated in the paper of Tiglu Geza, language standardization is the process which includes
how a language should be written, how its sounds should be pronounced, how its words
should be spelled, which words are acceptable in formal situations, and what grammatical
constructions are appropriate.74 The issue of standardization is essential for language use as a
means of guiding rules for valid language utilization. Language standardization involves

69
Kerry Jane Taylor-Leech,(2007), The Ecology of Language Planning in Timor-Leste A study of language policy,
planning, and practices in identity construction, Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, Unpub .pp.28.
70
Supra note,27p,p.338.
71
Supra note,68,pp.72.
72
Fishman, J.A., (1973). Language modernization and planning in comparison with other types of national
modernization and planning. Language in Society, 2(1), pp.23-43.
73
Ibid
74
Ibid

22
status planning, which it refers to the choice of one language as official language and corpus
planning when it refers to the codification of a language in a unified variety.75

2.7.2.3.3. Modernization

Modernization refers to the construction of terms for new concepts. Modernization is a form
of language planning that enables language communities and planners to adjust the indigenous
language with the changing social environment76 .It often occurs when a language faces a risk
of a shift in status, due to different factors. The most significant force in it is the expansion of
the lexicon, which allows the language to discuss modern topics. Therefore, this type of
language planning is also necessary for the case under investigation, because Siltigna as local
language is at risk of extinction.

2.7.2.4. Prestige Planning

Prestige planning is defined as the "enhancement of the prestige of a language" through its use
in higher domains such as the sciences, the professions, diplomacy, high culture, refined
social interaction, and literature.77 Ager referred to this process as “image creation.”Image
creation plays a central role in identity construction.78 Here in this type of planning, we can
understand that language planning is not only for communication, but it can be for identity
planning to build the image of a certain ethnic identity through a different mechanism.

2.7.2.5. Acquisition Planning

Acquisition planning, involves the development of language learning programs, development

of teaching and learning material, and translation.79Acquisition or educational language
planning is arguably the most important site for language planning. Not only schools are the
formal transmitters of languages but also the education sector transmits and perpetuates

75
Supra note,11
76
Supra note 72
77
Supra note, 69, pp.30.
78
Ager, Dennis. (2001). Motivation in Language Planning and Language Policy.Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.pp.88.
79
Elaine F(2014),Perspectives on policy and practice, indigenous language and education, pp.20.available
athttps://search.yahoo.com/search?fr=chrgreentree_ff&ei=utf8&ilc=12&type=395337&p=Ager%2c+Dennis.+(2
001).+Motivation+in+Language+Planning+and+Language+Policy.+Clevedon%3aMultilingual+Matters.pp.88.Elai
ne+F(2014)%2cPerspectives+on+ olicy+and +practice% 2cindigenous +language+ and+ education +%2c+pp.
20.pdfd last accessed on 10/19/2017.

23
culture.80 Acquisition planning is directed at language education programs and language
teaching for various purposes.

2.8. Controversies Concerning the Use of Local or Indigenous Languages

2.8.1. Arguments against the Use of Indigenous or Local Language

Arguments against the use of local languages usually begin by asserting in which it is
inevitably divisive that leads to fragmentation. The introduction of local languages come as a
result of the establishment of new geopolitical boundaries which were intended to reflect
ethnicity, that opponents of using local language most often regarded as divisive encouraging
conflict. Besides these, if there is internal migration from one region to the other the language
rights of the exogenous groups is not respected, leave behind any prior claim to language
protection.81 In other words, this particular approach creates risks developing isolated
communities and scores low in the promotion of inter-group solidarity. Therefore, using local
languages of a certain ethnic group develops a sense of isolated identity that affects the unity
of a country if we have not language policy that assures unity within diversity. In addition, it
is obligatory to balance the two components of federalism such as shared rule and self-rule to
reduce the divisibility of linguistic federalism.82

2.8.2. Arguments for the Use of the Local Language

Arguments in support of the use of local language often begins by highlighting the importance
of facilitating the expressions of identity, the promotion of mother tongue languages and the
extension of their uses for wider range of purpose, it enhances the states of many Ethiopians
from other multinational states who speak the language as a mother tongue and facilitate the
necessary self-expression that is a prerequisite for increasing local, regional and national self-
esteem.83 As long as the political climate prohibited the extension of the uses of local
language, people with particular language identity were relegated inferior social position in
the state. Adeno stated that “it is not linguistic diversity that leads to conflict, but rather

80
Baldauf, Richard, and Kaplan, Robert.( 2004.) Language Planning and Policy in the Pacific. London: Multilingual
Matters.pp.123.
81
Supra note,10,
82
Supra note, 10
83
David T.,(2006), Ethnic Federalism: The Ethiopian experience in comparative perspective, Addis Ababa, Addis
Ababa University Press,176.

24
dominance over certain linguistic group leads to disunity and conflict.”84Similarly, Philipson
and Skutnab also come to conclusion that "not giving people their linguistic rights and
denying diversity leads to more conflict than the diversity itself”.85 This view is also
supported by Bamgbose who asserts that the belief in one language as unifying force leading
to social cohesion within multiethnic and multilingual society is defective. 86 It has advantages
to give protection to the linguistic rights of minorities instead of trying to build national unity
around one language. Because this would undermine minority group to trust the government
and would lead to loss of their language and culture.

2.9. Importance of Language

Language has many purposes such as language is the most important medium of human
communication, a symbol of identity, and an expression of culture, a medium of cognitive and
conceptual development.87 As language is one of the identity makers it used as a symbolic
function that means recognition of any language means recognition of a given ethnic identity
speaking the language. Language is a means to enhance development because language is an
instrument to discover modern and indigenous knowledge. A constitutional lawyer, Rubio-
Marín distinguishes "the expressive interest in language as a marker of identity" and an
"instrumental interest in language as a means of communication".88 Let us see the importance
of language with the following perspectives.

2.9.1. Language and Group Identity

Language in some developed and which are not heterogeneous societies may be seen only as
a medium of communication. However, in the multinational federation and developing
countries which are characterized by diversity language is not merely the medium of
communication; it also serves as a manifestation of group identity. Fishman also asserts that
language is much more than neutral utensils, but language has different connotations for

84
Supra note, 59
85
Supra note, 58
86
Küspert-Rakotondrainy, S., ( 2013). Language Policy and Identity in a Diverse Society: The Impact of Language
of Instruction on Social Group Identity. A Comparative Case Study from Ethiopia (Master's thesis).pp.52,
available at https:// www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/35805/Kuspert-Rakotondrainy .pdf?sequence
=1&sa= U&ei= i9NjU4n2D8S -8gHYmICIDA&ved=0CCYQFjAC&usg=AFQjCNGnw1yh4XGDjrQMZNP_EdpIsqyPhQ
87
Michael Clyne, Multilingualism, Multiculturalism and Integration, availableon http://pressfiles .anu. edu.au/
downloads /press/p113381/pdf/ch032.pdf, last accessed on10/25/2017.
88
Supra note,58

25
different people and it is closely related to identity.89 In addition, language promotion is
essential to preserve identity. The promotion of local language and the facilitating their uses
for a wider range of purpose is a prerequisite for increasing local, regional and national self-
esteem.90 If the political climate denied the development and the uses of local language,
people with particular language identities downgraded to an inferior social position in the
state. From this Language and identity are inseparable and interconnected social entity that we
cannot see them separately. Furthermore, protection of language rights is one of the
mechanisms for accommodating diversity in multinational federal states like Ethiopia,
Switzerland Belgium, and India.

2.9.2. Language and economic development

Possibly the most important convincing arguments for the development of local languages
revolve around the absolute necessity for their use in order to include all citizens within the
development process and to maximize their social and economic potential.91 Communication
in exclusively through national and colonial language in other African states has been
identified as a barrier to development in that it fails to include the whole section of the society
who cannot contribute to the achievement of social goals.92 So, those whose languages do not
use for any purpose can become a good resistance force against the states and its policies. If
there is any resistance there will not be successfulness of any government policy including
economic policy. As, Christophe stated that not respecting the language of a particular ethnic
group causes feelings of inferiority and frustration with the members of that group, an ideal
breeding ground for ethnic conflicts.93 This hinders economic development. As stated in
UNESCO document, language matters for millennium development goals,

“Language is the key to inclusion and participation. Employment and economic

opportunities also increase by making a minority language a language of public service
to a fair, proportionate degree, and service delivery including in critical areas such as

89
Fishman, J. (1989). Language and Ethnicity in Minority Sociolinguistic Perspective, Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters,p.8.
90
Supra note,83
91
Bamgbose, Ayo. (1999), African language development and language planning, A Journal of African Studies,
Social Dynamics:v.no. 25, p:1330.
92
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhpsfuorF1Y&t=150s
93
Supra note, 11

26
 public health reaches individuals more directly and effectively in their own language,
individuals understand the better information provided to them in their language by
public media."94

2.9.3. The Political Advantage of Using the Local Language

The political components of language policy result to the symbolic and practical implication
of language recognition in the multi-lingual state.95 Language is political in Ethiopian
perspective precisely because it represents the nation-building project. Since language forms a
core rights claim for many cultural groups, language policy has a distinctively political
implication. Language is an immediately visible indicator of exclusion of rights denied.
Denial of the rights to speak one’s mother tongue the language of home, family clan ethnic
city or religious groups is often experienced as perhaps the most undemocratic and autocratic
of all policy measures passed by the state.96 Language is much more than just speech.
Therefore, according to Lara Smith, there must be at least three primary political goods any
language policy will need to deliver to the citizens.

The first political good that any language policy needs to deliver is communication. Accessing
to the full range of information which enables the participation of citizens is determined and
structured by language policy. As Patten puts it “a person is better to exercise his rights if he
receives communication from government officials or public utilities in a language he can
understand”.97According to Lara Smith Autonomy is the second political good that any
language needs to deliver to the citizens.98 A number of multi-culturalists and theorist has
identified autonomy as a prerequisite for democratic participation. This means that citizens
must have not only the freedom to make their own choice but what Kimilika sees as a
sufficiently wide range of meaningful options and opportunities from which to choose. The
third political good that any language policy needs to deliver to the citizen is recognition. This

94
Handbook by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on minority issues (2017), Language Rights of Linguistic
Minorities: A Practical Guide for Implementation, available on https: //www. google. com/ search?
client=opera&q= Language +Rights +of + Linguistic c+ Minorities +A+Practical +Guide +for Implementation
&sourced =opera&I e=UTF- 8&oe=UTF-8, last accessed on 5/2/2018
95
Smith, L., (2008). The politics of contemporary language policy in Ethiopia. Journal of Developing
Societies, 24(2), pp.207-243.
96
Ibid
97
Ibid
98
Ibid

27
includes the individual psycho-social benefits to Citizens when the language in which they
express themselves most comfortable if it is recognized publicly and permitted privately.
Citizens who feel that their language is not valued by the state may resist efforts incorporate
them.

