Introduction to Psychology

Thinking and Intelligence

Cognition: Concepts and Prototypes

• Cognition: thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving,

judgment, and memory
• Concept: category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or
life experiences
• Prototype: best representation of a concept
• Schema: a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related
concepts
Types of Concepts

• Natural concept: mental groupings that are created “naturally” through

your experiences like snow below
• Artificial concept: concept that is defined by a very specific set of
characteristics like the shapes below
Problem Solving Strategies

Method Description Example

Restarting phone,
turning off WiFi,
Continue trying
turning off
different solutions
Trial and error bluetooth in order
until problem is
to determine why
solved
your phone is
malfunctioning
Instruction manual
Step-by-step
for installing new
Algorithm problem-solving
software on your
formula
computer
Working
General problem- backwards;
Heuristic
solving framework breaking a task into
steps
Pitfalls in Problem Solving

• Mental set continually using an

old solution to a problem without
results
• Functional fixedness inability to
see an object as useful for any
other use other than the one for
which it was intended
• Decision Biases
Decision Bias in Problem Solving

• Anchoring: Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when

making decisions or problem-solving

• Confirmation: Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs

• Hindsight: Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
• Representative: Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
• Availability: Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an
example that may be faulty
Language: Key Terms

• Audience design
• Common ground
• Lexicon
• Syntax
• Grammar
• Priming
• Situation model
Language and the Social Brain

• Social brain hypothesis that humans can maintain larger ingroups

• Social networks: networks of social relationships among individuals through
which information can travel
• Linguistic intergroup bias: a tendency for people to characterize positive
things about their ingroup using more abstract expressions, but negative
things about their outgroups using more abstract expressions
• Ingroup: group to which a person belongs
• Outgroup: group to which a person does not belong
Stages of Language Development

Developmental Language and

Stage Age
Communication
1 0–3 months Reflexive communication
Reflexive communication; interest
2 3–8 months
in others
Intentional communication;
3 8–13 months
sociability
12–18
4 First words
months
18–24
5 Simple sentences of two words
months
6 2–3 years Sentences of three or more words
Complex sentences; has
7 3–5 years
conversations
Language and Thinking

Language does not completely

determine our thoughts—our thoughts
are far too flexible for that—but
habitual uses of language can
influence our habit of thought and
action
Language can influence perceptual
phenomena, especially in the left
hemisphere of the brain
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
 Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence
Characteristics Representative Career
Type

Perceives different functions of language, sounds Journalist, novelist, poet,

Linguistic
and words, may easily learn languages teacher

Logical-
Capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong
mathematic Scientist, mathematician
ability to use reason and logic
al

Understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and

Musical Composer, performer
tone; may play multiple instruments or sing

High ability to control the movements of the body

Bodily Dancer, athlete, athletic
and use the body to perform various physical
kinesthetic coach, yoga instructor
tasks
Ability to perceive the relationship between Choreographer, sculptor,
Spatial
objects and how they move in space architect, aviator, sailor
Ability to understand and be sensitive to the Counselor, social worker,
Interpersonal
emotional states of others salesperson

Understands personal feelings and motivations, Key component of personal

Intrapersonal
and use them to reach personal goals success over time

High capacity to appreciate the natural world Biologist, ecologist,

Naturalist
and interact with the species within it environmentalist
Creativity

Ability to generate, create, or discover

new ideas, solutions, and possibilities
• Divergent thinking: the capacity for
exploring multiple potential answers
or solutions to a given question or
problem
• Convergent thinking: the opposite of
divergent thinking, the capacity to
narrow in on the single “correct”
answer or solution to a given question
or problem
Measuring Intelligence

• Intelligence quotient: (IQ) score on a test designed to measure intelligence

• Test Measures:
• Verbal Comprehension
• Perceptual Reasoning
• Working Memory
• Processing Speed
• Norming
• Standardization
IQ Forms a Bell Curve

The specific skills that should be assessed in IQ testing, the degree to which a
test can measure an individual’s intelligence, and the use of the results of IQ
tests are all controversial
Impact of Genetics on Intelligence
Impact of Environment on Intelligence

• Range of Reaction is the theory that each person responds to the

environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup
• Genetic potential is a fixed quantity, but whether people reach their full
intellectual potential is dependent upon environmental stimulation,
especially in childhood
Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are cognitive

disorders that affect specific areas of
cognition, such as:
• Dysgraphia: learning disability that
causes extreme difficulty in writing
legibly
• Dyslexia: common learning disability
in which letters are not processed
properly by the brain
Practice Question

Discuss the relationship between creativity and problem solving

Quick Review

• What are concepts (natural and artificial) and

prototypes?
• What are common problem solving strategies,
including algorithms and heuristics and
roadblocks to effective problem solving?
• Can you define basic terms that describe
language use?
• What are the social implications of language?
• How does language use develop?
More Quick Review

• What is the relationship between language and

thinking
• What are the triarchic theory of intelligence and
the multiple intelligences theory?
• What are creativity, divergent, and convergent
thinking?
• How is intelligence measured? What are the uses
and limitations of measuring IQ?
• How do genetics and the environment affect
intelligence?
• What are some common learning disabilities?