Mansoura University

Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Power & Machine Dept.

Distributed Generation

By
Khaled Ibrahim Abdul Aziz
Section 3

Supervised By
Prof. Dr. Magdi Saadawi

Abstract
 This report starts from the observation that there is a renewed interest in
small-scale electricity generation. Starting with a survey of existing
small-scale generation technologies and then move on with a discussion
of the major benefits, limitations, and uses of small-scale electricity
generation. Small-scale generation is also commonly called distributed
generation, embedded generation or decentralized generation. In a final
section, a conclusion shows how to result of these researches.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................2

2. Technology................................................................................................................................3

2.1 Solar Photvoltaic.................................................................................................................3

2.2 Wind Turbine......................................................................................................................4

2.2 Fuel Cell...............................................................................................................................5

2.2 Microturbine.......................................................................................................................6

3. Benefits......................................................................................................................................7

4. Limitations................................................................................................................................7

5. Uses............................................................................................................................................8

6. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................8

7. References.................................................................................................................................8
1. Introduction

Fig. 1-2 Illustration of the distributed generation concept with generation capacity closer to the customer
base. Generators can supply local customers and/or supply the greater network.

The electric power system consists of units for electricity production, devices that
make use of the electricity, and a power grid that connects them. The aim of the
power grid is to enable the transport of electrical energy from the production to the
consumption, while maintaining an acceptable reliability and voltage quality for all
customers and all this for the lowest possible price. Modern society is very much
dependent on the availability of cheap and reliable electricity. Several recent
blackouts and price peaks have very much shown this. The different reasons for

Fig. 1-1 Schematic illustration of conventional electricity generation and distribution.

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introducing new types of production into the power system are: the open electricity
market has made it easier for new players to enter the market, several of the
conventional types of production result in emission of carbon dioxide with the much-
discussed global warming, and the margin between the highest consumption and the
likely available production is too small. The terminology used to refer to the new
types of production differs: “embedded generation,” “distributed generation,” “small-
scale generation,” “renewable energy sources” and “distributed energy resources” are
some of the terms that are in use. The IEEE defines distributed generation as the
generation of electricity by facilities that are sufficiently smaller than central
generating plants so as to allow interconnection at nearly any point in a power system.
Distributed generation (DG) has much potential to improve distribution system
performance. The use of DG strongly contributes to a clean, reliable and cost-
effective energy for future. The range of DG technologies and the variability in their
size, performance, and suitable applications suggest that DG could provide power
supply solutions in many different industrial, commercial, and residential settings. In
this way, DG is contributing to improving the security of electricity supply. However,
distribution system designs and operating practices are normally based on radial
power flow and this creates a significant challenge for the successful integration of
DG system. As the issues are new and are the key for sustainable future power supply,
a lot of research is required to study their impact and exploit them to the full extent.

The established electricity infrastructure typically consists of large, centralized power

generation facilities linked to the final electricity consumers via a complex network of
transmission lines, switch and substations and feeder distribution lines (Fig. 1-1).
The concept of distributed generation is based on the provision of many small
capacity (1kW to 30 MW) generation units situated much closer to the electricity
consumers. The generation units can be operated at the point of use with excess sold
to the grid, or by generator units dispersed within the local distribution network (Fig.
1-2).

2. Technology
In order to reduce the dependency on producing electric energy from fossil fuel,
distributed renewable energy technologies are becoming increasingly important in the
energy supply systems of many countries. Distributed renewable energy incorporates
various technologies, such as solar power, wind turbines, fuel cells, small hydro,
biomass, geothermal and ocean (waves and tidal) energy systems. Solar photovoltaic
(PV) as opposed to solar thermal is the most important solar technology for
distributed generation. These energy technologies can be used to meet cooling,

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heating, remote power, backup power, baseload power, peaking power and power
quality requirements. They also have the potential to reduce the impact of electricity
price fluctuations, strengthen energy security, mitigate congestion in transmission
lines, provide greater stability to the electricity grid and reduce the gas emission.

2.1 Solar Photovoltaic

Fig. 2-1 A simple block diagram representing the various elements of a grid-connected photovoltaic system
with battery backup

The photovoltaic (PV) systems are widely available. Their range in size from 5 kW or
less for homes to several megawatts for nonresidential installations. Because of their
high cost, they're used mainly in remote locations without grid connection and by
customers who want to provide their own energy from a renewable source. Solar
panels are composed of photovoltaic cells, most commonly of silicon, that convert
sunlight into DC power. The cells are assembled into arrays that can be mounted on
rooftops or other unshaded areas. Systems can be integrated into roofing, glazing and
walls. PV cells are the basic building blocks of a PV system, it is necessary to use
other components in order for the system to find practical applications.