2.9.4. Language and Culture

Culture has a close relationship with language that sounds, words, a syntax of language
experience of the world and behaves in it.99 The history and culture of a language group are
preserved and transferred from one generation to the other through language. 100 Therefore,
language and culture are inseparable they complement each other. As the vehicles, through
which culture is transmitted, maintained and developed and through which societies, peoples,
and communities negotiate their shared lives, languages should be considered an indivisible
element of culture.101

“Much of a society’s history and culture is contained in its language, important clues
to human history are buried in language, and Valuable knowledge about the natural
environment is often captured in local languages. So, to lose heritage language is to
weaken the links to the ancestors themselves. As languages disappear, a wealth of
culture, art, and knowledge disappears with them.”102

From the above statement, we can understand that language and culture are two sides of a coin
that they cannot separate each other. If we lose a language of the certain group,
simultaneously we are losing the culture and the indigenous knowledge of that specific
society.

99
Supranote, 30
100
Hockett, C.F., and Hockett, C.D., (1960). The origin of speech.Scientific American, 203(3), pp.88-97.
101
Brown, D. and Nicholas, G.,( 2012). Protecting indigenous cultural property in the age of digital democracy:
Institutional and communal responses to Canadian First Nations and Māori heritage concerns. Journal of
Material Culture, 17(3), pp.307-324.
102
Id, pp.2009

28
2.10. Experience of the Different Federation on the Protection of Linguistic
Human Rights

2.10.1. South African Experience

Section 6 of the South African constitution recognizes 11 languages as the official language of
the republic.103 This indicates that all linguistic groups in the South African constitution are
protected equally. The constitution under section 6(2) emphasizes the historical diminished
use and status of the indigenous languages and mandates the government to take practical and
positive measures to elevate the status and advance the use of these languages. 104 The special
treatment afforded to previously marginalized indigenous languages is further entrenched in
the constitution as it under section 6(2) (4).105 Based on section 6(3) of 1996 South African
constitution the national and provincial government can select any of the official languages
for administrative purpose.106 The constitution obliged the national and provincial government
to adopt at least two official languages for public purpose. The 1996 constitution maintained
Pan South African language board which was established by the Interim Constitution. The
board is mandated to promote and create conditions for the development and use of all official
languages. The 1999 South African language board amendments act added the responsibility
of preparing dictionaries for 11 official languages. Theoretically the constitution introduces
the territorial model of language planning at provincial level.107 Unlike the traditional
territorial model it does not simply grant an official status to the languages of the majority of
the locality and limit the use of other languages. It rather allows provincial governments to
adopt at least two official languages for the purpose of provincial government. South African
constitutional protection of language rights is better than Ethiopian especially in
officialization of languages.

2.10.2. Switzerland’s Experience

Switzerland is the most successful federal state which adopts federal government structure
in1848. It is the model of other federation in accommodating diversity. In Switzerland there

103
South African constitution Section 6(1996)
104
Supranote, 10
105
Supra note 103, Section 6(4)
106
Supra note ,103
107
Supra note ,10

29
are four national languages such as Germany (64.5%), French (22.6%), Italian (8.9%),
Romanish (0.5%), each of them has legal status and importance.108Romanish speakers may
use Romanish in their official dealings with the federal administration. The confederation is
obliged to provide financial support to the four multi-lingual cantons in order to cover the
costs like bilingual schools, translation, and publication of laws in several languages. 109 In fact
there are three linguistic zones based on principle of territoriality in Switzerland. In
Switzerland there are three constitutional provisions that guarantee language rights such as
Article 4,18and 70. Article 4 talks about the national language of Switzerland such as
Germany, French, Italian and Romanish.110 In article 18 of Swiss constitution the freedom to
use any language is guaranteed.111

According to Article 70 of the Swiss constitution

“The official languages of the Swiss Confederation are Germany, French, and Italian.
Romanish is also an official language of the federation when communicating with
persons who speak Romanish. In order to preserve harmony between linguistic
communities, the Cantons shall respect the traditional territorial distribution of
languages and take account of indigenous linguistic minorities. In addition to these, the
constitution stated that the Confederation and the Cantons shall encourage
understanding and exchange between the linguistic communities."112

Here we can understand that they constitutionally and practically accommodate linguistic and
other types of diversity. So Ethiopia should take experience from Switzerland.

108
Grin, F., (1999). Language Policy in Multilingual Switzerland-Overview and Recent Developments.,pp.1
109
Ibid
110
Swiss constitution Article 4(1999)
111
Swiss constitution Article18(1999)
112
Supra note,107

30
 CHAPTER THREE

LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RIGHTS

3.1. Place of Language Rights in International Human Rights Instrument

3.1.1 Place of Language Rights under ICCPR

Most human rights treaties say very little about the use of language by state authorities.
However, ICCPR in Article 27 for the first time virtually recognized it as a right and imposed
a duty on the state party to refrain from denying the rights to the language of linguistic
minorities.113According to ICCPR Article (27) “In those States in which ethnic, religious or
linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right,
in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess
and practice their own religion, or to use their own language.”114Even though, Article 27 of
the international covenant on civil and political rights (ICCPR)which attempts to address
language-related claims, makes references only persons belonging to "such minorities "and
not to the groups themselves.115 It is workable in those states in which ethnic and linguistic
minorities exist; persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the rights. This
means that the rights recognized by Article 27 are individual dimension of group rights. In
general there are no general human rights treaties that clearly and adequately state about
linguistic human rights and minority rights. Yet, it does not mean language rights are not
protected in international law.

3.1.2. Place of Language Rights under ICESCR

ICESCR does not directly address language rights in its provisions rather it address by
inference of other rights like cultural and social rights. Article 15 of the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) has accorded wide range of the
rights to culture to every individual.116Beside these Article 2(2) of ICESCR states that: “The
States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in

113
Supra note, 17
114
ICCPR (1966,art.(27))
115
Supra note,10
116
ICESCR Article 15(1966)

31
the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or
other status.117” Although this provision does not guarantee positive rights to language, it is
very essential to note here that individual’s socio-economic rights such as right to health, right
to education, right to work, and right to culture, among others, must be provided equally or
everyone without any discrimination.118 Nonetheless, to benefit from all these rights, the
necessity of using one’s own language cannot be subject to any doubt. Meaningful
enjoyments of rights to health, education and work for example, requires communication and
access to information regarding many issues which in turn can only be possible if the right to
use one’s own language is guaranteed. .In general, ICESCR which specifically safeguarded
the provision of fundamental and basic social services to all individuals without any
discrimination can be used to protect the rights to language. ICESCR refrain member states
not to provide such social service only in dominant languages rather provide them in minority
languages also.

3.2. Place of Language Rights under UNESCO Convention

“Languages are indeed essential to the identity of groups and individuals and to their
peaceful coexistence. They constitute a strategic factor of progress towards sustainable
development and harmonious relationship between the global and the local context.
Only if multilingualism is fully accepted can all languages find their place in our
globalized world.”119

UNESCO’s Action for multilingualism aims at encouraging the development of regional and
national language policies that are conducive to appropriate use of languages in a given
community and country. Such policies promote measure allowing each speaker community to
use its mother tongue in private and public domains of language use and enabling the speakers
to learn and use additional languages (local, national and international). The international
community has adopted a wide range of agreements to promote and protect languages. As part
of this movement, UNESCO plays an essential role in advocating, supporting and monitoring

117
Supra note, 114, Art. 2(2)
118
Supra note, 17
119
UNESCO language matters volume 1(2008) available http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images /0015/001583 /
158378e .pdf last accessed on 5/5/2018

32
policies and actions in favor of cultural diversity and multilingualism on the international
level.

3.3. Linguistic Rights under African Human Rights System

There is the regional human rights instrument to protect human rights within their respective
region. As language is an integral part of human right they try to incorporate into their human
rights system especially EU. The only two instruments that clearly impact on the use of
minority language by states authorities are Framework convention on the protection of
national minorities and the European Charter on regional and local language. 120 Both, of these
instruments, are regional. These two instruments provide for the so-called "Sliding Scale
approach” which requires that where public authorities at national, Regional and at local level
face sufficiently large numbers of individuals who use a minority language, authorities must
provide an appropriate level of services in these languages.121

The African Human rights System has no as such a clear and specific rules regarding
linguistic rights. However, it does not mean that there are no legal bases to claim language
right. The charter of African Union (AU) clearly provides that “the working language of the
Organization and all its institutions will be, if possible, African languages, English and
French”.122This charter has indicated conditions that African languages should be used even at
AU level. In contrary, the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) has no
any specific provision concerning language issues except Article 2 and its preamble which
prohibit the use of language as a ground for discrimination. To its worse, it has no provisions
that express individual linguistic right protection even during a criminal prosecution.123

However, Article 17(ii) of the African Charter on the Welfare of Child provides for the rights
of the young offender to promptly be informed in the language he/she understands and to get
free interpretation provided that he does not understand the language used by the court.

120
Supra note,17
121
Supra note, 10
122
AU(2000,(Art.2))
123
Supra note,17

33
3.4 Linguistic Rights under the Ethiopian Legal System

Ethiopia is a country composed of diversified society with more than 80 ethnic groups which
have its distinctive culture, tradition, language etc. Before, 1991 all regimes failed to
incorporate any laws that promote linguistic pluralism. After 1991 the establishment of the
transitional government, there is changes in the legal system like incorporating linguistic
rights in transitional government charter. In 1995 Ethiopia adopt the third written constitution
which establishes Federal government structure by incorporating rights enshrined in
international human rights instrument. Under FDRE constitution linguistic human rights are
recognized in Article 5 and 39 of the 1995 constitution. According to Article 39 “every
nation, nationality, and people in Ethiopia has been granted the right to speak, write and
develop its own language; to express, develop and promote its own culture; and to preserve
its history”.124Article 5 of the constitution has guaranteed the equal recognition of all
Ethiopian languages. In addition to this Article 5 (3) of the FDRE constitution has
appropriately permitted all constituent units to determine their own Regional working
language.125

3.5. Linguistic Rights under SNNPR Regional constitution.

SNNPR is one of the multi-ethnic regions of Ethiopia which comprises more than 56 Ethnic
groups with their distinctive culture, tradition, and language. 2001, Revised Regional
constitution recognizes the protection of linguistic human rights in Article 5 and 39. Based on
Article 39(1) “every nation, nationality and in SNNPR has been granted the right to speak
write and develop its own language; to express, develop and promote its own culture; and to
preserve its history”.126Besides, this the constitution determines Amharic as the Regional
working language in Article 5(2) and allow all ethnic groups to adopt zonal working language
based on Article 5(3). Therefore, these Articles are the bases for the adoption of Siltigna in
Silte Zone

124
Supra note ,19, Art.39(2))
125
Supra note ,19, Art.5(3))
126
SNNPR Regional constitution(2001, Art.39(1))

34
 CHAPTER FOUR
ADOPTION OF SILTEGNA LANGUAGE IN SILTE ZONE:
CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES
4.1. Introduction
As stated by the Special Rapporteur on minority issues in 2013, globally many minority
languages are under threat of significant decline or disappearance due to different factors such
as the dominance of national and international languages processes of assimilation, and a
decline in minority language users.127This declined use of local languages mainly practiced in
countries with ethnic diversities including Ethiopia. Ethiopia is a country with more than 80
ethnic groups with their heritage language. The languages in Ethiopia are not developed and
preserved properly. Due to this, they are risk of extinction except for few languages that are
used for all linguistic domains. Siltigna is one of the languages in SNNPR which steam out
from Semitic language family. Like other languages, it is at risk of language contacts and
extinction. In Silte zone language development related to using once own mother tongue as
MOI has been aged 21 years.128 This contributes to the development of the language and
culture of Silte a little bit. Currently, since 2008E.C, the Silte zone council declares Siltigna as
a zonal working language with the aims to save the indigenous language from language
contact, death, and shift.

