Madness in Blaise Cendrars' Novels: Moravagine and Company: Laurent Tatu ? Julien Bogousslavsky

Bogousslavsky J, Dieguez S (eds): Literary Medicine: Brain Disease and Doctors in Novels, Theater, and Film.
Front Neurol Neurosci. Basel, Karger, 2013, vol 31, pp 1–9 (DOI: 10.1159/000343238)
Madness in Blaise Cendrars’ Novels:

Moravagine and Company
Laurent Tatua,b ? Julien Bogousslavskyc
Departments of aNeuromuscular Diseases and bAnatomy, CHU Jean-Minjoz, University of Franche-Comté,
Besançon, France; cCenter for Brain and Nervous System Diseases, GSMN Neurocenter, Clinique Valmont,
Glion/Montreux, Switzerland
Abstract
The literary work of Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961), né Frédéric Sauser, one of the major French-
speaking authors of the 20th century, is imbued with references to neuropsychiatry. This theme is a
constant presence in his writing as a result of his involvement of the First World War and his personal
experiences, which were punctuated with neurologic and psychiatric events. Cendrars’ own particu-
lar ideas on the genesis of mental disorders went against the more traditional views on psychiatry.
He remained skeptical about hysteria and did not subscribe to psychoanalysis. His ideas were
enriched by his experience with the war-related neuropsychiatric problems developed by soldiers.
He thus proposed the notion of ‘pathological fear’ surrounding these disorders. There are a number
of characters suffering from ‘borderline’ mental disorders in Cendrars’ work, including two shocking,
mad murderers, Moravagine and Fébronio. The character Moravagine, a neurology patient suffering
from a brain tumor, enabled Cendrars to delve into the grey areas that can exist between neurologic
and psychiatric diseases. Fébronio, a real psychotic, enabled Cendrars to explore ethnopsychiatry.
Copyright © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel
Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961), né Frédéric Sauser, was one of the great French-
speaking authors of the 20th century (fig. 1). Cendrars was born in La Chaux-de-
Fonds in Switzerland. He acquired French nationality in 1916 following his voluntary
enlistment in the French Foreign Legion during the First World War.
His work is full of references to neuropsychiatry. This theme is a constant presence
in his writing owing to his involvement in the Great War. It results in part from his
personal experiences, which were punctuated by neurologic and psychiatric events.
Cendrars’ neurologic journey was marked by phantom limb syndrome following
the amputation of his right forearm after a war injury, and by two strokes, which
deprived him of the use of his limbs and then his speech at the end of this life [1].
His personal psychiatric experience really began after the death of his mother.
Then aged 20, he entered a period of considerable psychiatric difficulty, which may
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Univ. of Michigan, Taubman Med.Lib.
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Fig. 1. Blaise Cendrars at the time of publica-
tion of Moravagine. ©Martinie/Roger Viollet.
Reprinted with kind permission.
have resulted in him being hospitalized [2]. His failing psychological state is evident
in his correspondence [3]:
I have finally dared to understand all the emptiness in my current life. . . I am forced to
recognize all the pointlessness, the absurdity of my life. . . there are days when I feel at the peak
of my life. . . from the top of my sunny peak, I throw myself into the abyss of the night! So I do
not know what stops me and prevents me from pulling the trigger I have clenched between my
teeth!
A few months later, Cendrars began studying medicine in order to gain a bet-
ter understanding of psychiatry and nervous disorders. He enrolled at the Faculty
of Medicine in Bern for the summer semester of 1908 and chose a placement at La
Waldau psychiatric clinic. The experience was cut short as Cendrars was disappointed
by the teaching and ideas on disease put forward by the psychiatrists [4]. ‘Psychiatric
deception’ was certainly not his only reason for abandoning his medical studies, as he
states: ‘It’s really funny being a medical student. It could last a lifetime, as you never
