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JTRXXX10.1177/0047287518761615Journal of Travel ResearchLiu et al.

Empirical Research Article

Journal of Travel Research

Social Media Envy: How Experience

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© The Author(s) 2018
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DOI: 10.1177/0047287518761615
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Drives Millennials’ Aspirational journals.sagepub.com/home/jtr

Tourism Consumption

Hongbo Liu1, Laurie Wu1, and Xiang (Robert) Li1

Abstract
The sharing of travel experiences has become ubiquitous in today’s era. This study focuses on a pervasive trend among
Millennial consumers: the experience of benign envy toward others’ positive travel experience sharing on social networking
sites. Drawing on social comparison theory, the current study reveals why and under what conditions others’ positive
experience sharing may trigger Millennial consumers’ destination visit intention. Using a mixed experimental design, this
study finds that, among consumers with low trait self-esteem, luxury travel experiences shared by similar others stimulate
focal consumers’ own intentions to visit the same destination. In addition, destination visit intention is triggered by benign
envy toward the experience sharer. Important theoretical insights are provided regarding peer influence mechanism on social
networking sites and travel consumption. Finally, managerial implications for destination marketers are presented with a
focus on how to improve the effectiveness of social media marketing in targeting Millennials.

Keywords
travel experience sharing, social media, social networking sites, social comparison, benign envy, Millennials