4.2. Methods to Indigenize Siltigna Language in Silte Zone

The Silte zonal administration designed several methods to indigenize Siltigna. To do so the
Silte zone sum up the language development methods in five- years Siltigna language
development strategic plan such as: adopting Siltigna as zonal working language, adopting
Siltigna as media language, development and distribution of monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries in Siltigna, using Siltigna as literature and art language, adopting Siltigna as

127
Handbook by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on minority issues (2017), Language Rights of Linguistic
Minorities: A Practical Guide for Implementation, available at https://www.google.com/search?
client=opera&q= Language +Rights +of + Linguistics +Minorities+ A+Practical+ Guide+for+ Implementation
&sourceid = opera&I e=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8, last accessed on 5/2/2018
128
Hussein M. et al (2009), Survey study on title Siltigna as working language, Unpub. pp.35

35
technology language, using Siltigna as medium of instruction, Siltigna language
documentation (Database) and language translation129

Figure 4.1: Diagram shows methods to indigenize language

adopting Siltigna as
Adopting zonal working
Siltigna as language
language of Adopting Siltigna as
literature and media language
art

Adopting Siltigna Indigenizati Development

as technology on of of
language language Monolingual
and Bilingual
dictionaries

Using Siltigna as
MOI Siltigna language
documentation(S
iltigna language
Data Base)

129
Supra note, 21

36
4.2.1Adopting Siltigna as Zonal Administrative Language

As ,clearly stated in the 2008-2012 E.C five- years Siltigna language development strategic
plan adopting Siltigna as zonal working language is one of the basic methods to indigenize
language. As one of my key respondent stated that before adopting Siltigna as zonal working
language the Silte zone administration try to fulfill the necessary prerequisites such as five-
years Siltigna language development strategic plan which includes all activities that support
Siltigna language development130 Based on this plan the Silte zone administration council and
legislative council establish zonal Siltigna language development board and organize teams
who is headed by vice chairperson of zonal administrative office to share experiences from
other nationality zones and regions such as Sidama, Wolaita, and Kaffa, Harari, and Oromia
region to get lessons from their experience. In addition to these, the zonal administrations
establish Project Office to support and follow up Siltigna language indigenization process and
the practice of adopting Siltigna as zonal working language.

Zonal legislative council on April 28/2007E.C adopts Siltigna as zonal working language.
From 2008-2009 E.C the council declares a period of exercise and preparation and from 2010
E.C they officially declared Siltigna as zonal working language. Now Siltigna has ten months
experience as zonal working language officially and three years of experience including two
years period of experimentation in total. Since, 2010 E.C in all woredas and city
administration Siltigna becomes zonal administrative language as part of constitutional rights
of the ethnic groups as stated in Article 5(3) FDRE constitution which is stated that “members
of the Federation may by law determine their respective working languages and it is also
supported by Article 39(2)every nation, nationality, and people in Ethiopia has the right to
speak, to write and to develop its own language; to express, to develop and to promote its
culture; and to preserve its history.”131 Consistently the SNNPR constitution allows all ethnic
groups to use develop their own language as language is the main identity marker and
instruments for communication.132 Joshua Fishman identifies offering government services in
one’s language as a means to reverse the language for common use and help to develop the

130
Surur B., coordinators of Siltigna language development project, Siltigna language development project
office, Siltigna language development project office, 4/07/2010
131
Supra note, 19, Art.5 (2) and Art. 39(2)
132
Supra note, 126, Art. 5(3) and 39(1)

37
language.133If we fail to use the language for the administrative purpose, the language plan
will not be successful.

4.2.2. Ensuring Quality of Using Siltigna as MOI

As most of my respondent responded and data from short magazine of five-years Siltigna
language development strategic plan ensuring the quality of using Siltigna as MOI is the
second mechanism to indigenize Siltigna.134The 1994 Federal Education and Training policy
in addition to FDRE and Regional constitution also ensured mother tongue education at first
cycle primary education. Therefore, since 1988 Siltigna becomes MOI at first cycle primary
education. However, there are problems of quality in teaching, learning, and also there are
quality problems in textbook preparation and teachers training in Siltigna language. 135 So, the
strategic plan aimed to identify the strength and weakness of mother tongue education in order
to contribute to the development of Siltigna even though the practice is not successful.

4.2.3. Adopting Siltigna as Media Language

Data from interview respondents and from secondary source using Siltigna as media language
is the third key mechanism to develop local language. According to FDRE constitution article
29 (1) “Everyone has the right to freedom of expression without any interference. The rights
shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas regardless of
frontiers either orally, in writing or in print in the form of arts or thought with any media of
his or her choice.”136Therefore, the Silte community to express their idea, to receive
information needs media in their heritage language. This action has two folded values, one
they are practicing their rights of freedom of thoughts and free expression of one’s idea and in
other ways, and it allows development of their indigenous language because the language will
develop if we utilize the language in different linguistic domains including using language as
media language. As Tiglu Geza stated that "a language dies when it loses its function in the
community when people prefer to use another dominant language."137The role of public media

133
Fishman, Joshua. ( 1991), Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to
Threatened Languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.p.401.
134
Supra note ,21
135
Tawfik Dilebo, Siltigna language teacher, Hossana Teachers Training College, Hossana Teachers Training
College, 21/07/2010
136
Supra note, 19, Art. 29(1)
137
Supra note,27,p.5

38
in minority languages is particularly significant in terms of promoting not only tolerance but
also acceptance, and of creating a sense of integration among minorities when their own needs
and interests are fairly reflected and communicated.138 Beside these using minority languages
in public media plays a significant role in preserving minority languages, cultures and
identity. So, public media must reflect its cultural and linguistic diversity to protect and
preserve indigenous languages.

As one of my respondents states that when we compare what is planned and its practice the
plan is not successful. Even though there is well-established plan related with the adoption of
Siltigna as media language in Silte zone only Hossana community-based Fm Radio program
which utilize Siltigna as media language for a limited airtime at least 10 hours per a week and
it is not accessible to all parts of the administrative zone. 139 All other plans like buying
television broadcast and using the language in print media are in process and it seems stacked
due to the absence of follow up and continuous evaluation of the project.

4.2.4. Adopting Siltigna as a technology language

Adopting Siltigna as a technology language is also the fourth mechanism to develop local
language. Using new technologies such as computer and mobile contributes to indigenize or
develop a certain local language. By using a computer and mobile technology it is possible to
preserve and develop Siltigna. For instance, as stated by one of my respondent using
technologies enhance the Silte community within and outside Silte zone use their mother
tongue for different purpose through internet networking system. This is possible by
establishing Siltigna language database software.140To him, Siltigna language database is a
modern technological way to develop the language. This method is in the process of gathering
all relevant indigenous Siltigna words.141 So it is necessary and relevant plan to preserve
Siltigna language.

138
Kimilika, W.,( 2007). Ethno cultural diversity in a liberal state: Making sense of the Canadian model (s).
Belonging, pp.39-86.
139
Seman A. elder, Alicho woreda,17/07/10
140
Supra note,21
141
Keyre M., core expert in language development, Silte zone culture, tourism and government communication
office, 01/07/10

39
4.2.5. Using Siltigna as a Literature and art language

Using Siltigna as a literature and art language is the 5th mechanism to develop indigenous
language. Planning to use Siltigna for literature and artistic work is very necessary to
indigenize the language.

“As one of my respondent state that using Siltigna as literature and artistic work is
essential due to its motivational power. As he said that once upon a time he and his
colleague started to write psychology in Siltigna language. Even if they did not
successfully finish their work, many people interested in the idea. So, it is necessary to
use Siltigna in different artistic works such as drama in Siltigna, film in Siltigna, music in
Siltigna, poem in Siltigna and different literature works in Siltigna will also contribute to
the language development because by nature people can be attracted by artistic
works”.142

From this statement, we can conclude that there are no trends of using the language for
academic and non-academic literature writing before the adoption of the language as
administrative language. As, masheshe meke indicated in his investigation there should be a
culture adapted for producing different written materials in Siltigna language and a proactive
action that should continue producing materials like dictionaries, reference books, novels,
short stories, fictions, poems, dramas, etc”143 However, the zonal administration only
successful in preparation of dictionaries and Siltigna language grammar. So the plan
concerning using Siltigna language as literature language is not successful even though there
is a good beginning.

4.3. Language Attitude

Shohamy defines language attitudes as the feeling that speakers of different languages or
dialects have towards each other or to themselves.144 Negative or positive attitudes towards a
language may reflect linguistic difficulty or simplicity of learning, degrees of` importance and

142
Rameto A., coordinator of the sectored development plan and Siltigna language focal person, Silte zone
legislative council, Silte zone legislative council, 04/07/10
143
Supra note,24
144
Shohamy, E., (2006). Language policy: Hidden agendas and new approaches. Routledge.pp.35, available at
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Shohamy%2C+E.%2C+%282006%29.+Language+
policy%3A+Hidden+agendas+and+new+approaches.+Routledge&btnG= last accessed on 5/26/2018

40
social status. Therefore, language development has a direct relationship with the attitude of
their speakers. The implementation of a language policy depends to a large extent on people's
perception or attitude towards a language.145 Almost all my respondent and participant of
FGD have a positive attitude towards their heritage language. However, the respondents
recommend that there are attitude problems in younger, educated and partially in middle and
higher officials. They also assure there are no any attitude problems on peoples in the rural
part of the society. Two of my respondents confirm the idea that attitudinal problem is not the
problem of ordinary community. It is the problem of a young and educated generation who
consider speaking Amharic as part of civilization. Partially the problem is visible in the
political leaders that they lose motivation and interest. Their lack of interest, commitment, and
motivation related to the attitudinal problem. As Rebecca Agheyisi and Joshua A. Fishman
supported this idea that language attitudes cover the way in which language is dealt with in a
variety of domains including language maintenance and planning efforts. 146 It is also related
to individual thoughts, feelings, and reactions towards language use as well.