A block diagram of all the components that go into the making of a complete PV unit
is shown in Fig. 2-1. An inverter converts DC power into AC power. Batteries can
store excess energy for later use, or the electric grid can serve as backup. Solar panels
produce no emissions on site, have no moving parts and require little maintenance.
Less expensive components, advancements in the manufacturing process, and volume
sales are needed to reduce costs for widespread use.

It also possesses other advantages, such as its ability to improve service reliability by
reducing the number of system outages and by avoiding the line extensions to remote
areas. Such systems can also relieve thermal overloads in selected utility distribution
systems. Other important benefits also exist, such as loss reduction on both

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distribution and transmission lines and voltage support.

2.2 Wind Turbine

Fig. 2-2 A simple diagram showing grid connected system of wind power

Grid connected wind turbines (WT) as an effective DG source has developed

noticeably in the recent past. WT can be operated at nearly constant or variable speed
and coupled to induction generators to produce power. Wind turbines have a rotor
formed by two or three propeller-like blades attached to a central hub mounted on a
shaft. The rotor assembly converts wind velocity to rotary motion. The rotating shaft
turns a generator, producing electricity as shown in Fig. 2-2. Wind is faster and less
turbulent at 100 feet or more above the ground and in areas with few obstructions
such as buildings and trees.

Turbines are available from many manufacturers and range in size from less than 5
kW to new 3.6 MW machines. These packaged systems include the rotor, generator,
turbine blades, and drive or coupling device placed at the top of a tall tower. Most
systems have a gearbox and generator in a single unit behind the turbine blades. Some
generators produce AC power already locked to the grid at 60 Hz; others have power-
conditioning equipment to connect the system to the grid. Development efforts for
these stand-alone systems are focused on cheaper battery storage systems that can
provide power when the turbine is not turning.
Wind power technology is renewable and sustainable since wind is widely distributed,
clean as it does not pollute the air like conventional power plants based on fossil fuels,
efficient because it has higher energy conversion, and modular since it can be built at
any size. But it also has higher energy cost because good wind sites are found in
remote locations, low reliability since wind energy is not predictable, noise
disturbance as the turbine blades extract kinetic energy from the airflow through
rotation movement and the air pressure around the turbine varies, wildlife threat Since
wind farms are usually constructed in remote areas, and safety issues as storms may
lead to the damage of wind turbines, which in this case will be considered as hazard to
the workers in the wind farms as well as animals.

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2.3 Fuel Cell
Fuel cell

Fig. 2-3 PEM fuel cell schematic

technology was first observed and studied as a viable form of generation of electrical
energy in the nineteenth century. Fuel cells have since been used for space travel
applications, fuel cell-powered automobiles, portable fuel cells for electronic devices
and stationary power applications. Fuel cells have high energy efficiency, do not
release harmful emissions while generating electricity unlike typical conventional
sources and have very low number of moving parts, hence reducing operation and
maintenance costs and thus making it a viable contender for the role of a reliable
distributed generation technology.

The fuel cell is essentially a device that facilitates the conversion of chemical energy
into electrical energy. The chemical energy available for energy conversion is derived
from the free energy produced as a result of chemical reactions within the cell. Like
any other electrochemical cell, the fuel cell consists of two electrodes that function as
an anode and cathode and an electrolyte placed in between them as shown in Fig. 2-3.
The reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes. Every fuel cell also
has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged particles from one electrode to
the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the electrodes. Hydrogen is the
basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen.

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The DC power produced by the fuel cell is converted into ac using an inverter. Fuel
cells are being explored for use both in vehicles and as stationary generators, however
cost they too much to be immediately competitive against grid-supplied electricity,
but industry experts have indicated that with mass production prices should fall.
Installed cost will not always be the deciding factor in choosing a given technology.
Where environmental regulations are strict, fuel cells offer the only truly clean
solution to electricity production outside of the renewables sector.

3.4 Microturbine
A microturbine (MT) is a Brayton cycle engine using atmospheric air and natural gas
fuel to produce shaft power. Fig. 2-4 shows the essential components of this device.
Although a dual shaft approach is shown in the figure, a single-shaft design is also
used in which the power produced in the expander is supplied to both the compressor
and the load by a single shaft. The dual shaft design offers better control, but at the
cost of another rotating part and two more high speed bearings. Electrical power is
produced by a permanent magnet generator attached to the output shaft or by way of a
gear reducer driving a synchronous generator.