Introduction Facebook and Instagram, and nearly one quarter of investi-

Picture this: it is a busy day at work, and you have just fin-
ished an intense business meeting. You sit down to take a
quick break and pull out your smartphone to check your
favorite social media page. At the very top of your feed
stands your colleague’s update about his current vacation. It
is clear from his breathtaking photos that he is very much
enjoying his fancy trip. How would you feel at this moment?
Would you experience a sense of envy? Would such a post
tempt you to have the same destination experience?
Meanwhile, if the same post were published by an acquain-
tance you barely knew, would you feel differently?
As illustrated in this example, travel experience sharing on
social media is widespread. Thanks to the proliferation of
Internet technology, tourists are able to share travel-related
information, personal experiences, and opinions via text com-
ments, photographs, and videos on social media during or after
a trip (Kang and Schuett 2013; Xiang and Gretzel 2010). As a
form of electronic word of mouth (e-WOM), shared travel
experiences on social media play an important role in shaping
tourists’ awareness, expectations, perceptions, attitudes, and
behaviors (Buttle 1998; Narangajavana Kaosiri et al. 2017).
Recent research shows that over 20 percent of American trav-
elers’ destination decisions were influenced by their friends’
and relatives’ posts on social networking sites (SNSs), such as
gated American Millennials were inspired by such posts when
choosing travel destinations (U.S. Travel Association 2016).
Peer-to-peer communication on social media is particularly
influential for Millennial travelers (i.e., those born between
1981 and 1999; Bolton et al. 2013). With an estimated total
population of two billion (Sillman, Peterson, and Rickert
2016), the Millennial generation has risen to prominence as
one of the most important customer segments in the global
tourism industry. Known as the “Net generation” (Tapscott
1997), Millennial consumers are technologically savvy
(Nowak, Thach, and Olsen 2006) and tend to rely on social
media for information searching and decision-making (Bolton
et al. 2013; Price 2016). Multiple news sources have reported
that Millennial consumers are more prone than other groups to
social comparison and are more likely to feel envy when
exposed to peers’ social media posts (e.g., Elejalde-Ruiz 2015;
1
Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple University,
Philadelphia, PA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Hongbo Liu, Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
Temple University, 1810 N. 13th Street, Speakman Hall 326, Philadelphia,
PA 19122, USA.
Email: hongbo.liu@temple.edu
2 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
Khanna 2016). Such reactions substantiate the power of peer
influence on Millennials’ travel consumption behavior.
Yet how travel experience sharing on SNSs influences
consumers’ travel-related decision-making, especially
Millennial consumers’, remains underexplored in tourism
research. To date, one line of study has examined the impact
of social media e-WOM on travelers’ attitudes and decision-
making, with theoretical foci on the elaboration likelihood
model, dual process theory, social influence theory, source
credibility, and attribution theory (Filieri and McLeay 2014;
Filieri 2015, 2016; Filieri, Alguezaui, and McLeay 2015;
Ayeh, Au, and Law 2013a, 2013b). However, much of this
line of work has focused on online review websites such as
TripAdvisor, largely leaving aside peer-to-peer communica-
tion on SNSs such as Facebook. Although considerable
research has revealed the importance of social media market-
ing for Millennials (Bilgihan, Okumus, and Cobanoglu 2013;
Leask, Fyall, and Barron 2014; Parsa and Cobanoglu 2011),
little work has been done to examine how Millennial con-
sumers respond to others’ travel experiences shared on SNSs
such as Facebook. Travel posts on SNSs can easily trigger
social comparisons among peers, as the very nature of such
platforms invites individuals to disclose positive self-infor-
mation, such as having enjoyed a fantastic vacation (Vogel
et al. 2014; Zuo 2014; Lim and Yang 2015). The current
research thus addresses this underexamined peer influence
mechanism behind travel experience sharing on SNSs.
To bridge these gaps in the literature, the present study
seeks to examine the psychological mechanism underlying
how Millennial consumers’ destination visit intention is
influenced by their peers’ travel experience sharing on SNSs
utilizing the social comparison theory. This study attempts to
make the following contributions. First, this study helps to
advance knowledge about e-WOM by testing the influence
of travel experience sharing on SNSs through the lens of
social comparison theory. Second, in contributing to e-WOM
research, the current study reveals the role of benign envy in
stimulating aspirational consumption in the social compari-
son processes. Third, by examining the joint impact of expe-
rience luxuriousness, self–other similarity, and the focal
consumer’s trait self-esteem, the current study demonstrates
the boundary conditions in which the social comparison
mechanism will drive destination visit intention. Last but not
least, the current research provides an in-depth understand-
ing of the peer influence mechanism among Millennials on
social media, which represents one of the most promising
market segments of the global tourism industry.
Literature Review
Social Comparison Theory: Emotional and
Behavioral Consequences
Social comparison theory provides the theoretical foundation
for this study. This theory suggests that people have an intrinsic
need to compare themselves with others for the purpose of self-
evaluation (Festinger 1954). In order to obtain a more accurate
self-evaluation, individuals are more likely to compare them-
selves to others who are similar to themselves in certain aspects,
such as age and gender (Wood 1989). Depending on the com-
parison target’s status, individuals may engage in either upward
social comparison, when the comparison target is believed to
be superior to oneself, or downward social comparison, when
the comparison target is believed to be inferior to oneself
(Wood 1989). Upward social comparison provides information
about one’s relative limitations, which could be both inspiring
and threatening (Wood 1989). Potential negative effects of
upward social comparison include negative affect, like envy
(Buunk et al. 1990), diminished self-evaluation (Aspinwall
and Taylor 1993), decreased subjective well-being (Wheeler
and Miyake 1992), and even depression (Strohmer, Biggs,
and McIntyre 1984). According to the self-evaluation mainte-
nance model, when people feel threatened in upward social
comparison, they are motivated to maintain or improve a
positive sense of self (Tesser 1988). Consequently, upward
social comparison could drive aspirational consumption
behaviors (i.e., consumption driven by aspirations to keep up
with the upper class, such as via status consumption) (Gupta
and Srivastav 2016; Sheth, Sethia, and Srinivas 2011) due to
self-enhancement motivations (Mandel et al. 2017; Sivanathan
and Pettit 2010).