4.4. The Practice of Adopting Siltigna as Working Language

As briefly stated in FDRE and SNNPR constitution Article 5 and 39 all nations, nationalities
of Ethiopia has equal linguistic rights, that include to preserve, develop and to use their
heritage language for education and administrative purpose.147 Based on these legal ground
Siltigna becomes medium of instruction from grade 1-4, taught as one subject from 1-12 and
it also becomes medium of training of Siltigna teachers in Hossana College of Teachers
Training. In 2005E.C Siltigna has been taught as one course of study in Hosanna teachers
Training College.148Currently, consistent with the constitutional rights the Silte zone
administration develop smart and all inclusive five-years (2008-20012 E.C) Siltigna language
development strategic plan. Then on April 2007 E.C the Silte zone legislative council adopts
Siltigna as zonal working language. The legislative council declares two consecutive years
(2008-2009E.C) for preparation and since 2010 E.C they officially declare Siltigna as zonal

የ5የየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ (የየየየ
2004)የ የየየየ የየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየ/የ/የ የየየየ የየየየየ
146
Agheyisi, R. and Fishman, J.A., (1970). Language attitude studies: A brief survey of methodological
approaches. Anthropological linguistics, pp.137-157.
147
Supra note,19, Art.(5) and (39)
148
Supra note, 129

41
working language. Based on my personal observation except for younger and educated
generation all most all community members are interested and motivated particularly peoples
at rural part of the society. More especially rural Silte community becomes satisfied with the
decision because most of the community in the rural part of the Silte zone particularly women
and aged elders mainly speak Siltigna.

When we assess the current practice and its effectiveness the motivation and efforts to
implement the language plan by middle and higher officials is not similar with activities,
initiations, commitments and efforts at the beginning of the adoption. As one of my
respondents stated that the practice of adopting Siltigna as zonal working language is partially
successful and it needs improvement.149 According to him even if the practice lack uniformity
in the implementation of the decision and the plan of the councils, there are unthinkable
changes and progress in using the language as zonal working language. For instance, after a
serious difficulty, civil servants and officials able to write, speak; organize report, and lead
conferences using Siltigna. This is an interesting step in the progress of the strategic plan.
Starting from a period of exercise from 2008E.C two sectors such as legislative council and
culture, tourism and government communication at zonal and their lines at woreda level
properly use the language for overall administrative communication.

As one of my respondents replied that at time of developing a strategic plan, time of

facilitating precondition to apply the plan all middle and higher officials do a lot with intrinsic
motivation and interest.150 Therefore, due to their support initially, the plan was successful
that all sectors engage with the practice in which the language plan becomes agenda in all
sector. As, one of my key respondents stated that gradually, the Silte zone legislative council
and administrative council fail to follow up and evaluate what they plan and declare. 151 They
are reluctant and lack motivation whether their plan is successful or not. Because of this, there
is a probability of back up to the prior situation such as writing reports in Amharic,
conducting administrative communication in Amharic such as speaking, writing, leading
conferences in Amharic and they are in a way to use different Amharic work formats with a

149
Supra note, 130
150
Supra note,129
151
Supra note, 130

42
reason the Siltigna format is not suitable. In this way, the plan does not contribute to local
language development.

In another way as most of my respondents responded that there is no uniform application of

the language plan that one use Siltigna for overall activities the other uses Amharic in some
time and Siltigna in other time. This violation of linguistic human rights started from the zonal
administrative council, that they partially back to Amharic then this becomes a benchmark to
all woredas.

As responded from FGD respondents higher officials can play a key role in language
planning and plan implementation, because always followers follow their leader, if they
lead the society in better way, the society will follow them, if they lead the society in a
wrong way the society also follow them, because the society most often have trust in
their leader.152

From the above statement, we can understand that the plan of adopting Siltigna as a zonal
working language in process of ineffectiveness. The failure is mainly related with higher and
middle officials because of their reluctant, lack of motivation, interest and their failure to
follow up and evaluate what they plan as part of other development and human rights agenda.

4.5. The Advantage of Adopting Siltigna as Working Language

Data from the secondary source, from FGD respondents, from interview respondents, from
my personal observation and from the different literature using local (Siltigna) has several
advantages. They are:

4.5.1. Ensures Practicability of the Constitutional Rights of the Community

As one of my respondents stated that the practice of adopting Siltigna as zonal administrative
language is part of applying the constitution into practice. 153Language rights as one
components of self-determination enshrined in FDRE and Revised SNNPR constitution to
every nation, nationality and peoples of Ethiopia. What is practiced is part of constitutional
implementation. This, in turn, leads trust between government and the society finally leads

152
FGD01, Worabe zonal hall, 14/07/2010
153
Supra note, 130

43
smooth relation between government and the society. This smooth relation between
government and society can avoid any resistance to government policy.

4.5.2. It Helps to Develop a Language

As most of my respondent from interview and FGD stated that using indigenous language for
the administrative purpose is a key mechanism to develop and preserve the indigenous
language. As stated by Tiglu language planning and policy in Silte zone is not successful
because of its failure to adopt the language to be used in different public and private linguistic
domains such as using the language for the administrative purpose. As stated in five-year
Siltigna language development strategic plan adopting Siltigna as zonal working language
aimed to open opportunities to the Silte community equitably benefit from the development
activities of the country.154

Figure 4.2: Shows the advantage of using local language as working language

helps to
develop a
language
contributes to
stability and promotes diversity
conflict-
prevention

Advantage of
adopting siltigna as
working language
Improves
promotes identity communication and
public services

improves Ensures
participation and practicability of the
inclusiveness constitutional rights
of the communities

154
Supra note,21

44
In addition to these, the plan aimed to develop the language itself. If we fail to use the
indigenous language, we lose the language and then we lose our identity. As, one of my
respondents stated that we can call language as a language if we use the language for
speaking, writing, transmitting information from one person to the other, transmitting once
culture, a tradition from one generation to the other.155However, the fact is that there were
gaps in using Siltigna for writing official and personal affairs. Therefore, this initiation will
support the development process of the language.

4.5.3. Improves Communication and Public Services

In linguistic science, language is defined as means of conveying or transmitting a message

between sender and receiver.156 This is called communication. If two or more person
communicates each other and able to understand each other, we can conclude that there are
successful communication. Siltigna as a local language has several advantages related to
communication and public service delivery. For instance, it improves communication and
effective service delivery. As it was indicated in different pieces of literature Silte farmers and
women especially in rural areas which cover the majority of the Silte community are familiar
and use mainly Siltigna for communication.157Therefore, to have successful communication
with this majority of the society it is necessary to use their distinct local language.

As one of my respondents stated that "One day a woman was on straight and someone
asked, where you from are? She replied I am from the conference. She also asked what
are the agenda and the last message of the conference. She replied I do not know.
From this legend, we can understand that it is obligatory especially at the local level
to use their mother tongue to transmit information and messages to have successful
communication.”158

As most of my respondent responded that the use of Siltigna as a language of service and
communication also results in better and more effective delivery of public services by
improving quality of and access to health, social services, education, employment, justice, and

155
Barsenga J., coordinators of Siltigna language development project office, Hulberag woreda Siltigna
language development project office, Siltigna language project office, 8/07/2010
156
Hymes, D., (1964).Introduction: Toward ethnographies of communication. American Anthropologist
, 66(6_PART2), pp.1-34.
157
Hussein m. et al(2009), short survey study on Siltigna as administrative language,unpub.pp.9
158
Supra note,129

45
other public services. Since, communication is a two-way action; authorities should not
always seek to impose on everyone the use of a single, official language in all situations. They
should also plan to use local languages spoken by those who are a minority group, but they
have their own distinct language. According to Jamsen unable to communicate with
minorities in their own language increases their sense of exclusion, while the use of
indigenous languages reaches them more directly and increases their participation more
effectively. 159

As all of my respondents stated that after the adoption of Siltigna as a zonal working language
active participation of peoples in the rural area especially women are increased and even they
take the time of others for participation in the local council meeting and in other social
gatherings. As, one of my respondents replied that in past there are problems of women's
participation in the legislative council and other social, political and economic affairs, because
of their fear of committing speech mistake while using Amharic. 160 This idea is also stated in
yearly magazines of cultural, language and historical symposium of Silte zone. The basic
reason for the declined participation of woman and legislative members from rural parts of the
administrative zone in regular and urgent legislative meeting is the council’s failure to use
their heritage language for the administrative purpose.161As stated in UNESCO document,
language matters for millennium development goals:

"Language is the key to inclusion and participation. Language is at the center of human
activity, self-expression, and identity. Recognizing the primary importance that people
place on their own language fosters the kind of true participation in development that
achieves lasting results. Using minorities languages result for public authorities in
better, more efficient and more inclusive communication and exchange of information.
Employment and economic opportunities also increase by making a minority language
a language of public service to a fair, proportionate degree, and service delivery
including in critical areas such as public health reaches individuals more directly and

159
Jameson, D.A., (2007). Reconceptualizing cultural identity and its role in intercultural business
communication.The Journal of Business Communication (1973), 44(3), pp.199-235.
160
Supra note,130
161
የ6የየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ
(የየየየ 2005)የ የየየየ የየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየ/የ/የ የየየየ የየየየየ

46
 effectively in their own language, individuals understand the better information
provided to them in their language by public media. "162

From the above statement, it is impossible to ensure inclusiveness and active participation of
the community without using minority language for different public and private linguistic
domains. As stated in short Zonal magazine five-years Siltigna language strategic plan the use
of minority languages in the state’s administrative and other public activities involves
fundamental issues of inclusiveness, participation, access, quality, and effectiveness.163Where
state authorities can easily use a particular minority language in a specific territory and in the
absence of any reasonable basis to exclude such use of a minority language would be
discriminatory in international law. In international law to forbid the use of a minority
language and only impose the use of the official language in administrative and other public
services is considered a violation of human rights.164

In addition to using indigenous minority language to improve public service, it is also

important to reform the justice service. For instance, as most of my respondent stated that the
clients will be more comfortable and confidential if the judges use their local language. Then
they develop a sense of trust on the judges that they consider the judge as part of the society.
So, they believe he will not harm me. Mainly using local language in the provision of justice
service can help the client to properly claim their rights, debate and convince their case
without fear of committing a mistake while speaking other languages. 165Because of successful
communication using their local language, there will be an improvement in delivering justice
service. To protect the language rights of minority group free interpretations to be available in
criminal proceedings, if an accused member of a linguistic minority does not understand the
language of proceedings as well as free translation of court documents necessary for his or her
defense, preferably in their own language.