stop learning, studying the mystery that is man. But then there’s the faculty, exams. . .
I’ve had enough!’ [5].
Madness according to Cendrars
Cendrars’ first contact with mental illness shaped his singular ideas on psychiatry,
which are expressed in the very first pages of Moravagine. He believed that mental ill-
ness was not necessarily caused by a pathological state, but that it could be part of the
normal variations in an individual’s state of health:
Before investigating and examining the mechanism of the morbid causes, they [the authors]
consider the ‘disease in itself ’, condemn it as an abnormal, harmful state and indicate first and
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2 Tatu · Bogousslavsky
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foremost the thousand and one ways to fight it, disrupt it, suppress it, by defining health as a
‘normal’, absolute, fixed state. . . [Diseases] are a transient, intermediate, future state of health. They
are perhaps health itself [6].
This perception of mental health was partly inspired by the ideas of Ricciotto
Canudo (1879–1923) expressed in Les libérés, mémoire d’un aliéniste, published in
1911. Canudo, who dedicated a copy of his work to Cendrars, wrote in 1918: ‘My
experience leads me more and more to not always considering madness as an illness
or as an ill state – but sometimes as a profuse state of health’ [7].
Therefore, for Cendrars, the boundary between madness and reason was indis-
tinct and changeable. Many of the characters in his work are unpredictable, disturbed
individuals who would nowadays be characterized as ‘borderline’. He also believed
that normal subjects could experience hallucinatory or delirious phenomena. In
Moravagine, the psychiatrist Raymond-la-Science is a victim of this type of phenom-
enon during his train journey to Twer station [8].
In opposition to more traditional psychiatric concepts, Cendrars displayed
his unique views in the very first drafts of the Moravagine manuscript in 1917: ‘issue
a terrible indictment against the psychiatrists and experimentally determine their
psychology’ [9]. He nevertheless entered into the psychiatric debates at the begin-
ning of the 20th century with his ideas on hysteria and rejection of psychoanalysis:
Hysteria, the Great Hysteria, was then in fashion in medical circles. After the preliminary
work by the schools of Montpellier and La Salpêtrière who, in a manner of speaking, had only
gone so far as determining, situating the object of their study, several foreign men of science,
particularly the Austrian, Freud, had taken up the problem, had gone into it more amply, more
profoundly, had lifted it, extracted it from its purely experimental and clinical domain to make of
it a kind of pataphysics of social, religious and artistic pathology, in which it was not so much a
question of coming to know the climacteric of this or that obsession born spontaneously in the
farthest regions of consciousness and determining the simultaneity of the ‘auto-vibrism’ of
sensations observed in the subject, but rather of creating, or forging an entire system of
sentimental (supposedly rational) symbolism of acquired or innate slips of the subconscious, a
kind of key to dreams for use by psychiatrists, as codified by Freud in his works on
psychoanalysis. . . [10].
Cendrars exposed his nonallegiance to psychoanalysis on several occasions:
If psychoanalysis had interested me, I could have written a great paper or a brochure to
popularize this theory in France. But I didn’t believe in it. Upon my return from Germany, where I was
able to observe its devastating effects first hand amongst intellectuals in Vienna and Munich. . . I
said just enough to Guillaume Apollinaire to provide him with the material for a long section in his
column, La Vie Anecdotique, for the Mercure de France. Until proof of the contrary, I believe I can
affirm that it’s in this column that the term ‘psychoanalysis’ was printed for the first time in France,
at least in the non-medical press (winter 1911–12) [11].
These ideas about mental disorders led Cendrars to adopt a negative attitude
towards the issue of their treatment:
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Madness in Blaise Cendrars’ Novels 3