This study focuses on travel experience sharing on SNSs,
which is particularly relevant to upward social comparison.
This is presumably because SNSs provide a platform for
self-presentation where users tend to publicize positive
aspects of themselves to convey superiority among peers
(Vogel et al. 2014; Lim and Yang 2015). Positive travel expe-
riences shared on SNSs often carry symbolic meanings
beyond the trips themselves, such as professional achieve-
ments, wealth and status, impressive traits and skills, and
happiness in one’s personal life (Kerr, Lewis, and Burgess
2012). Such positive symbolic meanings are associated with
superiority and may therefore stimulate upward social com-
parisons, which could inspire a focal consumer’s travel
desire as a result of self-evaluation maintenance. Among the
audience, this comparison process is likely to elicit feelings
of benign envy, a positive emotion that reflects one’s desire
for others’ superior fortune and is triggered by upward social
comparison (Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters 2009).
Benign envy is associated with the behavioral tendency of
self-enhancement, such as aspirational consumption and
working harder to keep up with others (Belk 2011; Van de
Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters 2009). As a result, positive
travel experiences shared on SNSs may trigger focal con-
sumers’ visit intention toward a given destination.
Antecedents to Upward Social Comparison
Although positive experience sharing on SNSs is likely to
induce upward social comparison, the activation of social
Liu et al. 3
comparison requires certain antecedents. According to previ-
ous research, several antecedents have been implicated in the
upward social comparison process: superiority of the com-
parison target, degree of similarity between the focal indi-
vidual and the comparison target, and the focal individual’s
trait self-esteem (Collins 1996; Gibbons and Buunk 1999;
Wood 1989). Superiority is a necessary component of upward
social comparison (Wood 1989). In travel consumption con-
texts, luxury travel experiences imply superiority, as such
consumption signals high social status (Kastanakis and
Balabanis 2014; Yang and Mattila 2017). Thus, upward
social comparison is more likely to be evoked by the sharing
of luxury travel experiences compared with non-luxury ones.
Superiority of a similar other is even more likely to elicit
upward social comparison because a similar other is more
personally relevant than a dissimilar other (Wood 1989).
Moreover, upward social comparison is more likely to influ-
ence individuals with low self-esteem who need social refer-
ences to validate their sense of self (Crocker and Park 2004).
Consequently, the present study focuses on the joint impact
of three factors on focal consumers’ responses to shared
travel experiences on SNSs: (1) the luxuriousness of shared
travel experiences; (2) similarity between the experience
sharer and the focal consumer; and (3) the focal consumer’s
trait self-esteem.
The Luxuriousness of Shared Travel Experiences
Growing affluence worldwide has been accompanied by a
shift toward luxury consumption, from material possessions to
experiential services (Yeoman and McMahon-Beattie 2006).
Nonetheless, there is no concrete definition of luxury goods or
services. Among the various definitions of luxury, scholars
generally agree that it is subjective, dynamic, and relative; that
is, it depends on consumers’ perceptions (Wiedmann, Hennigs,
and Siebels 2009; Tynan, McKechnie, and Chhuon 2010;
Vigneron and Johnson 2004; Brun and Castelli 2013).
Specifically, luxury goods or services are defined based on
perceptions of limited supply, high monetary value, superior
quality, extra pleasure, and symbols of personal and social
identity (Tynan, McKechnie, and Chhuon 2010; Vigneron and
Johnson 2004). It has been widely recognized that luxury con-
sumption is associated with symbolic meanings, including dis-
play of status and wealth, signaling of the self, and indulgence
(Vigneron and Johnson 2004; Wiedmann, Hennigs, and
Siebels 2009). Therefore, publicly displaying luxury con-
sumption elicits a sense of superiority over one’s peers and
thus induces an upward social comparison process. Studies
have reported that exposure to luxury lifestyles portrayed on
TV and social media could lead to upward social comparison
and negative self-evaluation among viewers (Yang 2005; De
Veirman, Cauberghe, and Hudders 2017).
Based on these definitions of luxury goods and services, a
luxury travel experience can be defined as a travel experi-
ence that is not commonly accessible, relatively expensive,
offers superior service quality, provides extra pleasure, and
can be considered a symbol of personal or social identity. As
such, a destination featuring luxury travel experiences and
hospitality services can be considered a luxury destination.
Nia and Zaichkowsky (2000) suggested that psychological
benefits (i.e., hedonic value and symbolic meanings) are the
primary distinction between luxury and non-luxury products.
However, in the context of travel consumption, both luxury
and non-luxury travel can provide such psychological bene-
fits. Therefore, the difference between them mainly exists in
the degree of various aspects defining luxury. In other words,
compared to non-luxury travel, a luxury travel experience
appears to be more exclusive, less affordable, and indicative
of higher status, higher quality, and greater hedonic value;
hence, it signals a stronger sense of superiority and unique-
ness among luxury consumers’ peers. Consequently, publi-
cizing luxury travel experiences and mentioning a luxury
destination (compared to non-luxury travel) on SNSs is more
likely to induce an upward social comparison process, which
further stimulates one’s desire to enjoy a similar travel expe-
rience and to visit the same destination.
Focal Consumers’ Trait Self-Esteem
Self-esteem refers to people’s overall self-evaluation or atti-
tude toward themselves (James 1980). The construct can be
further divided into trait self-esteem, which remains rela-
tively stable over time, and state self-esteem, which varies
across situations (Rubin and Hewstone 1998). Research has
shown that individuals’ tendency to engage in social com-
parison is negatively related to their level of trait self-esteem
(Gibbons and Buunk 1999). Specifically, individuals with
low trait self-esteem are more likely to engage in social com-
parisons than those with high trait self-esteem (Gibbons and
Buunk 1999). There are several key theoretical explanations
for why social comparison is more prevalent among individ-
uals with low self-esteem. First, these people tend to be
uncertain about themselves and therefore derive self-aware-
ness and evaluation from comparing themselves to others
(Gibbons and Buunk 1999). Second, individuals with low
self-esteem tend to enhance their self-evaluation by main-
taining connections with others and seeking acceptance
through social comparisons (Brown, Collins, and Schmidt
1988; Crocker and Park 2004). These two reasons help
explain why low self-esteem consumers are more likely to be
influenced by their peers (Cohen 1959; Nisbett and Gordon
1967). Third, they often have a greater need for protecting