162
UNESCO language matters volume 1(2008) available at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images /0015/001583 /
158378e .pdf last accessed on 5/5/2018
163
Supra note, 21
164
Dinstein, Y., (1976). Collective human rights of peoples and minorities. International and Comparative Law
Quarterly, pp.102 120.
165
Admama S., lanforo woreda administrative council coordinators of the sectored development plan and
Siltigna language development focal person, Lanfuro woreda administrative council, 18/07/10

47
Practices in many countries guaranteeing a reasonable, proportionate use of minority language
in the administrative domain have had clearly positive results in terms of the effectiveness of
communication with minority publics and service delivery, the quality of services received by
stakeholders, and the participation of minorities in various aspects of social and public life.166
For instance, Iceland authorities use seven other languages in addition to Icelandic such as
English, Polish, Serbian/Croatian, Thai, Spanish, Lithuanian and Russian to communicate and
provide more effective access for social or public information services.167The practice in a
number of countries also shows that using minority languages reduce unemployment rates
among the concerned minorities and that their overall sense of inclusion and identification
with the state increases. Therefore, the main aim of language planning in Silte zone is to
develop the language and to ensure active participation of the community through using their
local language.

4.5.4. It contributes to Stability and Conflict-Prevention

Ethnic tensions and conflicts within a state are more likely to be avoided where language
rights are in place to address causes of alienation, marginalization, and exclusion. As one of
my respondents stated that there was continues ethnic tension between Gurage and Silte due
to the identity issue.168Language is one of the identity markers, so the request was not only
169
identity question but also a language issue. Therefore, the then committees in house of
federation first investigate whether the Silte ethnic group has its own language or not as a
prerequisite to recognizing the claim of Silte ethnic group to the rights of internal self-
determination. After ensuring zonal self- administration in March 1993(2001G.C) by
referendum there was no any conflict and instability problem between Gurage and Silte.
Therefore, as one of my respondent stated that the use of minority languages helps to increase
the level of participation of minorities, as well as their presence and visibility within a state

166
Handbook by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on minority issues (2017), Language Rights of Linguistic
Minorities: A Practical Guide for Implementation, available at https://www.google.com/ search?clien
t=opera&q= Language +Rights +of + Linguistics +Minorities+ A+Practical+ Guide+for+ Implementation
&sourceid = opera&I e=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8, last accessed on 5/2/2018
167
Ibid
168
Supranote,129
169
House of the Federation (200), constitutional decisions of FDRE House of Federation, Journal of
constitutional decisions, v.1.No.1,pp.40

48
and even increase their employment opportunities.170 This is likely to contribute positively to
unity and stability. Conversely, where the use of only one official language discriminates
dramatically against minorities, violence is more likely to occur. As stated in Oslo
recommendation “protecting the linguistic human rights of linguistic minorities regarded as
conflict prevention tool.”171

4.5.5. It Promotes Diversity

Language is parts and parcel of internal self-determination. Internal self-determination offers a

variety of possibilities for accommodating minority rights including linguistic
minorities.Protecting linguistic human rights is one mechanism to accommodate and celebrate
diversity. The loss of linguistic diversity is a loss for humanity’s heritage. Therefore, states
should not only use one official language or a few international languages which are
historically privileged, but the state should give value and take positive steps to promote,
maintain and develop, wherever possible, essential elements of identity such as minority
languages. Respectfully and actively accommodating linguistic diversity is also the hallmark
of an inclusive society, and one of the keys to countering intolerance and racism.172
Recognizing language rights is a clear step promoting tolerance and intercultural dialogue, as
well as building stronger foundations for continuing respect for diversity. As most of my
respondent argued if we handle diversity properly it is beauty and national resource. Therefore
developing Siltigna as zonal working language increases the beauty of the country and part of
accommodating diversity in Ethiopia.

4.5.6. It Promotes Identity

In inclusive societies, individual identity, as well as national identity, is important that one
neither excludes the other. This is the manifestation of the centrality of language as a marker
of the identity of linguistic minorities as communities. As respondents of FGD recognition
and celebrations of national identity should include an acknowledgment of the contributions
of all components of society, including those of minorities and their languages. 173The
promotion of national identity and official languages is a legitimate objective from a human

170
Sheicho S., head of woreda legislative council, Lanfuro woreda legislative council, Lanfuro woreda legislative
council office, 18/07/2010
171
The Oslo Recommendations regarding the Linguistic Rights of National Minorities(1998)
173
FGD01, Worabe zonal hall, 14/07/2010

49
rights perspective.174However, mechanisms seeking their promotion must not be coercive, or
to contrary to human rights obligations towards minorities, particularly when it affects their
identity. The centrality of identity is emphasized in Article 1 of the UN Declaration on the
Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities
(UNDM).175

Central to the rights of minorities is the promotion and protection of their identity. For many
individuals, one of the most important markers of their identity is their own heritage language.
As, one of my respondents from interview replied that language is the main identity marker
that there is no blood called Silte, Oromo, Amhara, and Wolaita to identify one ethnic group
from the other.176Therefore, the only mechanism to identify one ethnic group from the other is
having their distinctive language. Language is the basis for identity request as stated in Article
39(5) of FDRE constitution.177 According to Article 39(5)

A "Nation, Nationality or People" for the purpose of this Constitution, is a group of

people who have or share a large measure of a common culture or similar customs,
mutual intelligibility of language, belief in a common or related identities, a common
psychological make-up, and who inhabit an identifiable, predominantly contiguous
territory.178

This constitutional principle used the Silte ethnic group to claim their identity issues. There
will not be the ethnic group called Silte, if there are no speakers of Siltigna language. Hence,
adopting Siltigna as zonal working language can develop sense of self confidence and self
esteem. This protection of linguistic human rights can help the society to develop sense of
trust by the people to their government. This in turn leads smooth relationship between
government and people that lead effectiveness in the implementation of government policies
and strategies. If so, fast economic growth will be ensured within a short period of time. In
general using Siltigna as a working language has symbolic value that the Silte ethnic group or

174
May S., (2005). Language rights: Moving the debate forward. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9(3), pp.319-347.
175
UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities
(UNDM,1992)
176
Kebede Z., language expert, Silte zone culture, history, tourism and government communication office, in
Silte zone culture, history, tourism and government communication office, 1/07/2010
177
Supra note Art.39(5)
178
Supra note,19, Art. 39(5)

50
ethnic identity can mainly reflected in its heritage language. As most of my respondent stated
that if there are no speakers of language of certain ethnic group, there will not be the ethnic
group at all.

4.6. Challenges Related with the Adoption of Siltigna as Working Language

Data from document analysis, interview, FGD, Personal observation, different literature there
are challenges that affect the adoption of Siltigna in Silte zone. As stated in zonal survey
research conducted by Hussein Mohammed, Kelil kedir and Surur Bedru most students and
their parent have no positive attitude towards mother tongue education, because they believe
we know the language and we are familiar with it and Siltigna can use only when we are in
Silte zone that make us local and cannot use us for wider communication.179 To them learning
in Amharic is better than learning in Siltigna that widens our opportunity to have job and to be
employed. They believe that Siltigna has scarcity of technological words and it is not
conducive to modern research activities and it cannot be consistent with modern science and
technology. Based on my personal observation the problem is visible in some parents and in
almost all students. According to survey study to identify future challenges on initial
development of Siltigna for speaking and writing purpose out of all the community in rural
and urban kebeles only 27% parents use Siltigna in their home, only 20% of teachers use
Siltigna in their home and out of total administrators only 20% use Siltigna in their home for
speaking purpose.180This becomes a big challenge after adopting Siltigna as zonal working
language because there are no trends of using Siltigna at home and other social gatherings.
Without using local languages at home and other local institutions, it is impossible to have
intergenerational language transmissions to the next generation.

According to famous language planner Joshua Fishman’s Graded Intergenerational Disruption

Scale (GIDS), stage six which explains about the intergenerational transmission of a language
stated that increased use of your language in your everyday life and in public gathering can
help the transmission of your language from generation to generation. 181So, low trends of
using the indigenous language at home and other social institutions become difficulty while

179
Supra note,103
180
Supra note ,103
181
Fishman, Joshua. (1991), Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to
Threatened Languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.p.401.

51
using the language for administrative communication. Based on the researcher's personal
observation in many conferences and official works officials and civil servants start to
communicate with Siltigna and at mid time they ask excuse to use Amharic because of their
inability to use and exercise the language at their home. This practice hinders the practice of
language development and it is related to attitudinal challenges because they believe for more
explanation and clarification Amharic is better than Siltigna. They did not exert any effort to
develop the practice of using the language in their family level to support the current language
plan.

As one of my respondent state that there were no habits of using Siltigna for writing purpose
even for personal letters.182This also becomes challenges related to lack of skill in using the
language for writing purpose after adopting Siltigna as a zonal working language because
there was no prior experience of using Siltigna for witting official and personal issues. As
most of my respondents in the educational sector even if Siltigna used as MOI in the primary
first cycle and taught as one subject from grade 1-12 and in colleges, still there are dialectic
variation. This leads standardization problems for the current language planning. So,
standardization becomes challenges while practicing Siltigna as zonal working language. For
instance, based on my personal observation and in some parts of Silte zone use the word
"Sehal” which means values of the institution in other parts they used "Anur" which means
values of the institutions. This shows that there is no consensus on the words which is spoken
in South and North Silte, even if the zonal administration in five years language development
strategic plan establishes Siltigna language development board to oversight the
standardization practice and standardization committee to standardize the language. They are
not functional beyond their establishment.

As most of my respondents argued that the main practical challenges related with the adoption
of Siltigna in Silte zone are related with lack of commitment, motivation, and initiation of
middle and higher officials at zonal level and at woreda level in the middle of the practice. In
other words, there is lack of the political willingness of officials. In the beginning, the Silte
zone administrative council develop smart and practicable five-year strategic plan for Siltigna
language development and try to share experiences from other ethnic groups that use their

182
Kemsur T., communication and language expert, Lanfuro woreda culture, tourism and government
communication office,18/07/10

52
language for the administrative purpose.183 After declaring they also have intrinsic motivation
to implement it. However, currently, they are reluctant to implement the language plan. On
my observation, most of my respondent replied that except legislative councils and culture,
tourism and government communication office all sectors use Amharic for report writing,
leading conference and other administrative communication. This is a violation of local laws
approved by the zonal legislative council. As the zonal council declared since 2010E.C it is
obligatory to use Siltigna as zonal working language unless there are conditions that forced to
use Amharic. However, most conferences at zonal level and woreda level held in Amharic in
which the language plan is not implemented as declared. This becomes a core challenge for
language development because the motivation and initiation of leaders are crucial to
implementing Siltigna as working language to contribute to successful language planning in
Silte zone.

Language policy decisions are actually political decisions that are conducted by governments
at a different level.184So, if the language planning lacks the political will of the middle and
higher officials, it would not be successful.