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They (the alienists) use blackmail, trickery, sequestration and commit terrible extortions. They
impose ether, opium, cocaine, by restrictions and by doses. Everything is based on a scale
established according to irrevocable statistics. When you combine showers, poisons, you can
anticipate nervous prostration and exaltation of sensitivity [12].
War Neuroses and ‘Pathological Fear’
The First World War brought Cendrars, who volunteered to serve in the French
Foreign Legion, into contact with other types of psychic dysfunction. The conflict
indeed caused nervous disorders with no visible injuries, called ‘war psychoneuro-
ses’. They appeared in the form of mental disturbances and previously unseen neu-
rological signs such as camptocormia. These soldiers were quite quickly considered
to be potential malingerers who were seeking to escape their duty of defending the
homeland. Whether or not the war was responsible for the onset of these disorders
remained a matter of debate for a long time [13].
The influence of the war, its violence and horrors, on the mental state of the soldiers
left no doubt in Cendrars’ mind: ‘. . . in less than three months, the first horrors of the
war had already marked a number of adolescents with a stigma worse than any gaping
wound or scar, and I had seen more than one face among our young comrades close like
a mask on an intolerable, painful secret’ [14]. Cendrars, who was personally affected by
the moral repercussions of the war, showed lenience towards the soldiers presenting
inappropriate behavior: ‘I do not condemn them. As, ultimately, what made me myself
go out alone on patrol? The taste for risk? Bravado? The desire to get myself killed? No,
quite simply the blues. I was just as broken and profoundly unwell as they were’ [15].
For Cendrars, the ultimate violence of the Great War, which had never before
reached this scale, produced quite wise patients. The bloodthirsty madmen in his
works are not products of the war. He reports several examples of depressed, con-
fused, or amnesic soldiers like Souriceau: ‘He was a poor madman who had lost his
regiment to the war, who had lost reason to the war, who had lost everything, he
was a madman, a poor madman’ [16]. The old dispute over masculine hysteria re-
emerged in a military form. Cendrars approached the issue with the example of the
soldier Lang: ‘He was a lousy soldier. When the blues got hold of him, he was more
annoying than a woman at that time of the month. He’d get a migraine, would brood,
was frankly unbearable and had acute neurasthenia. Another hysteric. God, these
big strapping fellows are such cowards’ [17].
According to Cendrars, fear, a drug that could incite action, was the key fac-
tor encompassing all these nervous disorders and explained their onset. He
thus incorporated the theories of the neuropsychiatrist Paul Voivenel (1880–
1975), who, with his concept of ‘pathological fear’ was the true precursor of the
understanding of war psychoneuroses and posttraumatic stress syndrome. Voivenel
differentiated between soldiers who became ill from their abnormal fear and cow-
ards who refused to fight [18]. In line with this idea, Cendrars developed the
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example of the soldier Faval: ‘The fear of dying. I’ve never seen anyone as scared
as Faval’ [19]. Fear causes Faval to take desperate action in an attempt to escape
the front. Together with another soldier called Tarasa, he thinks up a strategy to be
evacuated owing to a false injury. Despite the risk of ending up in front of the war
council and a firing squad, they decide to injure each other with their guns. Faval
shoots Tarasa first, but once injured, Tarasa does not have the strength to shoot his
comrade in return. Tarasa dies in hospital from an infected wound and the corpo-
ral Cendrars protects Faval from prosecution: ‘He shot because he was afraid. He
was afraid of dying. A soldier who has never been afraid on the front is not a man.
I don’t like military judges who send a man to Biribi due to a weakness. A soldier
has the right to be afraid. That’s why I hushed up this ridiculous business’ [20].
Cendrars did not have the same lenience for soldiers who used firearms to injure
themselves out of pure deception in order to escape the war, i.e. those who exhibited
a ‘coward’s fear’ rather than ‘pathological fear’. After the armistice, he met Uri, an
old soldier from his squadron who had only stayed on the battlefield for a few days:
Were you injured or are you a deserter? – I was discharged, he replied. Look! And Uri showed
me his right hand, which was missing three fingers. He laughed cynically. – I’m not stupid, he said.
– Bastard, I said, you blew up your hand! – So? he said. – You are a right scoundrel, I said. That was
the first time I met a guy from the squadron with whom I didn’t want to go for a drink [21].
War psychoneuroses led to an excess of treatments like electric psychotherapy,