self-esteem than their high trait self-esteem counterparts, so
people with low self-esteem are more motivated to maintain
and improve their self-esteem through social comparisons
(Crocker and Canevello 2012; Tice 1993).
Furthermore, research has indicated that when faced with
ego-deflating upward social comparison, individuals with
low trait self-esteem have a greater need to inflate their self-
evaluation and enhance their self-esteem than their high
4 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
self-esteem counterparts (Brown et al. 1992). To this end,
people with low self-esteem are motivated to engage in aspi-
rational consumption behaviors as a type of compensatory
consumption, which refers to consumption behaviors under-
taken to counteract an undesired psychological condition
resulting from lack of self-esteem or self-fulfillment
(Gronmon 1988). Empirical studies have found that con-
sumers with low self-esteem are more willing to purchase
high-status or luxury goods (Sivanathan and Pettit 2010;
Truong and McColl 2011). Therefore, it is plausible that
when a peer posts a luxury travel experience on SNSs, the
upward social comparison mechanism is more likely to be
activated, and aspirational consumption is more likely to be
inspired, for a low trait self-esteem audience compared to
those with high trait self-esteem.
The Boundary Factor of Self–Other Similarity
Similarity between oneself and the comparison target is an
important boundary factor for upward social comparison.
According to Festinger (1954), individuals prefer to compare
themselves to others who are similar to them in certain
aspects in order to obtain a more accurate self-evaluation.
The similarity between self and other is judged based on
attributes related to the focal ability being compared, such as
gender, age, and social class (Gastorf and Suls 1978; Miller
1982). Self–other similarity signals comparability, and simi-
lar others are considered more personally relevant, such that
a meaningful social comparison can be initiated (Stapel and
Marx 2007; Suls, Martin, and Wheeler 2002; Wood 1989).
Therefore, comparing oneself with similar (vs. dissimilar)
others may have a greater impact on focal individuals, and
upward social comparison with a similar other is more likely
to trigger a threatening effect on one’s self-evaluation (Wood
1989). For example, studies have reported that people feel
more resentful when similar others own something they do
not (Crosby 1976), and individuals’ self-esteem is more
likely to be threatened when they receive help from similar
others (Fisher, Nadler, and Whitcher-Alagna 1982).
Furthermore, literature suggests that self–other similarity
is particularly relevant to the assimilation effect resulting
from upward social comparison, which refers to a process by
which upward social comparison inspires individuals to
obtain the same status or achievements as the comparison
targets (Suls, Martin, and Wheeler 2002). Similarity to a
superior comparison target could lead individuals who initi-
ate the comparison to conclude that they, too, are superior
and are able to achieve the same status (Suls, Martin, and
Wheeler 2002; Collins 1996). Therefore, upward social com-
parison with similar others is more likely to result in aspira-
tional consumption behaviors to identify with the comparison
targets whose superior attributes are perceived as attainable
(Suls, Martin, and Wheeler 2002). On the contrary, the com-
parison target’s superior attributes may be ascribed to per-
ceived differences when comparing oneself with a dissimilar
other, rendering upward social comparison less effective
(Wood 1989). In addition, research suggests that when faced
with ego-deflating upward social comparison, individuals
with low trait self-esteem are more likely than their high self-
esteem counterparts to inflate their self-evaluation through
the assimilation effect when the comparison target is a simi-
lar other (Brown et al. 1992).
In line with the above reasoning, when a similar other
posts a luxury travel experience on SNSs, an upward social
comparison is more likely to be activated and aspirational
consumption (i.e., destination visit intention) is more likely
to be inspired among focal individuals who have lower trait
self-esteem. However, when the focal consumer possesses
high self-esteem and is more immune to the threatening
effects of upward social comparison, the luxuriousness of
shared travel experience will not influence his or her destina-
tion visit intention. On the contrary, if the travel experience
is shared by a dissimilar other, lack of self-relevance will
impede the social comparison process, and the interaction
effect of experience luxuriousness and trait self-esteem on
destination visit intention will be attenuated. Therefore, the
first hypothesis is proposed as:
Hypothesis 1: When a travel experience is shared by a
similar other on SNSs, Millennial consumers with low
self-esteem will exhibit higher levels of visit intention
when the destination mentioned represents a luxury (vs.
non-luxury) travel experience.
Benign Envy: Demonstration of the Upward
Social Comparison Mechanism
As a social emotion, envy captures feelings of inferiority
resulting from upward social comparison (Van de Ven 2016;
Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters 2009), and has been
commonly experienced among social media users (Wallace,
James, and Warkentin 2017; Lim and Yang 2015; Krasnova
et al. 2015). Literature has suggested that envy can be further
differentiated by its corresponding action tendencies: when
associated with the desire to have what others possess, envy
is benign in nature (i.e., benign envy); when accompanied by
the wish for others to lose a comparative advantage, envy is
malicious (i.e., malicious envy) (Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and
Pieters 2009). Compared with the latter, which invokes
extreme emotional experiences such as hostility and resent-
ment, benign envy is more positive and productive in every-
day life. Just as Wood (1989) suggested, upward social
comparison can be both threatening and inspiring, which
corresponds to these two types of envy. Given that upward
social comparison is a necessary condition for benign envy
(Van de Ven 2016; Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters
2009), the antecedents of upward social comparison also
apply to benign envy. Therefore, benign envy may be more
likely to be elicited when the comparison target has superior-
ity in self-relevant domains, is similar to oneself, and when
Liu et al. 5
Focal Consumer’s
Trait Self-esteem
Similarity of Focal Consumer’s
Experience Sharer Benign Envy
Positive Travel Experience
(Luxury vs. Non-luxury)
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 2
Figure 1.  Conceptual framework of this study.
the focal individual has lower self-esteem (Lin and Utz 2015;
Krasnova et al. 2015).
Previous research has shown that benign envy often goes
hand in hand with a positive attitude toward the comparison
target and a desire to mimic the target’s superior qualities,
achievements, or possessions through hard work or aspira-
tional consumption (Van de Ven 2016). For example, Van de
Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters (2011a) found that individuals