As Tiglu stated in his thesis language planning is not successful in Siltigna language because
of failures to use the language for the official purpose. 185 Doing this is mainly related to
government decisions that higher officials are responsible to decide it and to implement and
follow up the implementations. If they are reluctant to implement what they plan, it is
impossible to bring effective language development in Siltigna language. This challenge is not
only visible in Ethiopian officials but also visible in African officials. As Kembo-sure Stated
there is the absence of the political will to implement policies that promote the use of
indigenous African languages which are being marginalized.186

183
Abdilfeta S., language expert, Dalocha woreda culture tourism and government communication, Dalocha
woreda culture, tourism and government communication, 22/07/10
184
Supra note, 143
185
Supra note,27 ,p.178
186
Supra note, 143

53
Figure 4.3: Shows the challenges of using local language as working language

non- functionality
of Siltigna
absence of adequate language
funding to the development lack of
Siltigna language board, technique uniformity in
development project committee and application of
office standardization the plan
committee
negative
attitudes of the
younger and
problems of educated
language
communities
standardization, towards their
language
The challenges
of using Siltigna
as zonal lack of
failure to awareness
ensure school working
concerning the
based language language contribution of
development using local
language

lack of trained Officials failure

human resource to followup
in Siltigna official’s lack and evaluate
language absence of of the plan
family commitment
and
based motivation
language to
developme implement
nt trends the language
plan

In addition to these, there are other challenges that affect the practice of current language
planning in Silte zone that is lack of uniformity in the implementation of the language plan.
For instance, as most of my respondent stated that only two zonal and woreda offices such as

54
legislative councils and culture, tourism and government communication office try to fully use
Siltigna as their working language, while others use a mixture of Amharic and Siltigna as
zonal working language. So, this hinders language development because as Amharic is
dominant and the most standardized language most civil servants and officials unknowingly
inclined to Amharic if they are allowed to use options. This, in turn leads low efforts to know
and use the language and finally to develop the language.

Lack of trained human resource in Siltigna language is other challenges that negatively affect
adoption of Siltigna in the silte zone as zonal working language. At primary first level, there
are self-contained teachers that taught all subject and since 2005E.C training teachers at
diploma level have been started and continue still know. Those teachers teach students from
5-8 and students from 9-12 has been taught by teachers of Amharic and English who are
holders of degree. From this, we can understand that there are not sufficiently well-trained
experts in Siltigna language even if training Siltigna as one field of study has been given in
Hosanna Teacher Education College. Still, now Siltigna is not given as a field of study at
university level. This makes the shortage of experts in Siltigna language. This problem
becomes challenge while adopting Siltigna as a zonal working language because when we
adopt a local language for the public purpose there will be plenty of translation works and
adopting former formats to the local language. This needs experts in Siltigna language. Due to
this scarcity, there are problems in translation and other administrative services.

As FGD respondents stated that the other challenges that affect the language plan are related
to lack of awareness for using one's language. As they stated most of younger society have no
positive attitude towards their heritage language mainly because of lack of awareness. They
are not clear with this language rights has constitutional bases. In some sectors assignment of
development plan coordinator, those who cannot speak the language also become a challenge
to implement the newly declared language planning because these coordinators are
responsible to prepare and sum up all plans of the sector and reports in Siltigna. To do so it is
obligatory to the coordinators to speak and write in Siltigna because it is decided that all the
plans and reports must be prepared in Siltigna even he/she is responsible to translate plans and
reports which are prepared in Amharic by his/her colleague who does not speak Siltigna.

55
4.7. Mechanism to Accommodate the Language Rights of Non-indigenous Groups.

As stated by Christophe and other writers territorial federalism cannot provide guaranteed
protection of the group rights of dispersed ethnic groups.187 The constitution only provides the
group rights of ethnic groups if they are concentrated in a certain territory. There is no any
legal protection for linguistic human rights for non-indigenous internal minorities in FDRE
and regional constitutions.188Based on Article 32 and 33 SNNPR constitutions the Silte zonal
administration does not restrict the participation and their right to job and residence to non-
indigenous groups within Silte zone.189Accordingly, “without prejudice to the federal
constitution, Article 32, any resident of this state or any person lawfully in this state, has the
right of liberty of movements and freedoms to choose his residence, right to job, right to
possession of private property as well as to leave the region at any time he wishes to”. 190 In
addition to this article 33 also protects individual rights of exogenous groups. According to
Article 33 of SNNPR constitution “ Any Ethiopian who speaks the working languages of the
region, the zone, and special woredas have the right to be assigned or elected to serve in
governmental and social activities of the state, the zone or especial woreda.”191 Therefore, the
Silte zone administration opens the door even to the new employs within Silte zone.

However, as one of my respondents stated that there was frustration on non- indigenous
groups that the aim of adopting Siltigna as zonal working language is targeted to clear out or
exclude us from any participation in Silte zone.192 This idea is supported by most of my
respondents that at the time of the adoption of Siltigna in Silte zone, almost all exogenous
groups has no positive attitudes towards the adoption of Siltigna because they personally
perceived that the plan is to isolate and restrict them from any civil service activities within
Silte zone. To make free and accommodate their diversity the Silte zone administration first
share lessons from the experience of Sidama, Wolaita, Kaffa and Oromia region by
facilitating experience sharing tour by organized teams for this purpose. Then Silte zone

187
Van der Beken, C.,( 2015). Federalism, local Government and minority protection in Ethiopia: Opportunities
and challenges. Journal of African Law, 59(1), pp.150-177.
188
Van der Beken, C., (2007). Ethiopia: Constitutional protection of ethnic minorities at the regional level. Afrika
Focus, 20(1-2), pp.105-151.
189
Supra note,126, Art.( 32 )and( 33)
190
Supra note 126, Art.( 32)
191
Supra note 126,Art.(33)
192
Kebede Z. core language experts, Silte zone culture, tourism and government communication, Silte zone
culture, tourism and government communication office,01/07/10

56
administration design mechanisms to handle exogenous groups after having the experience of
others.

One of the mechanisms to accommodate and solve initial attitudinal problems the zonal
administration create different awareness creation program concerning the objective of
language planning. The first awareness creation program was conducted and headed by vice
chairperson of the zonal administrative council. This awareness creation program also
repeated in each woreda and city administration which is headed by the principal chairperson
of each woreda administrative council. This awareness creation program is not only for
exogenous groups but also for endogenous groups especially those who are young and
educated communities of the Silte community even if it is not adequate.

As one of my respondents stated that "the aim of adopting Siltigna as zonal working
language is to develop the language and to provide public service and solve the
problem of good governance using their language and finally by ensuring active
participation of the community through solving communication barriers by using local
or indigenous language. The plan is not targeted to make exogenous groups jobless,
feel a sense of isolation, also not to close the door by the new entrants of other ethnic
groups rather save heritage language."193

As one of my respondents stated that the other mechanism to handle exogenous group is an
arrangement of pieces of training on how to use Siltigna in report writing, speaking, planning,
etc which is aimed to solve skill and technical problem.194 Especially, at zonal level training
was provided to all secretaries including endogenous and exogenous on how to write Siltigna.
Beside this to solve technical problems by selected language experts and zonal Siltigna
language development technique committee develop a dictionary of key service words of each
sector. This dictionary of keywords is the Siltigna version of the Amharic words which the
civil servants mainly use them in their daily workplace. This dictionary is distributed to each
woreda and each sector.

As one of my respondent and data from five years Siltigna language development strategic
plan stated that if the service provider or receivers unable to use Siltigna the Silte zone
193
Ahmedin Jemal, head of the zonal legislative council, Silte zone legislative council, zonal legislative council
office,25/07/10
194
Supra note,163

57
legislative and administrative council give permission to use Amharic still they able to use
Siltigna.195This is the other mechanism to accommodate diversity within Silte zone.
Therefore, non-Siltigna speakers prepare reports in Amharic and then submit to sector
oriented Siltigna language development focal person to convert what is written in Amharic to
Siltigna. However, there are no any laws that guarantee the group rights of exogenous
minorities such as the right to use their mother tongue for educational purpose develop and
preserve their culture and tradition. When we see the practice there are no any mechanisms to
protect the collective rights of non-indigenous groups. The children's of these non-indigenous
groups taught in Siltigna that is the violation of UNESCO convention that it is preferable to
provide education through mother tongue at an early stage of childhood because of its
academic and psychological advantage.196Therefore, people from other corners of the country
may assimilate because there are no constitutionally and practically guaranteed rights for
exogenous minorities.197Hence it is necessary to supplement the territorial language policy by
non-territorial language policy which is practiced in Brussels the capital city of Belgium.

195
Supra note, 191
196
Skutnabb‐Kangas, T., (2008).Human rights and language policy in education. Encyclopedia of language and
education, pp.107-120.
197
Supra note, 185

58
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This study was set out to assess the contribution and challenges of the adoption of Siltigna in
Silte zone and has identified the attitude towards the language plan, ways of language
development, practices of current language plan, the advantages of using indigenous
language, practical challenges that affect the language plan and ways of accommodation of the
language rights of non-indigenous groups. More specifically, the study sought to answer:

 What are the attitudes of the Silte community towards adopting Siltigna as zonal
working language?
 To what extent the practice of indigenization of Siltigna language effective in Silte
zone?
 To what extent the current language plan in Silte zone is effective?
 What are the contributions of adopting Siltigna as the zonal working language to the
Silte community?
 What are the practical challenges of adopting the vernacular language (Siltigna) as zonal
working language?
 To what extent the zonal administrations design mechanisms to protect the language
rights of non-indigenous groups?
5.1. Synthesis of the Analysis and Findings

This section will synthesize the analysis and findings to answer the six research questions as
follows:

What are the attitudes of the Silte community towards adopting Siltigna as zonal
working language?

Based on the discussion stated above most younger generation, educated and partially middle
and higher officials have a negative attitude towards their heritage language due to lack of
awareness, historical, economic and political factor. However, the vast majority of the
community in the rural parts of the society has a positive attitude towards their heritage

59
language. Moreover, women's and aged people in rural part of Silte zone have an intrinsic
interest in their local language.

To what extent the practice of indigenization of Siltigna language effective in Silte zone?

The finding of the study shows that language indigenization or development plan includes
adopting Siltigna as zonal working language, using Siltigna as technology language, ensuring
the quality of Siltigna as MOI, using Siltigna as language of art and literature, Siltigna
language documentation(Siltigna language Database), developing monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries. Even if there are good beginning the general language plan is not successful as it
is planned.

To what extent the current language plan in Silte zone is effective?

When we see the effectiveness of language development plan at the first and the second years
of the plan were successful and interesting even if all activities planned to develop the
indigenous language are at an embryonic stage. At the time of preparation and facilitating
preconditions to implement the plan middle and higher officials play a great and important
role with strong commitment and motivation. Therefore, the practice was successful at the
beginning of the implementation of the plan. Later, the officials turn their directions to other
political and party issue and they fail to follow up and evaluate the language plan that aimed
language development and to ensure the fast inclusive economic development of the society
using their heritage language. So, officials and civil servants back to using Amharic for
official purpose, except two sectors such as legislative council and culture, tourism and
government communication office (the implementation lacks uniformity). In general, if the
condition continued in this manner the plan will not be successful.

What are the contributions of adopting Siltigna as a zonal working language to the Silte
community?

