Research Methodology

Conceptualizing a research design

Dr.Youssreya M. Ibrahim
Professor of Critical Care Nursing
 The eight step model for carrying out research
Deciding what Planning a Conducting a
to research research study research study

2. Conceptualizing a
research design
3. Constructing an 6. Collecting data
instrument for 7. Processing and
1. Formulating a
data collection displaying data
research problem 8. Writing a research
4. Selecting a sample
5. Writing a research report
proposal
1. Conceptualizing a research design
2. Constructing an instrument for data collection
3. Selecting a sample
4. Writing a research proposal
 Define research design
 Explain the function of research design
 Determined the methods for eliminating
extraneous variables
 Differentiate between quantitative and
qualitative design.
 Identify types of study design in quantitative
research
 Research design :
 Definition of a research design
 Important functions of research design
 Methods for eliminating extraneous variables

 Selecting a study design

 Differences between quantitative and qualitative
design.
 Types of study design in quantitative research
► Kerlinger (1986)
A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems.

► Thyer (1993)
A traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed
plan for how a research study is to be completed-
operationalzing variables so they can be measured,
selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting data
to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses, and
analyzing the results.
► Jahoda (1962.)
A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.
 A research design is procedural plan that is adopted
by the research to answer questions validity,
objectively, accuracy, and economically

► The best design depend on your question

► Every design has its positive and negative sides.

►1. Conceptualize an operational plan to
undertake the various procedure and tasks
required to complete your study

►2. Ensure that these procedures are adequate to

obtain valid , objective and accurate answers
to the research questions
►1. Conceptualize an operational plan to
undertake the various procedure and tasks
required to complete your study

Related to the first function the most important

requirements of a research design is to specify
everything clearly so a reader will understand what
procedures to follow and how to follow them
►2. Ensure that these procedures are adequate to
obtain valid , objective and accurate answers
to the research questions

Related to second function of the research design –

it is important that you select a study design that
helps you to isolate, eliminate or quantify the
effects of different sets of variable influencing the
independent variable.
 Type of Extent of
counseling service Study population Marital problems
(Independent variable) (Dependent variable)

Extraneous variables
• self-realization
• changes in economic condition
• changes in employment status
• birth of a child
• pressure from friends and relatives
• involvement in another relationship
etc.
 All other factors that affect the relationship between
marital problems and counselling are called
extraneous variables.

 Extraneous variables operate in every study and

cannot be eliminated. However, they can be
controlled to some extent.
 It is possible to find out the impact attributable to
extraneous variables. This is done with the introduction
of a control group in the study design. The sole function
of a control group is to quantify the impact of extraneous
variables on the dependent variable(s).

 Changes in the dependent variable, because of the

respondent’s state of mood or ambiguity in the research
instrument, are called random variables or chance
variables. In most cases the net effect of chance variables
  In any causal relationship, changes in the dependent
variable may be attributed to three types of variable:

Change because +
Change in the Change because - Change
= of the -
dependent of extraneous + because of
independent
variable variable chance variable
variable
 If two groups are comparable, extraneous variables
will affect the dependent variable will be similar in
both groups.
The following two methods ensure that the control
and experimental groups are comparable with one
another:
(a) Randomization: Ensure that the two groups are
comparable with respect to the variable( s)
(b) Matching: Another Way of ensuring that two groups are
comparable so that the effect of extraneous variable will be the same in both
groups.
 Sometimes it is possible to eliminate the extraneous variable or
to build it into the study design. This is usually done when there
is strong evidence that the extraneous variable has a high
correlation with the dependent variable, or when you want
to isolate the impact of the extraneous variable.

There are two methods used to achieve this:

(a) Build the affecting variable into the design of the study
you can study the impact of the extraneous variables separately
and interactively with the independent variable.
 (b) Eliminate the variable
In such studies it is appropriate to eliminate
variable
Quantitative design are:
• specific,
• well structured,
• have been tested for their validity and reliability
• can be explicitly define and recognized.

Qualitative design are:

• Less specific and precise
• structure not depth
 Classification base
Types of study design

Number of contacts Reference period Nature of the

investigation

Three or

Study design
One Two Retrospective Experimental*
more

Cross-sectional Longitudinal Prospective Non-experimental

studies studies

Retrospective-
Semi-experimental
Before and prospective
after studies
Classifications of various design from
three different perspectives :

 The number of contacts

 The reference period
 The nature of investigation
Classified into three groups:

 Cross sectional studies

 Before –and- after studies
 Longitudinal studies
 Thisdesign is best suited to studies aimed at finding
out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross-section
of the population.