who experienced benign envy were willing to pay more for a
desirable product owned by the envied friend. Another study
by Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters (2011b) revealed that
students who experienced benign envy intended to work
harder in the upcoming semester and performed better on
subsequent intelligence and creativity tests. In an organiza-
tional context, Sterling, Van de Ven, and Smith (2016) found
that employees’ benign envy is positively correlated to their
work efforts. In the context of the present study, benign envy
toward the experience sharer is expected to trigger one’s
intention to visit the same destination.
In sum, upward social comparison is a necessary condition
for benign envy, and benign envy may lead to aspirational con-
sumption behaviors. Benign envy can therefore be put forth as
a mediator in the current study to demonstrate the proposed
theoretical process of upward social comparison. Specifically,
benign envy is more likely to be triggered when a luxury travel
experience is shared by a similar other among low self-esteem
focal individuals, while when a luxury travel experience is
shared by a dissimilar other, benign envy is less likely to be
triggered. Further, destination visit intention is driven by the
focal consumer’s experience of benign envy toward the expe-
rience sharer following the upward social comparison.
Therefore, the second hypothesis is proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 2: The impact of luxuriousness of a shared
travel experience on destination visit intention is condi-
tionally mediated by benign envy. Specifically, when a
Focal Consumer’s
Destination Visit Intention
travel experience is shared by a similar other on SNSs,
benign envy mediates the effect of luxuriousness of the
shared travel experience on low self-esteem consumers’
destination visit intention.
The conceptual framework of this study is depicted in
Figure 1. As pictured, this research proposes a three-way
interaction effect among the luxuriousness of shared travel
experience, similarity between the experience sharer and the
focal consumer, and the focal consumer’s trait self-esteem on
his or her destination visit intention. Specifically, the interac-
tion effect of experience luxuriousness and trait self-esteem
on destination visit intention depends on self–other similar-
ity (specified in hypothesis 1). The effect of experience luxu-
riousness on focal consumers’ destination visit intention is
conditionally mediated by focal consumers’ benign envy,
which represents the mechanism of upward social compari-
son (specified in hypothesis 2).
Methods
Design and Stimuli
A 2 (positive travel experience: luxury vs. non-luxury) × 2
(trait self-esteem: high vs. low) × 2 (similarity of experience
sharer: similar other vs. dissimilar other) mixed-design
experiment was conducted. Similarity and travel experience
type were manipulated between subjects, and trait self-
esteem was measured within subjects. Participants were
recruited from U.S. Millennial consumers who were active
social media users, and all were randomly assigned into one
of the four manipulated conditions.
Stimuli were shown to participants through the hypotheti-
cal scenario presented in the opening of this paper. They
were asked to imagine they are busy at work, striving to meet
several deadlines. When checking their social media page in
6 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
between meetings, the participants find that one of their
social media friends recently posted about a vacation accom-
panied by text and pictures. Depending on participants’
experimental group assignments, the social media friend was
either a similar or dissimilar other, and the vacation experi-
ence was at either a luxurious or non-luxurious destination.
A social media travel post was used to manipulate the luxu-
riousness of shared travel experience, which was comprised of
three components: destination names (in the form of location
description), pictures, and texts. First, to select appropriate des-
tinations that represent luxury and non-luxury travel experi-
ences, a pilot test was conducted with 75 U.S. adult consumers.
In it, respondents were asked to list three luxury leisure travel
destinations and three non-luxury leisure travel destinations
within the United States. Results showed that Hawaii and
Florida were listed as the top luxury and non-luxury destina-
tions, respectively. To ensure both destinations were compara-
ble in the present study, Miami, Florida, was chosen because it
is similar in size to Hawaii (6,137 vs. 6,423 mi²). More impor-
tantly, Miami was perceived by study participants as being
similar in tourism resources to Hawaii (M = 4.6; measured on a
7-point Likert-type scale by the item “To what extent do you
think Hawaii and Miami are similar in fulfilling tourists’ vaca-
tion needs?”). Moreover, Miami was considered to be more
affordable than Hawaii (MHawaii = 5.63, MMiami = 5.17, t = 3.64,
p < 0.001; as measured by the item “What is your impression
of Hawaii/Miami?” on a 7-point bipolar scale where 1 = “very
inexpensive” and 7 = “very expensive”). Second, pictures
depicting similar tourism attractions and facilities in the
selected destinations were used to represent luxury and non-
luxury travel experiences. In order to highlight the exclusivity
feature of a luxury travel experience (Yang, Zhang, and Mattila
2016; Yang and Mattila 2014), solitude views were used in the
Hawaii pictures (luxury condition), and a beach with high tour-
ist density was presented in the Miami pictures (non-luxury
condition). Third, textual descriptions matching the pictures
were used to further reinforce the differences between a luxury
and non-luxury travel experience. Words like fabulous, fantas-
tic, and upscale were used in the luxury condition, while words
like nice, good, and delicious were used in the non-luxury con-
dition (see Appendix for the stimuli).
The manipulation of similarity was adapted from Chan and
Sengupta’s (2013) study. The “similar other” SNS friend was
depicted as a colleague who works in the same department and
job role and is of the same gender and a similar age as the
participant. The “dissimilar other” SNS friend was depicted as
an acquaintance met during a trip who is around 50 years old,
of the opposite gender, lives in a distant city, and works in a
completely different profession compared to the participant
(see Appendix for details of the stimuli for similarity).
Measurement
Participants’ trait self-esteem was measured using a 10-item
scale adopted from Rosenberg (1965). Sample items include
“On the whole, I am satisfied with myself” and “I feel that
I have a number of good qualities” (Cronbach’s α = 0.94).
Participants’ intention to visit the destination was measured
by a three-item scale adapted from Hsu and Crotts (2006):
“Viewing A’s post makes me intend to visit the destination
in the near future”; “Viewing A’s post makes me have the
desire to visit the destination in the near future”; and “I
would take this destination into consideration when plan-
ning for my future holidays” (Cronbach’s α = 0.92).
Participants’ benign envy was measured using a four-item
