Hardware

This is the real physical machine that makes up the computer configuration. It is the
physical component of the computer that one can feel and touch. It also comprises the
electronics components of the computer system. Hardware is the various physical
components that comprise a computer system, as opposed to the non-tangible software
elements. Most of these physical components are physically separated from the peripheral
to the main circuitry that does the arithmetical and logical processing but they are the
most familiar bits of a computer.

THE ORGANOGRAM OF A SYSTEM.

Central Processing Unit

Arithmetic And Logic Unit

Input Control Unit

Device

Output
Program & Data Memory Device

Diskette Drive CD Drive

2.1 COMPUTER DEVICES

A computer consists of several interconnected devices or components. They are five
basic components, namely, central processing unit, primary storage, secondary storage,
input devices, and output devices. This physical equipment that makes up a computer is
called hardware.

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Secondary storage, input and output devices are often called peripheral equipment. The
CPU and primary storage contain electronic circuits that store and process data or
program instruction. The circuits are formed from place of silicon which is non-metal
element. A piece of silicon containing electronic circuits is called an integrated circuit or
a chip. The computer chips for the
CPU is called processor chips. In microcomputer, the entire CPU contains only one-
processor chips and is called microprocessor. In mini computer, mainframe computer or
super computer, the CPU may require several processor chips.
Primary storage is composed of many chips for example; a microcomputer may have
more than sixteen chips. Each chip is called memory chip and is capable of storing a
certain amount of data.
The amount of data depends on different types of chips. All the memory chips are made
up primary storage (RAM). In microcomputers, the microprocessor and the memory
chips are mounted on one board, called the Motherboard or main- board. The chips in the
CPU and primary storage are connected by a set of wires called a bus. Data is sent back
and forth between components over the bus.
There are some other chips that are needed to control input/output devices and secondary
storage. Some of these chips are built-in Main-board or are in a separate board. They are
called add-on-boards or cards, and are plugged into sockets on the main-board. These
sockets which are called expansion slots are connected to the other components by the
bus. The combination of all these chips on or outside motherboard form computer
devices. They are enclosed in a computer casing. Other devices such as output devices
(Monitor, Printer), Input device (keyboard, Mouse), speakers are plugged into computer
devices to form personal computer system.
Note, in Microcomputer or stand-alone computer CPU may be regarded as
microprocessor.
Primary storage may be regarded as Random Access Memory.
Secondary Storage may be regarded as Hard disk, Floppy disk or Compact disk.

2.2 CPU – CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The Central Processing Unit s also called Processor. This is the brain or heart of the
computer equipment. The CPU carries out the calculations for the program and controls
the other components of the system. It does the function by organizing circuits into two
main units, called Arithmetic logic unit and control unit.
The ALU contains circuits that do arithmetic and perform logical operations. The control
unit contains circuits that analyzed and execute instructions.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit

The ALU contains arithmetic circuits that can subtract multiply and divide two numbers.
More complex operations such as finding the square root of a number are done by
sequence of their basic operations. The ALU has logic circuits that can compare two
numbers to determine if they are equal or if one number is greater than storage locations
called storage registers for storing numbers used in calculations and for storing the results

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of calculations. To perform a calculation or logical operation, number is transferred from
primary storage to storage registers in the ALU.
These numbers are sent to the appropriate arithmetic or logic circuit. The results are sent
back to the storage registers. The results are transferred from the storage registers to
primary storage.

The Control Unit

The control Unit controls the whole computer system by performing the following
functions:
- directs and coordinates all operation called for by the program
- activates the appropriate circuits necessary for inputs and output devices.
- Causes the entire computer system to operate in an automatic manner.

The control unit contains a temporary storage location called an instruction register for
storing the instruction being executed. It also contains circuits called the instruction
decoder – which analyze the instruction register and cause it to be executed. The control
unit executes each instruction by following the same basic sequence of steps:
- The next instruction in the program is retrieved for primary storage and stored in the
instruction register
- The instruction is sent to the instruction decoder where it is analyzed.
- The decoder sends signals to the ALU, primary storage, I/O devices, and secondary
storage, that cause the actions required by the instructions to be performed.
These steps are repeated for each instruction in the program until all instructions have
been executed.

2.3 PRIMARY STORAGE

Primary storage is also called internal storage or memory. It is used to store programs and
data currently being processed by CPU. Primary storage circuits like light bulbs need
electricity to stay on. If the power to the computer is turned off, all the circuits will turn
off and all data in primary storage will be lost. When computer is turned back on the data
will not reappear. The data is lost forever. Because of these characteristics primary
storage is called volatile storage. This type of primary storage is called RANDOM
ACCESS MEMORY or RAM. RAM is the main type of primary storage used with
computers and it is volatile.