 Theyare useful in obtaining an overall ‘picture’ as it

stands at the time of the study.

 A cross-sectional
study is extremely simple in design.
You decide what you want to find out about,
 Example :

 The attitude of the study population

 The reasons for homelessness among young people
 The attitude of the community towards equity issues
 The extent of unemployment in a city
 Consumer satisfaction with a product
 The health needs of a community
 It can measure change in a situation, phenomenon,
issue, problem or attitude.

 It is the most appropriate design for measuring the

impact or effectiveness of a programmed.

 The change is measured by comparing the difference

in the phenomenon or variable(s) before and after the
intervention
 Study Program/intervention Study
population population

Time

Before/pre observation
After/post observation
(data collection)
(data collection)
Actual or recall
 The advantages of before-and-after design

• Could measure change in situation, phenomenon,

issue, problem.

• Could measure the impact or effectiveness of a

program.
 The disadvantages of before-and-after design
• more expensive and more difficult to implement.
• may result attrition in study population.
• Could not ascertain whether independent or
extraneous variables are responsible for producing
change in the dependent variable.
• changes in study population may be occurred
because it is maturing.
• Sometimes instrument itself educates the
respondents.
• Cause a regression effect.
 Study Study Study Study
population population population population

t t t t
= Data collection t = Interval between data collection
►To determine the pattern of change in relation to
time. Also to collect factual information on a
continuing basic.
 Refer to the time frame of study in exploring a problem.

categories as :
 Retrospective
investigate problem/phenomena has happened in the
past.
 Prospective
refer to likely prevalence of problem/phenomena in
future.
 Retrospective-prospective.
focus on past trend in a phenomena and study in
future.
 Experimental
 Non Experimental
 Quasi or Semi Experimental.
 Experimental studies

Treatment/intervention/ To explore
programe

Study
Outcome/impact/
population
Change

To explore Effect

Non- Experimental studies

 Experimental design have categories as:
 1. The after-only design
 2. The before-and-after design
 3. The control design
 4. The double control design
 5. The comparative design
 6. The matched control experimental design
 7. The placebo design
 In this design, information on baseline (pre-test or
before observation) is usually ‘constructed’ on the
basis of respondents’ recall of the situation before the
intervention, or from information available in
existing records
 The change in the dependent variable is measured by
the difference between the ‘before’ (baseline) and
‘after’ data sets.
 Technically, this is a very faulty design for
measuring the impact of an intervention as there are
no proper baseline data to compare the after
observation with.
 The before-and-after design overcomes the problem
of retrospectively constructing the ‘before’
observation by establishing it before the intervention
is introduced to the study population

 Then, when the programme has been completely

implemented or is assumed to have had its effect on
the population, the ‘after’ observation is carried out to
ascertain the impact attributable to the intervention.
 The researcher selects two population groups instead
of one: a control group and an experimental group
 Experimental group either receives or is exposed
the intervention, whereas the control group is not.
 Firstly, the ‘before’ observations are made on both
groups at the same time.
 Any difference in the ‘before’ and ‘after’
observations between the groups regarding the
dependent variable(s) is attributed to the intervention.
 In double-control studies, you have two control
groups instead of one experimental group.

 To quantify, the reactive effect of an instrument, you

exclude one of the control groups from the ‘before’
observation .
 To compare the effectiveness of different treatment
modalities and in such situations a comparative
design is appropriate.

 The study population is divided into the same

number of groups as the number of treatments to be
tested.
 The two groups are formed, you as a researcher
decide through randomization or otherwise which
group is to be considered control, and which
experimental.

 Matching increases in difficulty when carried out on

more than one variable.

 Matching on variables that are hard to measure, such

as attitude or opinion, is extremely difficult.
 A patient’s belief that s/he is receiving treatment can
play an important role in his/her recovery from an
illness even if treatment is ineffective.
 This psychological effect is known as the placebo
effect.
 A placebo design attempts to determine the extent of
this effect.
 The cross-over comparative experimental
design
 The replicated cross-sectional design
 Trend studies
 Cohort studies
 Panel studies
 Blind studies
 Double-blind studies
Thank you