scale adapted from Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters
(2009). Because malicious envy and benign envy are dif-
ferentiated by activated thoughts or action tendencies,
existing studies tend to use behavioral expressions as mea-
surement (Lange and Crusius 2015; Van de Ven, Zeelenberg,
and Pieters 2009). For example, previous research has mea-
sured benign envy through items such as “I tried harder to
achieve my goals” and “I complimented the other for his or
her success” (Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters 2009).
Similarly, this study adapted measurement items from pre-
vious research to measure benign envy. Sample items
include “I will work hard to get similar travel opportunities
in the future” and “I would like to compliment (via ‘thumbs-
up like’ or comment) A’s post” (Cronbach’s α = 0.79). All
constructs were measured on a 7-point Likert scale.
Participants
The study initially recruited a total of 377 U.S.-based
Millennial adult consumers on Amazon’s Mechanical
Turk (MTurk), an online data collection platform.
Millennial adult consumers were defined as those born
between 1981 and 1999 (i.e., 18–36 years old) (Bolton
et al. 2013). In order to be eligible for this study, partici-
pants need to satisfy four criteria: (1) born between 1981
and 1999; (2) currently employed; (3) use social media on
a regular basis; and (4) do not reside in Hawaii or Florida
(as these were the travel destinations displayed in the
stimuli). In addition, three questions were used to assess
participants’ attention and information recall, and 74
responses were omitted because of failure to correctly
answer the attention check questions. Consequently, the
final sample size was 303.
In terms of participant demographics, all participants
were between 18 and 36 years old, and nearly half of the
respondents were between 25 and 30 years old (46%).
Regarding gender, there were slightly more male respon-
dents (54%) than female (46%). Most respondents earned
an annual household income between $50,000 and $74,999
(31%), and 62% held a bachelor’s degree or higher.
Overall, this study’s sample is representative of U.S.
Millennial consumers, who are becoming more affluent
and are generally well educated according to recent market
reports on their characteristics (Nielsen 2015; Futurecast
2015).
Liu et al. 7
Results
Manipulation and Realism Checks
The first manipulation check question asked participants to
state how luxurious they considered the destination men-
tioned in the social media travel post to be. Participants
assigned to the luxury destination condition rated the travel
experience as significantly more luxurious than those
assigned to the non-luxury destination condition (MLuxury =
6.01, MNon-luxury = 5.19; t(301) = 6.44, p < 0.001). The second
manipulation check question asked about participants’ per-
ceived similarity to the social media friend in the scenario.
Results indicated that participants assigned to the “similar
other” group perceived the hypothetical social media friend
to be significantly more similar compared to those in the
“dissimilar other” condition (MSimilar = 5.50, MDissimilar = 3.44;
t(301) = 11.27, p < 0.001). In addition, the scenario’s realism
was evaluated using two questions on a 7-point Likert-type
scale: “The situation described in the scenario was very real-
istic” and “How easy was it for you to understand what hap-
pened in the scenario?” The hypothetical scenario was found
to be realistic (M = 5.82) and easy to understand (M = 6.45).
Table 1.  Impact of Luxuriousness, Similarity, and Trait Self-Esteem on Participants’ Visit Intention.a
Coefficient SE
Luxury 0.56 1.03
Esteem 0.06 0.11
Similar −2.66 0.91
Luxury × Esteem 0.05 0.18
Luxury × Similar 2.87 1.32
Esteem × Similar 0.46 0.16
Luxury × Esteem × Similar −0.50 0.23
a. Model summary: R2 = 0.16; F(7,295) = 8.11.
To better understand the significant three-way interaction
effect, two simple slope tests were conducted for the similar
other condition and dissimilar other condition, respectively.
These results are presented in Figure 2. As shown in Figure
2a, when the social media friend was a similar other, there
was a significant interaction effect between trait self-esteem
and luxuriousness on destination visit intention (b = −0.45, t
= −3.05, p = 0.003). Specifically, when participants had low
trait self-esteem (–1 SD), they tended to have a significantly
higher visit intention to the luxury destination versus the non-
luxury destination (MLuxury = 5.45, MNon-luxury = 3.85, b = 1.63,
p < 0.001). For participants with a high level of trait self-
esteem (+1 SD), there was no significant luxury-based differ-
ence in destination visit intention (MLuxury = 5.62,
MNon-luxury = 5.20, b = 0.43, p = 0.11). However, when the
social media friend was a dissimilar other (as shown in Figure
2b), no significant self-esteem by luxuriousness interaction
effect was found in predicting destination visit intention.
Results of Moderation Test
Hypothesis 1 states that there is a three-way interaction
effect among travel experience luxuriousness, partici-
pants’ trait self-esteem, and self–other similarity on desti-
nation visit intention. Model 3 in Hayes’s (2013)
PROCESS procedure, which is suitable for analyzing
moderation effects among dichotomous and continuous
variables (Spiller et al. 2013), was used to test the first
hypothesis. PROCESS is an add-on package for SPSS that
allows for statistical mediation, moderation, and condi-
tional process analysis based on ordinary least squares or
logistic regression (Hayes 2016).
Results suggested a significant main effect for similarity
on participants’ visit intention (b = −2.66, p < 0.01). In addi-
tion, a significant luxuriousness by similarity interaction
effect and self-esteem by similarity interaction effect was
found on participants’ visit intention (bLxS = 2.87, p = 0.03;
bExS = 0.46, p = 0.01). Consistent with hypothesis 1, a signifi-
cant three-way interaction effect was found among the three
predictors on destination visit intention at a 95% significance
level ( b= −0.5, p = 0.04) (see Table 1 for detailed regression
results).
t p Value 95% CI
0.55 0.58 −1.46 2.58
0.51 0.61 −0.17 0.28
−2.89 0.00 −4.47 −0.85
0.27 0.78 −0.31 0.41
2.17 0.03 0.27 5.47
2.80 0.01 0.14 0.78
−2.11 0.04 −0.97 −0.03
Instead, only a significant main effect of luxuriousness was
found. These results lend support to hypothesis 1.
Results of Moderated Mediation Test
Hypothesis 2 predicts that the effect of travel experience luxuri-
ousness on destination visit intention is conditionally mediated
by benign envy. A moderated mediation analysis was conducted
to test hypothesis 2 in line with Preacher, Rucker, and Hayes’s
(2007) model. Model 12 in Hayes’s (2013) PROCESS proce-
dure was used to conduct the moderated mediation analysis,
with luxuriousness as the independent variable, trait self-esteem
and similarity as moderators, benign envy as a mediator, and
destination visit intention as the outcome variable. A bias-cor-
rected bootstrapping technique based on 10,000 bootstrap sam-
ples was used to test the conditional indirect effect.
As shown in Figure 3, the conditional indirect effect of
luxuriousness on participants’ intention to visit the
8 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)