The finding of the study indicated that using local language has several advantages beyond the
protection of linguistic rights of the minority groups. As data from different source indicated
that using indigenous language ensures the practicability of the constitutional rights of the
communities, helps to develop the language itself, enhance inclusiveness active participation
of the community at grassroots level especially women, it improves communication and

60
public service delivery, it contributes to stability and conflict prevention and ethnic tension,
promote diversity and identity. However, there is awareness problem concerned to the
advantage of using local language for different linguistic purpose especially by younger,
educated and partially on officials. For instance, the officials practice language rights if, it has
political and party interest. They did not consider language rights as part of human rights and
the social and economic benefit of using local language. This lack of awareness concerning
benefits gained through using mother tongue for different purpose leads language planning as
one-time action.

What are the practical challenges of adopting the vernacular language (Siltigna) as zonal
working language?

As discussed above the Silte zone administration develop smart and relevant language plan by
taking lessons from different zones and regions who adopt Regional or zonal working
language. Specifically, the Silte zone adopts Siltigna as zonal working language. However,
the general language planning and status planning (using the language for an official purpose)
was not effective as it is planned. There are factors or challenges that affect the effectiveness
of the language plan. The main challenges that affect language plan are official's lack of
commitment and motivation to implement the language plan, this in turn leads their failure to
follow up and evaluate the success and failure of the language plan, lack of awareness
concerning the contribution of using local or indigenous language, negative attitudes of the
younger and educated communities towards their language, lack of trained human resource in
Siltigna language, absence of adequate funding to the Siltigna language development project
office, problems of language standardization, non-functionality of Siltigna language
development board, technique and standardization committee, absence of adequate training of
non-indigenous groups, spontaneous translation of documents from Amharic to Siltigna
without communicating original speakers of the language who are found in rural parts of the
administrative zone , lack of prior experience of using Siltigna for formal and informal
writing purpose(challenges related with technical skill), failure to ensure school based
language development by revising the mother tongue education curriculum in away to shape
the attitudes of student towards their mother tongue that contributes language development
and specifically to the current practice of adopting Siltigna as zonal administrative language,
absence of in-depth study of Siltigna language, absence of family based language
61
development program in which there are no trends of using Siltigna at home and other social
institutions due to dominance of Amharic over Siltigna.

To what extent the zonal administrations design mechanisms to protect the language
rights of non-indigenous groups?

The Silte zonal administration designed different mechanisms to protect the language rights
of exogenous groups even though the FDRE and SNNPR constitution do not provide
constitutional protection to collective rights of exogenous internal minorities. The zonal
administration tries to respect the individual rights of the exogenous groups based on Article
32 and 33 SNNPR constitutions. Accordingly, the Silte zonal administration does not restrict
the participation and their right to residence to non-indigenous groups within Silte zone. In
addition to this there are other mechanisms to accommodate linguistic diversity in Silte zone
such as awareness creation program concerning the objective of current language plan that
clarify the objective the plan that is not exclusion of others rather to develop the indigenous
language and to solve problem of good governance through using local language of the
society, arrangement of pieces of training on how to use Siltigna in report writing , speaking
,planning even if it is not adequate to non-indigenous groups.

Even though, it is not adequate, preparation of bilingual(Amharic –Siltigna) dictionary of

selected key service words of each sector, networking of speakers and non-speakers of
Siltigna language to cooperate each other, if service provider or receivers unable to use
Siltigna the Silte zone legislative and administrative council give permission to use Amharic
until they able to use Siltigna. Therefore, non Siltigna speakers prepare reports in Amharic
and then submit to sector oriented Siltigna language development focal person to convert what
is written in Amharic to Siltigna. In general, there are no any laws and practices that guarantee
the group rights of exogenous minorities such as the right to use their mother tongue for
educational purpose develop and preserve their culture and tradition.

62
5.2. Conclusion

Based on the discussion and the finding of the study the researchers provide the following
conclusions. The result of the study shows that there are different mechanisms to indigenize
language which is included in five- years Siltigna language development plan. Adopting
Siltigna as zonal working language is one of the methods to indigenize and develop the
indigenous language. However, practically the general language plan and status planning are
successful at first and second years of the plan. Especially, only two sectors at zonal and
woreda level such as legislative council and culture, tourism and government communication
office properly implement the language plan. Later, except the two sectors the practice of
adopting Siltigna as Zonal working language is not successful due o different factors. The
main challenges that hinder the effectiveness of the plan are related to the attitudes of the
speakers of the language and historical dominance of Amharic. Most younger generations,
educated, urban residence and partially the middle and higher officials have no positive
attitude towards using their mother tongue. This, in turn, leads lack of commitment,
motivation, and political will to follow up and evaluate what they plan. However, the finding
of the research shows that most peoples in the rural part of the society especially women's and
aged members of the community have a positive attitude towards their heritage language. The
other challenges that affect the effectiveness of status planning as one type of language
planning includes lack of awareness concerning the contribution gained using once local
language, prior historical dominance of Amharic, absence of family based language
development trends, lack of trained human resource in Siltigna language, failure to ensure
school based language development, problem of language standardization, absence of Siltigna
language academy, lack of trust between the officials and the society, non-functionality of
different committees which is established for language development program such as Siltigna
language development board, technique and standardization committee, absence of adequate
funding and staffing to the Siltigna language development project office which is established
to follow up Siltigna language development plan specifically the practice of adopting Siltigna
as zonal working language.

Even though there is lack of awareness concerning benefits gained through using once mother
tongue the finding of the study indicated that using mother tongue or local language has

63
plenty of advantages such as it ensures implementation of constitutional rights, improves
communication and public service delivery, helps to develop the language itself, improves
active participation and inclusiveness, contributes to stability and conflict prevention ensures
good governance, promotes diversity and identity(symbolic value)

However, territorial language policy enables indigenous groups to develop and preserve once
language policy it does not give protection of group rights of non-indigenous groups. The
FDRE and Regional constitutions do not grant any protection to the group rights including
using once language for a different purpose (education and administrative). Therefore, there
are no any constitutional and practical protections of the collective rights of non-indigenous
groups in Silte zone except protecting the individual rights of the non-indigenous groups such
as the rights to movement, job, and participation. So, the territorial language policy must be
supplemented by other supplementary mechanisms.

5.3. Recommendation
Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations are made to indigenize Siltigna and
specifically to make effective the practice of adopting Siltigna as zonal working language.

Recommendation for Silte zone legislative and administrative council

 To develop the language the zonal administrative council and legislative council
cooperatively develop Siltigna language development five-year strategic plans, but the
plan is not fully successful. So, the plan to be successful all responsible stakeholders
especially middle and higher officials in legislative and administrative council should
follow up and evaluate the success and weakness of the language development plan
specifically the practice of adopting Siltigna as zonal working language.
 To improve the commitment and motivation of middle and higher official and to problems
related with lack of awareness by most of the community the Silte zone legislative and
administrative council must arrange short term and long term training to create awareness
related with the benefits gained using once indigenous language and to develop their
technical skill.
 To solve problems related to lack of trends in using Siltigna at family and community
level the Silte zone legislative and administrative council necessarily adopt Joshua

64
 Fishman’s intergenerational language reversing methods. It is related to promoting the
uses of the language in families and in your communities. Increased use of your language
in your everyday life and in public gathering can help the transmission of your language
from generation to generation. It is the speakers, not outsiders who maintain or abandon
indigenous languages.
 To solve problems related to one’s identity crisis that leads negative attitude towards once
language and identity especially on younger generation the Silte zone legislative council
should adopt prestige or identity planning. So prestige planning is a means for image
creation of once identity and language. Image creation plays a central role in identity
construction.
 To develop the language based on research and continuous investigation instead of
emotional action it is necessary to have Siltigna language research center.
 Siltigna language development project office which is established mainly to facilitate
siltigna language development program. To make the plan successful the project offices
should be an independent institution and properly financed and staffed with the relevant
human resource.
Recommendation for Siltigna Language Development Project Office and to all zonal and
Woreda level culture, tourism and government communication
 To solve problems related to the attitudes of younger society language engineering
(modernization) is essential. To modernize Siltigna the Siltigna Language Development
Project office and all zonal and Woreda level culture, tourism and government
communication office necessarily to incorporate contemporary expressions and concepts
to capture young people’s attention and interest.
 Even if it is included in five-years Siltigna Language Development Plan using Siltigna as
the language of literature and art still none thing is done in this area. Therefore all
concerned body especially culture, tourism and government communication offices should
use the language as the language of art and literature that includes writing academic and
non-academic books, drama, poems etc.
Recommendation for the nearby Universities such as Worabe, Wachamo, and Wolkite
 To solve problems related to lack of trained human resource since 2005E.C Siltigna
language has been given as one subject. This partially solves problems of trained teachers

65
 from 5-8. Still from grade 9-12 Siltigna is taught by teachers who have related field of
studies such as Amharic and English, there are no teachers and linguistic experts in
Siltigna language itself. Therefore, to solve this shortage of trained manpower for schools
and sectored language development program Siltigna must be given at degree level at
nearby University such as Worabe, Wachamo, and Wolkite as one field of study.
Recommendations for Silte zone educational office
 Even though, mother tongue education program has been started since 1988, there are
problems related with quality of mother tongue education, the textbooks are not prepared
in a way to solve the attitudinal problems of the child as the schools are the main institute
to develop the language. Still, now the students have no positive attitude and interest for
their mother tongue. Therefore, there must be curriculum revision of mother tongue
education in a way to solve the attitude problems of the child. This contributes language
development and its application in different domains like using it for official purpose.
Recommendations for Siltigna language development board, technique and
standardization committee
 To solve the standardization and other problem related with language development there is
committees, such as Siltigna language development board (at the zonal level the head of
the board is zonal administrative head chairman) and technique committee, Siltigna
language standardization committee. These committees are not functional still now.
Therefore, to solve standardization problem and to follow up the overall language
development plan all above-mentioned committee should be functional.

Recommendation for Federal and Regional government

 As Ethiopia is adopting territorial language policy, the language rights of non-indigenous

groups will not be protected. There is any law that protects the group rights of exogenous
groups. This is the limitation of territorial federalism. So to protect the language rights of
internal exogenous minorities the territorial approach must be supplemented by non-
territorial approach in which the rights are given to the people, not to the territories. It is
practiced in Brussels the capital of Belgium.

66
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73
International instruments, conventions, resolutions, national constitution,
regional constitution

1. Charter of OAU(1963,(Art.2))

2. FDRE constitution adopted by House of Peoples Representative on proclamation no.

1/1995 a proclamation to pronounce the coming into effect of the constitution of the
federal democratic republic of Ethiopia and enter in it effect on 25 August, 1995

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Resolution 2200A (XXI), 16 December 1966, entered into force on 23 March 1976.
2. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Adopted by General
Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966 entry into force 3 January 1976.

3. Language Matters for the Millennium Development Goals, UNESCO(2008)

4. SNNPR constitution adopted by SNNPR state council by Proclamation No.35/2001 and

enters in to effect on 12, Nov.2001.