Attractive MT features include low capital cost, good efficiency (30–33%; LHV
basis), modest emissions (<10 PPM NOx quoted by manufacturers), thermal or

Fig. 2-4 Schematic diagram of7dual shaft microturbine design.

electrical cogeneration is possible in industry and in buildings, and modularity is
excellent (nearly any load can be matched well by multiple units of small to medium
capacity).

3. Benefits

Following are benefits, or potential benefits, of distributed generation for customers

and utilities:
• Easy and quicker installation on account of prefabricated standardized components
• Lowering of cost by avoiding long distance high voltage transmission
• Environment friendly where renewable sources are used
• Running cost more or less constant over the period of time with the use of renewable
sources
• Possibility of user-operator participation due to lesser complexity
• More dependability with simple construction, and consequent easy operation and
maintenance

4. Limitations

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There are many potential benefits of the distributed generation model, however there
are also, some drawbacks. Not all of the technologies that can be adopted in a
distributed network offer improved air emission performance. The move to distributed
power generation sites dispersed throughout the consumer community would also
mean that emissions are released in closer proximity to the local community.

The placement of electric generation units within the community could face
significant community resistance from poor public perception. The ‘NIMBY’ (not-in-
my-backyard) syndrome can often give rise to very emotive and forceful rejection of
development proposals. One could speculate that public awareness of greenhouse and
energy related issues must be fostered, particularly if the general community is to
embrace the need to change infrastructure and energy use to minimize global warming
effects. Land prices for situating units within the consumer community may be
prohibitive however this should be alleviated to a degree by the compactness of the
proposed units.

5. Uses
Distributed generation can be used in a variety of ways:
• In remote locations where it may be more economic than running a power line to the
site. Distributed generation may be cost-effective for serving small loads in lieu of
even short line extensions.
• To provide primary power, with the utility providing backup and supplemental
power.
Systems may be sized to sell power in excess of site needs.
• For backup power during utility system outages, for facilities requiring
uninterrupted service— hospitals, military facilities and prisons, for example — as
well as businesses with high costs for forced outages, such as data centers, banks, and
the telecommunications and process industries.
• For cogeneration, where waste heat can be used for heating, cooling,
dehumidifying, or
steam. Traditional uses include large industrial facilities with high steam and power
demands, including paper and chemicals industries, as well as universities and
hospitals.
• To provide higher power quality for electronic and other sensitive equipment.
• During times of high electricity prices or high on-site demand. Customers that pay
time varying prices or participate in other peak-shaving programs can use distributed
generation during high-cost periods and reduce their overall cost of power. The
electricity supplier in turn may be able to reduce the amount of high cost power it
purchases during system peaks.
• To reduce air emissions at a site, by using a renewable energy source or cleaner
energy
system.
• To defer or avoid transmission and distribution system investments.
• To provide energy or capacity to the utility.
• To provide ancillary services — reliability services that allow the system to produce
and deliver energy in a usable form.

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6. Conclusion
Distributed generation offers many benefits, including important political issues such
as increasing the security of supply and reducing the emission of greenhouse gases.
Although these benefits, and other additional benefits, are clearly identified, DG and
RES are not always economically viable. Their viability depends heavily on energy
prices and stimulation measures from European and national governments.

7. References
[1] Math Bollen., and Fainan Hassan. Integration of Distributed Generation in the Power
System. 1st ed. Wiley-IEEE Press, 2011.

[2] Ramesh Bansal. Handbook of Distributed Generation: Electric Power Technologies,

Economics and Environmental Impacts. Springer, 2017.

[3] Lisa Schwartz. Distributed Generation in Oregon: Overview, Regulatory Barriers and
Recommendations. Public Utility Commission, 2005, Oregon.

[4] Pepermans, Guido & Driesen, J & Haeseldonckx, Dries & Belmans, Ronnie &
D’haeseleer, William. (2005). Distributed generation: definition, benefits and issues. Energy
Policy. 787-798.

[5] Rugthaicharoencheep, N. "Technical and Economic Impacts of Distributed Generation on

Distribution System". World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, International
Science Index 64, International Journal of Electrical, Computer, Energetic, Electronic and
Communication Engineering, (2012), 6(4), 385 - 389.

[6] Murray J. Height. Vosloo, Distributed Electricity Generation. Spring 2000, Department of
Chemical Engineering. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Term paper.

[7] Ann-Marie Borbely., and Jan F. Kreider., Distributed Generation: The Power Paradigm
for the New Millennium. CRC Press LLC, 2001, United States of America.

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