a. Similar Other b. Dissimilar Other

6 6
5.62
5.45 5.42 5.70
5.5 5.5
5.20
5 4.8
Visit Intention
5

Visit Intention
4.65
4.5 4.5
3.85
4 4

3.5 3.5

3 3
Low (-1 SD) High (+1 SD) Low (-1 SD) High (+1 SD)
Self-esteem Self-esteem

Luxury Non-luxury Luxury Non-luxury

Figure 2.  Simple slope tests for visit intention.

Focal consumers with low self-esteem (-1SD)

Similar experience sharer

Focal Consumer’s
a = 0.80 Benign Envy b = 0.87
(p < 0.05) (p < 0.01)

Positive Experience
Focal Consumer’s
Sharing
c = 0.91 Destination Visit Intention
(Luxury vs. Non-luxury)
(p < 0.01)

Figure 3.  Mediation path.

Note: For the “focal consumers with low self-esteem” and “similar experience sharer” condition.

destination due to benign envy was significant only when the
luxury travel experience was shared by a similar other among
participants with low self-esteem (b = 0.69, 95% boot CI:
0.32, 1.08). The effect was nonsignificant for participants
with high self-esteem and when the SNS friend was a dis-
similar other. This result supports the hypothesized condi-
tional indirect effect via benign envy, which further confirms
the theoretical prediction of social comparison as an underly-
ing mechanism. Hence, hypothesis 2 is supported.
Conclusions and Discussion
Conclusions
The goal of this study was to examine the impact of positive
travel experience sharing on SNSs on Millennial consumers’
destination visit intention from a social comparison perspective.
Specifically, the authors tested the impact of three factors,
namely, luxuriousness of travel experience, similarity between
the experience sharer and the focal consumer, and the focal con-
sumer’s trait self-esteem, on the focal individual’s visit intention
to the destination mentioned in the social media post. Benign
envy was incorporated as a mediator representing the social
comparison mechanism. The proposed research model was
tested among Millennial consumers using a mixed experimental
design approach. Key findings and implications are discussed
below.
First, a significant three-way interaction effect was found
among the three antecedents of upward social comparison on
destination visit intention. Specifically, when the positive
travel experience was shared by a social media friend who
was perceived as being similar to oneself, participants with
lower trait self-esteem tended to show a higher visit intention
Liu et al. 9
to the destination offering a luxury travel experience versus
a non-luxury travel experience. This indicates that an upward
social comparison was elicited among a low self-esteem
audience when a luxury travel experience was shared by a
similar other, a result consistent with previous research that
found similarity to be an important condition of social com-
parison (Collins 1996). Additionally, individuals with low
self-esteem are indeed more likely than others to engage in
social comparison (Gibbons and Buunk 1999) and more sus-
ceptible to peer influence (Cohen 1959; Nisbett and Gordon
1967).
This study’s results regarding aspirational consumption
were consistent with the assimilation effect found in previ-
ous studies (Brown et al. 1992; Häfner 2004; Mussweiler,
Rüter, and Epstude 2004). The assimilation effect occurs
when upward social comparison leads to the motivation to
improve oneself, inspired by the belief that the focal con-
sumer can obtain the same status or achievements as the
comparison target (Suls, Martin, and Wheeler 2002).
Aspirational consumption is one way to achieve that end.
However, this behavioral tendency occurs only when the
comparison target is a similar other such that the focal indi-
vidual believes he or she has the ability to acquire the same
status or achievements. This provides further empirical sup-
port for the notion that social comparison with similar others
may lead to affiliation and pressure for uniformity in groups,
reflecting the social implications of social comparison in
shaping the interpersonal relations (Wood 1989). In addition,
aspirational behavioral tendencies are more likely to occur
when the focal individual has low trait self-esteem, as he or
she has a greater need to enhance self-esteem compared to
individuals with higher self-esteem (Brown et al. 1992). This
finding echoes previous literature in that individuals with
low trait self-esteem are more likely than others to engage in
status consumption or luxury consumption (Sivanathan and
Pettit 2010; Truong and McColl 2011).
Second, a significant conditional indirect effect was found
between luxuriousness of shared travel experience and desti-
nation visit intention (b = 0.69) through the mediation of
benign envy when the experience sharer is a similar other
and when participants have low trait self-esteem. The signifi-
cant mediating effect of benign envy reinforces the existence
of upward social comparison as an underlying mechanism of
the impact of positive travel experience sharing, as upward
social comparison is a necessary condition for eliciting
benign envy. This result substantiates the positive impact of
benign envy on consumption (Belk 2011) and corroborates
Van de Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters’s (2011a) finding that
benign envy compels consumers to pay a premium for
desired products owned by the envied target. Our finding is
also consistent with that of Crusius and Mussweiler (2012),
who found that benign envy evoked by upward social com-
parison leads to an impulsive tendency to strive for others’
superior goods. The economic function of benign envy in
stimulating consumption can be attributed to the psychology
of compensation (Karanika and Hogg 2016). That is, con-
sumption may be used as a coping strategy (i.e., compensa-
tory consumption) when self-esteem is threatened as a result
of upward social comparison.
Theoretical Implications
Theoretically, this study makes several important contribu-
tions to the literature.
First, this study provides an alternative explanation for
the impact of e-WOM on social media. Previous studies on
social media e-WOM have been predominantly driven by
theories including the elaboration likelihood model (Filieri
and McLeay 2014; P. Gupta and Harris 2010), dual process
theory (Filieri 2015), social influence theory (Park and Lee
2009; Huang and Chen 2006), source credibility theory
(Ayeh, Au, and Law 2013a; Filieri 2016), and attribution
theory (Lee and Youn 2009). Meanwhile, social comparison
theory has drawn comparatively less attention. This study
suggests that social comparison theory is especially suitable
for studying e-WOM on SNSs, where upward social com-
parisons occur frequently among social media users because
these sites provide a platform for self-presentation featuring
superiority (Vogel et al. 2014). This theory enhances under-
standing, from a new perspective, of how personal travel
experience sharing and peer influence on SNSs may affect
focal consumers’ aspirational consumption behaviors.
Second, this study sheds light on how e-WOM valence
influences focal consumers’ attitudes and behaviors. Previous
studies have extensively examined the impact of e-WOM
valence in online review contexts (Purnawirawan et al.
2015). However, mixed findings have been reported. Some
studies found that review valence has a positive impact on
recommendation intention and purchase intention, as posi-
tive reviews help shape positive attitudes toward the reviewed
object (Sparks and Browning 2011; Phillips et al. 2017;
Purnawirawan et al. 2015), whereas other studies indicated
that positive reviews may have a negative impact on review
credibility and helpfulness, and hence a negative impact on
e-WOM adoption (Lee and Koo 2012; Papathanassis and
Knolle 2011; Filieri 2016). These findings are not surprising
as the influence of WOM valence is “rather complex, and
may depend on specific conditions” (Pan and Zhang 2011, p.
599). The present study introduces a new perspective on
studying the complex influence of e-WOM valence through
the lens of social comparison theory. In this study, focus was
put on the role of positive experience sharing on SNSs,
which triggers upward social comparison. However, depend-
ing on its valence, e-WOM on social media could trigger
either upward or downward social comparisons, and the
social comparison theory would presumably help explain
how consumers would react to the upward or downward
comparison stimuli.
Third, this study contributes to the destination visit inten-
tion literature by exploring the impact of travel experience
10 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
sharing on SNSs. Although it has been widely acknowledged
that travelers today rely increasingly on user-generated con-
tent for travel information searching and travel planning
(Ayeh, Au, and Law 2013b; Xiang and Gretzel 2010), the
ways in which user-generated content on SNSs could stimu-
late focal consumers’ destination visit intention have been
under-researched. The few relevant studies have focused
either on the role of destination image constructed by SNSs
(Lim, Chung, and Weaver 2012) or the impact of various
characteristics of user-generated content on SNSs (Chen,
Shang, and Li 2014). The present study examines the role of
peer influence on destination visit intention by utilizing a
new theoretical perspective, social comparison theory, to
study the impact of user-generated content on SNSs.
Fourth, three factors were identified related to the effec-
tiveness of e-WOM on SNSs based on the social comparison
mechanism. The three factors are luxuriousness of the shared
experience, similarity between the experience sharer and the
focal consumer, and the focal consumer’s trait self-esteem.
Specifically, aspirational consumption behavior (i.e., desire
to visit the destination mentioned in others’ travel post) was
found to be most likely to occur among a low self-esteem
audience when the shared experience was luxurious and
when the experience sharer was a similar other. Extant litera-
ture has suggested similarity as an important condition of
upward social comparison and the upward assimilation effect
(e.g., Collins 1996; Suls, Martin, and Wheeler 2002),
whereas the role of trait self-esteem remains unclear. The
current study contributes to the understanding and clarifica-
tion of trait self-esteem in upward social comparison. In par-
ticular, this study provides empirical evidence for the
argument that people with low self-esteem are more likely
than others not only to engage in social comparison, but also
to be inspired to improve themselves via upward social com-
parison (Brown et al. 1992; Gibbons and Buunk 1999).
Last but not least, this study is one of the first to investi-
gate the role of benign envy in a tourism consumption con-
text. Although benign envy may be a common emotion to