1. South African constitution Section 6(1996)

2. Swiss constitution (1999)

5. The constitution of People’s Democratic of Ethiopia (1987)

6. The Oslo Recommendations regarding the Linguistic Rights of National Minorities(1998)

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8. United Nation Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or

Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities(UNDP,1992)

74
 Appendixes

Interview guides for educational experts

The purpose of this interview is to examine the practice of indigenization of language

particular analysis on the contribution and challenges of adopting siltigna in the silte zone. It
further desires to get information on attitudes of the community concerning the adoption of
siltigna as zonal working language. It also examines the ways to improve the functions, status,
and standard of Silt’e. Please explain your personal evaluation of each statement as candidly
as possible. All information you provide is confidential and will be used solely for my
research.

Thank you

A. profile of respondents

Name------------------Academic qualification_______Sex__ Age___ Religion____

Professional background_______Experience _______ Mother Tongue __________Languages
you speak_____ Nationality____Ethnicity---------------

1. What is your feeling adopting siltigna as MOI and zonal working language?
2. In which languages would you speak fluently? Why?
3. What is your preference language to communicate and learn through?
4. Is the implementation of Siltigna as zonal working language effective?
5. Would you believe adoption of siltigna as MOI significant?
A. If your answer is yes explains briefly!! B. if your answer no explains it!!!
6. What are the challenges in using Silt’e as medium instruction at education System? Do you
experience any communication problems within Silt’e speakers? If yes, how did you
overcome these problems?
7. How do you observe the influence of Amharic over Silt’e language?
8. How is the impact of dialects in the development of materials? Are teachers in Silt’e well
equipped to teach using Silt's as a medium of instruction? If not, why?
9. Is there any problem in shifting and mixing in the classroom instruction? How?
10. Are you satisfied with the present status of Silt’e? What has done to modernize Silt’e? What
should be done in the future?

75
Interview Questions for language experts
The purpose of this interview is to examine the practice of indigenization of language
particularly analysis on the contribution and challenges of adopting siltigna in the silte zone. It
further desires to get information on attitudes of the community concerning the adoption of
siltigna as zonal working language. It also examines the ways to improve the functions, status,
and standard of Silt’e. Please explain your personal evaluation of each statement as candidly
as possible. All information you provide is confidential and will be used solely for my
research.

Thank you

A. profile of respondents

Name------------------Academic qualification_______Sex__ Age___ Religion____

Professional background_______Experience _______ Mother Tongue __________Languages
you speak_____ Nationality____Ethnicity---------------

1. What is your feeling towards adoption of siltigna as zonal working language?

2. In which languages would you speak fluently? Why?
3. Would you believe adoption of a federal structure in Ethiopia ensure the protection of
linguistic minority? If your answer is yes or no please explain it?
4. Do you believe constitutional protection of language rights in Ethiopia and SNNPR
encourage preservation of indigenous language? If your answer is yes or no please explain
it?
5. Is the implementation of Siltigna as zonal working language effective and consistent with
the constitutional principle? if your answer is yes or no please explain it?
6. How do you see the practice of indigenization of language? Is there any a project or
strategies to indigenize or revitalize siltigna language?
7. Would you believe adoption of siltigna as zonal working language significant? If your
answer is yes, or no, please explain it?
8. Is there any challenge that you observe while practicing siltigna as zonal working
language?
9. How do you observe the influence of Amharic over Silt’e language? Is there language
contact or language shift?

76
10. Are there any strategies for the improvement of the status, function, and standardization of
Silt’e?
11. Would you believe adopting siltigna as zonal working language mean restricting the use
of Amharic for official purpose or encouraging bilingual language policy?
12. Do you believe the silte zonal administration design any mechanisms to protect the
language rights of nonindigenous languages?
13. Are you satisfied with the present status of Silt’e? What has done to modernize Silt’e?
What should be done in the future?

Interview questions for elders

The purpose of this interview is to examine the practice of indigenization of language

particular analysis on the contribution and challenges of adopting siltigna in the silte zone. It
further desires to get information on attitudes of the community concerning the adoption of
siltigna as zonal working language. It also examines the ways to improve the functions, status,
and standard of Silt’e. Please explain your personal evaluation of each statement as candidly
as possible. All information you provide is confidential and will be used solely for my
research.

Thank you

A. profile of respondents

Name------------------Academic qualification______Sex__ Age___ Religion____ Professional

background_______Experience _______ Mother Tongue __________Languages you
speak_____ Nationality____Ethnicity---------------

1. What is your feeling towards the adoption of siltigna as zonal working language?
2. What is your preference of language to speak fluently?
3. Do you believe the siltigna language that we speak currently an original one or shifted
or mixed one?
4. What are the advantages of adoption of siltigna as zonal working language?
5. Do you observe any challenges related with the adoption of siltigna as zonal working
language?
6. What should we do indigenize and revitalize the language?

77
Interview questions for civil servants and administrators

The purpose of this interview is to examine the practice of indigenization of language

particularly analysis on the contribution and challenges of adopting siltigna in the silte zone. It
further desires to get information on attitudes of the community concerning the adoption of
siltigna as zonal working language. It also examines the ways to improve the functions, status,
and standard of Silt’e. Please explain your personal evaluation of each statement as candidly
as possible. All information you provide is confidential and will be used solely for my
research.

Thank you

A. profile of respondents

Name------------------Academic qualification_______Sex__ Age___ Religion____

Professional background_______Experience _______ Mother Tongue __________Languages
you speak_____ Nationality____Ethnicity---------------

1. What is your attitude towards adopting siltigna as zonal working language?

2. In which language you speak fluently? why?
3. Would you believe adoption of a federal structure in Ethiopia ensure the protection of
linguistic minority? If your answer is yes or no please explain it?
4. Do you believe constitutional protection of language rights in Ethiopia and SNNPR
encourage preservation of indigenous language? If your answer is yes or no please
explain it?
5. Do you believe constitutional protection of language rights in Ethiopia and SNNPR
encourage preservation of indigenous language? If your answer is yes or no please
explain it?
6. How do you see the practice of indigenization of language? Are there any projects or
strategies to indigenize or revitalize siltigna language?
7. What are the advantages of adopting siltigna as zonal working language?
8. Do observe any challenges related with the adoption of siltigna as zonal working
language?
9. In which language you write report properly?

78
 10. Would you believe adopting siltigna as zonal working language mean restricting the
use of Amharic for official purpose or encouraging bilingual language policy?
11. Do you believe the silte zonal administration design any mechanisms to protect the
language rights of nonindigenous languages?
12. As official or servant how do treat those who do not know siltigna in your office?
13. Do you hire nonindigenous individuals in your office?
14. Are you satisfied with the present status of Silt’e? What has done to modernize Silt’e?
What should be done in the future?

Guiding Question for FGD

1. What is your feeling towards the adoption of siltigna as zonal working language?
2. What are the methods to indigenize Siltigna?
3. To what extent the practice of adopting Siltigna in Silte zone is effective?
4. What are the advantages of adopting Siltigna as a zonal administrative language in
Silte zone?
5. What are the practical challenges that affect the practice of adopting Siltigna in Silte
zone?
6. What are the strategies that zonal administration designed to accommodate the
language rights of nonindigenousgroups?

79
 Backgrounds of Interviewee
Ro.No Name of Position Institutions he/she Date of Woreda he
. interviewee from interview or she is
from
1 Surur Bedru Language expert who Siltigna language 04/07/10 Silte zone
is head of Siltigna project office
language
development project
office
2 Keyre Mahmud Core language and Silte zone culture, 01/07/10 Silte zone
communication tourism and
expert communication
office
3 Kebede Zewde Core language expert ˶ 01/07/10 ˶
4 Bedru Surur Curriculum Silte zone 05/07/10 ˶
coordinator educational office
5 Rameto Argago Language expert and Silte zone 04/07/10 ˶
Siltigna focal person legislative council
6 Seman Sultan Expert and Siltigna Silte zone ˶
language administrative
development focal council
person
7 Mohammed Language and culture Silte zone culture, 26/07/10 ˶
Yesuf expert(former head tourism and
of Silte zone culture, communication
tourism and office
government
communication(at
least for 10 years
8 Ahmedin Jemal Head of the Silte zone 25/07/10 ˶
legislative council legislative council
9 Nurata Usman Head of Siltigna Siltigna language 08/07/10 Dalocha
language project project office
office
10 Hassen Ahmed Curriculum Education office 08/07/10 Dalocha
coordinator
11 A/feta Sulaiman Language expert Dalocha Woreda 22/07/10 Dalocha
culture, tourism and
communication
office
12 Abas Kedir Expert of law Dalocha woreda 22/07/10 Dalocha
legislative council
13 Rameto Selamo Head of the Dalocha woreda 22/07/10 Dalocha
legislative council legislative council

80
15 Kemsur Temam Language and Lanforo Woreda Lanforo
communication culture, tourism and
expert and Siltigna communication
language focal office
person
16 Admama Experts on Lanforo woreda 18/07/10 Lanforo
Shemsu grievances and administrative
complaints and council
Siltigna language
development focal
person
17 Shafi Muste Experts on human Lanforo woreda 18/07/10 Lanforo
resource MGt and educational office
Siltigna language
focal person
18 Mohammed Language expert and Lanforo woreda 18/07/10 Lanforo
Surur head of Siltigna Siltigna language
language project office
development project
office
19 Sheicho Head of the Head of lanforo 18/07/10 Lanforo
Sunkemo legislative council woreda legislative
council
20 Tawfik Dilebo Siltigna language Hossana teachers 21/07/10
teachers in Hossana Training College
Teachers Training
college
21 Hamid Yasin Law experts on Alicho Woreda 19/07/10 Alicho
Siltigna language Siltigna language
development project development
office project office
22 A/Hamid Law experts and Alicho Woreda 19/07/10 Alicho
Ahmed Siltigna language Legislative council
development focal
person
23 Tawfik Hussein Curriculum expert in Alicho woreda 19/07/10 Alicho
educational office education office
24 Kemil Shemse Language and Alicho Woreda 19/07/10 Alicho
communication culture, tourism,
expert and go.vt
communication
office
25 Barsenga Juhar Head of Siltigna Hulberag Woreda 05/07/10 Hulberag
language Siltigna language
development project project office
office

81
26 Beyrite Experts on the Hulberag Woreda 05/07/10 Hulberag
Sulaiman sectoral development legislative council
plan and Siltigna
language
development focal
person
27 Rahima Experts of the Hulberag Woreda 07/07/10 Hulberag
Sulaiman sectored development education office
plan and Siltigna
language
development focal
person
28 She A/Rahmen Elder 23/07/10 Dalocha
Shewajo
29 Ms x Elder 23/07/10 Dalocha
30 Keyre Sule Elder 18/07/10 Lanforo
31 Seman Elder 19/07/10 Alicho
32 Ms y Elder 19/07/10 Alicho
33 Awol Bushra Elder 21/07/10 Hulberag
34 Kedir Said Elder 21/07/10 Hulberag
35 Ms w Elder 18/07/10 Lanforo
36 Mohammed Elder 26/07/10 Silte zone
Yesuf
37 Ms. R Elder 26/07/10 Silte zone

82