ROM – Many computers have another type of primary storage called ROM – Read Only
Memory. ROM is non-volatile storage. This means that when the power to the computer
is turned off, the content of the ROM is not lost. ROM can store preset programs that are
always put by computer manufactures. When you turn on a PC, you will usually see a
reference on BIOS (Basic Input output System). This is part of the ROM chip containing
all the programs needed to control the keyboard, monitor, disk drive and so on.

There are different types of ROM, including PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.
PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory – In this type of ROM, data or program can
be stored once in PROM but never changed.

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EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory – In this type of ROM, data or
program can be erased by removing the device and exposed it to ultraviolet light.
EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory – data or program
can be completely erased using a special device and new programs or new data can be
stored in it.

The Use of Primary Storage (RAM)

Main Memory has several uses:
- Input area – where the data is stored when it is read into CPU, awaiting processing.
- Operating system – controls the operation of the computer.
- Working storage – where calculations are performed and data is stored temporarily.
- Output area where the information is stored prior to output. Both the input and output as
are buffer.
- Application program area – where the user program is held.

The Use of Main Memory (RAM)

Input Area
Operating System
Output Area Application area (Program)
Working storage area

SUMMARY
The processor along with the system memory is the sole processing device of a
computer and controls all the processing activities of the computer. We take a look at the
component that makes up the central processing unit layout
The processor’s job is to accept instructions from the memory and execute those
instructions. Most of the instructions tell the processor to take a bit of data from the
memory or a peripheral device, and either change that data or write it either to memory or
a peripheral device. The CPU has a lot of brands such as:
Intel
AMD
Athol
Celeron
MMS

NOTE: The better the processor, the faster the computer and the higher its capability to
handle complex tasks. The CPU has speed and is measured in MHZ or GHZ.
 The higher the speed, the faster the computer.
 As a rule, the more the memory of a computer, the faster its operation will be.
 The more the programs which are running at the same time, the slower each will
run.

THE PERIPHERAL UNIT

A. INPUT DEVICES
These devices enables the user to send in data and instructions into the computer,
the most common examples includes keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, web

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 camera, light pen. Light pens are electronic pointers that allow users to modify
designs on-screen. The hand-held pointer contains sensors that send signals to the
computer whenever light is recorded; it is also used to read bar codes.
Mouse:-this is commonly used with modern-days PCs on which the GUI (Graphics
user interface) operating systems are running. Example of GUI operating system is
Microsoft windows. Mouse can be used to select drop down menu, drag an item from
one place to another and to enter commands by clicking. These days, it is vital to be a
competent mouse user. Though mouse is of different types, the commonly used one
has a small wheel on which when combined with good software allows additional
functionality and fine control of the application software .
Keyboard:-keyboard is an input device which allows you to type text data into
computer. It is as at present the commonest way of entering data into the computer.
Scanner:- A scanner ( as the name implies) scans a printed material (text or graphic or
pictures) and also convert it into the format which may be processed within the PC.
During processing, the scanned object can be modified or printed as original.
Light Pen:-A light pen is used to allow users to point to areas on a screen. It is often
used to select menu choices.
Microphone:-early voice recognition system offered very poor result due to the
limitations of the and the hardware. However, recent system allows you talk to a PC
and see text appear on the screen. Most of the systems require an initial training
period where you train the software to recognize your (peculiar) voice pattern
Web Camera:-since it was invented, it has become increasingly interactive. Graphic
data from this source can be integrated with sound and text to make a multimedia file.
Web camera, when connected to PCs can make it possible for two people
communicating across a network to see each other on the PCs screen and exchange
text and voice data.

B. OUTPUT DEVICES
These devices enable the user to see the result of the computer’s calculations and
data manipulations. The most common output device is the video display unit (VDU), a
monitor that displays characters and graphics on a television-like screen. A VDU usually
has a cathode ray tube like an ordinary television set, but small, portable computers use
liquid crystal displays (LCD) or electro-luminescent screens. Other standard output
devices include printers and modems. A modem links two or more computers by
translating digital signals to analogue so that data can be transmitted via analogue
telephone lines. Other examples include printers; a printer is machine that produces hard
copies from the computer. There are three types of printers. They are:
Character printers e.g. Dot-map (using ribbon)
Line printers e.g. DeskJet or inkjets (using cartridges)
Page printers e.g. LaserJet (these uses toner)

1. Dot-matrix printer:-it works by firing a row of pins through an ink ribbon onto
paper. They generate a lot of noise and do not produce a very high quality of print
especially when printing graphics.

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 2. Inkjet printer;-it works by using tiny jets to spray ink on paper. They are quiet in
operation and produce print comparable to that of laser printers. They are ideal for
low volume printing where high quality print is required.
3. Laser Printer:-this is one of most commonly used because it can print very fast
and give a very high quality output. It works like photocopying machines using a
heating element to burn its impression on paper. Most laser printers would only
print in black and white while few ones can print in colors

OTHER DEVICES IN SYSTEMS

The system unit is the name given to the main box houses the various core elements that
make up the computer system. it comes in two basic varieties: the tower version and the
desktop version. The system unit contains the following items.