renamed ‘torpillage’ in its military version, which sometimes involved torture [22].
Those in favor of experimental and aggressive treatments for war neuroses justified
their use by the contagious nature of the disorders presented by soldiers c onsidered as
malingerers. Cendrars confirmed the contagious nature of the d isorders that some-
times led to desertion: ‘It was a curious epidemic, of a mental nature, like what should
occur on a raft of shipwrecked people when, one after another, the survivors let
themselves slip into the water much more out of desperate vanity than because they
are exhausted by the deprivations and suffering they have endured’ [23]. However,
he ruled out any notion of malingering in these soldiers, the most seriously affected
of whom ended up in centers for intractable psychoneuroses:
The madmen institutionalized there are definitely not malingerers, nor sufferers of fatigue, or
neurasthenia: they have all earned their insanity stripes in the different military neurology centers
where they stayed, were observed, underwent lengthy interrogation and were selected and sorted
by numerous expert committees [24].
The Mad Murderers: Neurology and Ethnopsychiatry
In the work of Cendrars, the two most detailed cases of mad murderers are those
of Moravagine and Fébronio. Moravagine kills and mutilates young girls. Declared
insane, he is locked up in the Waldensee asylum, a fictional transcription of La
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Waldau asylum in Bern. He escapes with the complicity of his psychiatrist to embark
on escapades around the world punctuated by serial murders. An aviator during the
Great War, Moravagine ends his life in 1917 in a military neurology center while writ-
ing an account of his travels on the planet Mars.
A number of psychiatric patients were proposed as models for Moravagine’s
character. Adolf Wölfli (1864–1930), a schizophrenic and rapist of young girls
and a prominent figure in ‘Art Brut’ institutionalized in La Waldau, was one of them,
as was Joseph Fessler, a delinquent with whom Cendrars exchanged correspon-
dence [25]. The Swiss writer, Jacques Chessex (1934–2009), even proposed Favez,
the heroic mental patient in his novel Le vampire de Ropraz, as a literary model for
Moravagine by imagining a fictional encounter between Favez and Cendrars [26].
This multiplicity of possible psychiatric models must not overshadow the fact that
Cendrars presents Moravagine as a neurology patient suffering from a tumor of the
third cerebral ventricle. He thus tackles, in his own way, the somewhat hazy separa-
tion between psychiatry and neurology, between mental disorders and organic ner-
vous system lesions.
The long explanation of Moravagine’s clinical observation and the results of his
autopsy in the novel are a faithful reproduction of an article published in the journal
La presse médicale on July 23, 1917 under the title: ‘Infundibular syndrome in a case of
tumor of the third ventricle’ [27]. The authors of the article, Henri Claude (1869–1945)
and Jean Lhermitte (1877–1959), were reputable neurologists who were recruited to
work in a military neurology center. Cendrars reproduced this article, replacing the
biographical data of the soldier under observation with those of Moravagine. He also
changed the name of the neurology center, which became Centre 101 bis. Finally, he
replaced the name of Mademoiselle Loyez, collaborator of Henri Claude, with that of
Germain Soyez, the nurse who cared for Moravagine (fig. 2).
The search for neurological models for Moravagine’s character was more difficult
and less dramatic. However, it should be noted that in J’ai saigné, Cendrars reports his
encounter with a patient suffering from right-sided hemiplegia and aphasia following
trepanning during his stay at the Châlons-sur-Marne military hospital in October
1915. Cendrars was involved in speech rehabilitation and recounts his long recovery
when he was recovering from the amputation of his right forearm.
Another example of a mentally ill murderer is the Brazilian Fébronio. With this
character, there was no question of a brain tumor. Fébronio, a real person whose mur-
ders made a big impact in Brazil in the 1920s, is presented by Cendrars as a purely
psychiatric case. The final text published by Cendrars is based on four articles pub-
lished in Paris-Soir in May and June 1938 under the title ‘Les pénitenciers des noirs’.
Cendrars reports a conversation with Fébronio in his prison, but it is more likely that
he worked from press extracts and documents rather than actually meeting him [28].
Fébronio attacked young men, whereby he raped, killed, mutilated, and tattooed
them with cabalistic signs in a ritualistic manner. He was arrested in 1927 in Rio de
Janeiro, and quickly revealed himself to be a serious psychotic convinced that he was
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Fig. 2. Blaise Cendrars
adapted Moravagine’s autopsy
report [27].
the prophet of a new religion. He said he was obeying visions and voices falling from
the skies. He recorded his delusions in a book that remained hidden for a long time
(fig. 3).
There is a plethora of similarities between Moravagine, the product of Cendrars’
creative mind, and Fébronio, a real person: mental illness, serial killings, memoires,
Brazil, etc. The two characters are also presented as incurable. Moravagine relapses by
killing a young girl within minutes of escaping the asylum. Cendrars also claims to
have spoken to Fébronio: ‘ “Say, if you were released today, would you start again?” – “I
would start again!”‘ he replied with a smile of morose delectation’ [29]. Moravagine, a
fictional character, who was the burdensome double of Cendrars for many years, thus
found his own double in Fébronio, a real person.
Cendrars’ use of the case of Fébronio is a clear example of ethnopsychiatry. His
crimes were the result of his uprooting and his forced acceptance of the mentality of
whites and the inhibition of his instincts:
The criminality of colored, not to say primitive, folk who are in daily contact or grappling with
modern civilization and who have more or less, willingly or by force, undergone, adopted, imitated,
learned, feigned, and often to the point of inhibition of their instincts and their most natural
reflexes, the mentality and the prejudices of their masters and of their white superiors, has always
greatly interested me as I consider it as a short circuit, a backlash [30].
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Fig. 3. Fébronio in 1927 (origin unknown).
For Cendrars, Blacks who became Christians did not forget their deep roots, and
the explosion of their mystic ancestral terror could result in the most hateful of crimes:
In my eyes, Fébronio is the distant descendent of a great African shaman and, like all the Blacks
of Brazil who can no longer drink from the fountains of African mysticism and are lost children, of
mixed-race despite his deep coloration, that is to say a negro-Christian bastard whose intelligence
and spirituality exhaust and sink to the other side of the pantheistic tradition and the animist
religion of his race [31].
La folie est le propre de l’Homme