experience during travel or when exposed to others’ travel
experiences, the role of envy on tourists’ experiences and
decision-making has rarely been studied. In a broader aca-
demic research context, this study is also one of the first to
focus specifically on the behavioral impact of benign envy.
Most previous studies addressed the malicious and negative
aspects of envy, while its positive and benign aspects have
only recently begun to warrant more attention (e.g., Van de
Ven, Zeelenberg, and Pieters 2009, 2011a, 2011b). This
study thus adds to literature on the role of benign envy in
driving compensatory consumption. Meanwhile, the bound-
ary conditions eliciting benign envy were identified by
establishing relationships among the three antecedents,
benign envy, and the outcome variable. The role of superi-
ority and similarity in evoking benign envy has been well
established in previous studies (Van de Ven, Zeelenberg,
and Pieters 2011b), but this study makes a particular contri-
bution to understanding benign envy in terms of the focal
individual’s trait self-esteem. More specifically, it was
found that benign envy is more likely to be induced among
people with low self-esteem.
Practical Implications
This study yields an in-depth understanding of one of the
most promising market segments of the global tourism
industry: Millennials. Hence, the findings of this study pro-
vide important practical implications related to social media
marketing for the industry as well as destinations targeting
Millennials.
First, the study’s findings may be particularly relevant
for the Millennial segment, as social media is one of the
most effective ways to reach Millennial consumers
(Tourism Northern Ireland Board 2013). Raised in a media-
saturated era, Millennials are more likely than previous
generations to rely on peers’ WOM rather than commercial
advertisements when making purchase decisions (Peterson
2004). Peer influence on social media has been recognized
as the most powerful tool for tourism marketers to utilize to
reach out to this particular consumer segment (Tourism
Northern Ireland Board 2013). Considering the unique
characteristics of Millennials—they prefer experiences
over material possessions (Morgan 2015) and value authen-
ticity, creativity, and uniqueness (Nielsen 2014)—tourism
marketers could highlight authentic, creative, and unique
experiences in social media marketing activities to provoke
benign envy and aspirational consumption among
Millennial consumers. For instance, in 2016 the Los
Angeles Tourism Bureau launched a new tourism market-
ing campaign, “Get Lost in LA,” specifically targeting
Millennial travelers. Unlike previous campaigns geared
toward older generations, the new campaign focused on
local neighborhood experiences, such as local food, natural
street views, and hidden gems, over iconic LA attractions
(Skift 2016). To further connect with Millennials, two life-
style influencers on Instagram (a popular photo-sharing
social media platform) were invited to appear in the cam-
paign video, and social media engagement was encouraged
across major social media sites including Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, and Pinterest (Hughes 2016).
Second, this study highlights the influence of peer-to-peer
communication on SNSs for Millennial consumers. Hence, des-
tination marketing organizations should not only maintain a
social media presence but also enhance social media engage-
ment by encouraging travelers to share their experiences. This is
especially true for luxurious destinations, for which the travel
experiences could evoke benign envy and inspire others’ destina-
tion visit intention. One example would be Hawaii. In 2015, the
Hawaii Visitors and Convention Bureau ran a marketing cam-
paign on Instagram in which it encouraged residents and visitors
to share their Hawaii-based travel experiences with friends and
relatives by posting travel images with the hashtag “#letHawaii-
Happen.” This successful campaign generated nearly 100,000
Instagram posts in a year, and more than two-thirds of people
Liu et al. 11
who saw this campaign indicated a willingness to visit Hawaii
over the next two years (Mediakix 2016).
Third, this study reveals conditional requirements for
benign envy and aspirational consumption behaviors: luxuri-
ousness of shared travel experience, similarity between the
focal consumer and experience sharer, and focal consumers’
self-esteem. Specifically, when an experience sharer is per-
ceived to be similar to oneself, peers’ sharing of luxury des-
tination experiences on SNSs will likely inspire destination
visit intention among people with low self-esteem. As such,
destination marketing practitioners should encourage travel-
ers to engage in targeted rather than generic experience shar-
ing, that is, sharing travel experiences with friends who are
similar to oneself. One strategy would be to integrate cus-
tomer review sites and SNSs. A number of online review
sites, such as TripAdvisor and Yelp, have been practicing
channel integration: they now provide users the option to
connect their review pages with their Facebook accounts
(Holliday 2009; Dailymail 2012). In this way, consumers can
see their SNS friends’ travel experience sharing and related
comments, and benign envy and aspirational consumption
will be further inspired.
In addition, this study’s findings are more applicable to a
particular group of travelers: those with low self-esteem. A
recent global investigation by Dove found that about half the
women surveyed had low self-esteem (Dove 2016), indicat-
ing that the low self-esteem segment is a potentially large yet
underexplored market. Consumers’ self-esteem should be
taken into consideration with regard to social media market-
ing activities given that consumers with low self-esteem are
more likely to be influenced by peers on SNSs and are more
likely to engage in status or luxury travel consumption, as
suggested by the results of this and previous studies
(Sivanathan and Pettit 2010; Truong and McColl 2011).
Moreover, people with low self-esteem generally constitute
the social media lurker group, referring to those who read
and observe but are reluctant to generate content on social
media (Liu and Baumeister 2016; Williams, Heiser, and
Chinn 2012). Traditionally, given their lack of participation
in content generation, lurkers are one of the most overlooked
groups on social media. Yet the present research suggests
that this group may be particularly prone to peer influences
on social media and thus deserves more attention from mar-
keting practitioners.
Limitations and Future Research
This study is not without limitations. First, focusing on
Millennial participants who were active social media users and
currently employed may limit the generalizability of the find-
ings; however, these parameters did provide the researchers
more control over the experimental design, thus minimizing the
influence of confounding factors. It remains unclear whether the
study’s findings are applicable to other populations, and future
studies should evaluate a larger sample with diverse demo-
graphics. It would be particularly helpful to compare the impact
of upward social comparison among different generational
cohorts. Second, respondents’ idiosyncratic characteristics, such
as personal preferences for beach destinations or busy/solitude
destination experiences, may have affected the study results.
Although these idiosyncratic effects can be minimized via ran-
domization procedures in experimental research (Kirk 1982),
future research may aim to measure and control for these idio-
syncrasies. Third, malicious and benign envy are two sides of
the same coin, but this study addressed only factors eliciting the
latter. Future research could examine what factors may lead to
the two different action tendencies of envy in a tourism con-
sumption context.
In addition, this study calls for researchers’ attention to
the concept of luxury destinations. Luxury tourism consump-
tion represents an important segment in the tourism industry,
while previous research on luxury travel has focused mainly
on luxury hospitality venues such as luxury hotels or resorts
(Cordato 2008; Yang and Mattila 2017). The concept of lux-
ury destinations may provide a more holistic understanding
of the luxury travel experience, which examines tourists’
overall perceptions about a destination including but not lim-
ited to hospitality services. Last but not least, comparison
targets’ socioeconomic status plays a critical role in social
comparison. Research suggests that individuals are more
likely to follow a socially superior group’s consumption
behavior in order to improve their own social standing.
Relatedly, individuals are less likely to follow a socially infe-
rior group’s consumption behavior in an effort to dissociate
with the undesired group (Yang and Mattila 2014; Yang,
Zhang, and Mattila 2016). Hence, experience sharers’ socio-
economic status could make a difference in the audience’s
destination visit intention, and it would be potentially mean-
ingful to incorporate this factor into future research on travel
experience sharing on SNSs.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from
the Young Scholars Interdisciplinary Forum, Fox School of
Business at Temple University. In addition, the authors would like
to express their sincere gratitude for the editor and anonymous
reviewers’ constructive feedback and suggestions to help improve
the manuscript.
The third author would also like to acknowledge support from
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant #71471011).
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This
study was supported by the 12th Young Scholars Interdisciplinary
Forum, Fox School of Business, Temple University, and the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant #71471011).
12 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
Supplemental Material
Supplementary material for this article is available online.
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Author Biographies
Hongbo Liu is a PhD candidate at the Department of Tourism and
Hospitality Management and Fox School of Business, Temple
University. Her research focuses on social media marketing and
cross-cultural cosnumer behavior in tourism and hospitality.
Laurie Wu, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of
Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple University. Her
research focuses on service marketing and consumer behavior.
Xiang (Robert) Li, PhD, is a professor at the Department of
Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple University. His
research focuses on destination marketing and tourist behavior.