A. Motherboard:-The motherboard has been an integral part of most personal

computers for more than twenty years. The motherboard comprises of a circuit board and
circuit cards (also called expansion cards). The circuit cards perform various functions
when plugged into the sockets on the circuit board (called expansion slots). Each circuit
cards performs a unique function in the computer and draws power from the socket. The
motherboard houses computer’s microprocessor (also called Central Processing Unit)
along with the access slots and RAM. The system (mother) board is located within your
system unit and all the vital computer components are plugged directly into the system
board.
The CPU (processor) is fixed on the system board along with all other electronic
components. The boards are getting smaller and smaller as the components become more
integrated. Some other items like hard-drive, CD-Rom drive, floppy drive are attached
to the board via cables.
B. CPU:-the CPU (processor) is the heart of your computer. There are many brands
of processors. (See that in the summary of Central Processing Unit).
C. Power Supply Unit:-this is also called power pack and it is a vital unit to the
computer as it is the source of power. The power supply is usually a small metal
box located at the top corner of the computer case. How the power supply works
is not so important. But if you to know you can see me.
D. MEMORY AND STOTAGE DEVICES
1. RAM:-(Random Access Memory) is the man working space of a computer
machine when a computer system is switched on, the system carries out the basic
input and output self-test (BIOS) after which it loads its executable files from the disk
into RAM. RAM is the form of memory contained in most computers. RAM is
considered “Random access” because you can access any memory cell directly if you
know the row and column that intersect at that cell. When an application is running it
stores its information in the RAM. When you save data, it is transferred into a disk
and when you close an application, the information is deleted from the RAM. The
higher the capacity of RAM, the faster the computer will be and the more the
applications the user will be able to run without loosing speed.
1. Random Access Memory is measured in bytes e.g.
Kilobytes e.g. 400kb, 800kb
Megabytes e.g. 16, 32, 64,128,256,512 etc.

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 Gigabytes e.g. 1 GB, 2 GB etc.
2. Read-Only Memory (ROM):-Read-only memory as the name suggests, is a
special type of memory chip whose content can only be read but cannot be over
written. The contents are “hard wired” and cannot be altered. It often contains
software used by the operating system to talk to the hardware components ton access
their functional status. The software is called ROM-BIOS.
3. Hard Disk Drive:-Nearly all desktop computers and servers in used today
contain one or more hard disk dries. Hard disk has the capacity of storing digital
information in a relatively permanent form. They give computers the ability to keep
information even when the power supply is shut down.
A hard disk stores all users’ files and information in a permanent form unlike
RAM (which is temporary). The larger the hard disk (drive), the more information
and files it is able to store. Today’s average hard drive is 40GB, although higher
capacity ones like 80GB, 120GB and 250GB are becoming popular.
4. CD-ROM:-The CD-ROM is quite simple; it works with CD-ROM drive which
simply reads it. CD-ROM stands for compact disk read-only memory. CDs have
become so popular in recent times because they have higher capacity for data storage
than floppy disks, although they are not as flexible when it comes to rewriting and
altering stored data.
Using CD-RW, you can save, delete and modify the content of your CD like a
floppy disk. These are becoming more and more popular although a CD-ROM drive
is needed to read them.
5. DVD-RW:-This is an acronym for “Digital Versatile Disk” it is similar to CD-
ROM drive but it uses DVD which has higher storage capacity than traditional CD-
ROM. The drive can also transfer data from the disk into the computer and vice versa
at faster rate compared with CD-ROM drive. A CD-ROM disk can store 700MB
while a single layer, single-sided DVD can store 4.7GB of data.

6. FLOPPY DISK:-A floppy disk is read by a floppy disk drive. Floppy disks are
easy to use, rewritable, compact, and relatively cheap for storing information.

Basically, storage devices can be classified into two:

 Internal storage devices
 External storage devices

1. Internal storage devices are located inside the main computer unit. A good
example is the internal hard disk (also called fixed disk) which is located inside
the computer casing.
2. External storage devices are joined to the main computer unit via a cable which is
plugged into one of the ports at the back of your computer unit. Examples are
external hard disk and flash drive which can be plugged via the USB port located
at the back or by the side of your computer. Other external storage media require
the installation of a special card (or drive) within your computer system which
makes it possible for the computer to interface with the media. Examples of this
media are diskette, CD-ROM, Zip disk DVD-ROM etc.

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 NOTE:-Every computer memory either internal or external is measured in bit, byte,
kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte. All computers works on a binary numbering
system i.e. they process data in one’s or zero’s. This 1or 0 level of storage is called
bit.
1 or 0 =bit
8bits =byte
1024 or 1000bytes = a kilobyte
1024kilobytes or 1000000bytes = a megabyte
1024megabytes or 1000000000bytes = a gigabyte
1024gigabytes or 1000000000000bytes = terabyte

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