(Madness is the human condition)
Blaise Cendrars [32]
Acknowledgements
We would like to give particular thanks to Miriam Cendrars for her invaluable help and for
providing information on her father’s medical history; Marie-Thérèse Lathion, curator of the
Blaise Cendrars collection at the Swiss National Library (Bern) for her time and availability, and
Christine Le Quellec Cottier, director of the Centre d’études Blaise Cendrars (CEBC) at the Swiss
National Library (Bern) for her helpful advice.
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Professor Laurent Tatu

Department of Neuromuscular Diseases
CHU Jean-Minjoz, Boulevard Fleming
FR–25030 Besançon Cedex (France)
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E-Mail laurent.tatu@univ-fcomte.fr

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Bogousslavsky J, Dieguez S (eds): Literary Medicine: Brain Disease and Doctors in Novels, Theater, and Film.

Madness in Blaise Cendrars’ Novels:

Madness according to Cendrars

Cendrars exposed his nonallegiance to psychoanalysis on several occasions:

Madness in Blaise Cendrars’ Novels 3

War Neuroses and ‘Pathological Fear’

War psychoneuroses led to an excess of treatments like electric psychotherapy,

The Mad Murderers: Neurology and Ethnopsychiatry

Madness in Blaise Cendrars’ Novels 5

Madness in Blaise Cendrars’ Novels 7

La folie est le propre de l’Homme

Professor Laurent Tatu

Madness in Blaise Cendrars’ Novels 9

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