sustainability

Article
Optimization of Insulation Thickness of External
Walls of Residential Buildings in Hot Summer and
Cold Winter Zone of China
Xiaojun Liu 1 , Xin Chen 1, * and Mehdi Shahrestani 2
1 Department of Management, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an 710055, China;
xjun_liu@163.com
2 School of the Built Environment, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6DF, UK; m.shahrestani@reading.ac.uk
* Correspondence: azure_0101@163.com




Received: 17 December 2019; Accepted: 11 February 2020; Published: 20 February 2020


Abstract: It is important to reduce primary energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
associated with residential buildings in the hot summer and cold winter (HSCW) zone of China.
Changing the insulation thickness of the external walls of residential buildings (ITEWB) is regarded
as an effective way to manage such problems within a budget. This paper aims at developing an
innovative way to select the optimal insulation thickness of external walls for residential buildings
(OTWRB) in the HSCW zone of China, considering economic, energy and greenhouse gas emissions
issues associated with the ITEWB. Four different cities and two different operation modes of the
air conditioners (continuous and intermittent) are considered in this study. To explain the selection
process, typical hypothetical buildings are simulated in Wuhan, Changsha, Hangzhou and Chengdu.
Expanded polystyrene is chosen as the material of the insulation layer while split air conditioners are
selected as the equipment for space heating and cooling. Integrated Environmental Solutions-Virtual
Environment is used for the dynamic operational energy consumption of buildings. Life cycle cost
method is adopted to calculate the economic impact of ITEWB on building performance. The Chinese
life cycle database is used to quantize the impacts of ITEWB on building performance in the aspect of
energy and greenhouse gas emissions based on the life cycle theory. The most appreciated insulation
thickness is chosen from the thickness range of 30 mm to 150 mm. We find that for continuous
operation mode of air conditioners in Wuhan, the optimal economic insulation thickness is 70 mm,
whereas when considering only energy and environmental aspects, the OTWRB is 150 mm. These are
all larger than the current insulation thickness which is 30 mm. When the weighting efficiencies of
the economy, energy, and greenhouse gas emissions are different, the OTWRB varies from 70 mm to
150 mm for continuous operation mode. The different cities have little influence on the OTWRB while
the different operation modes of air conditioners have some influence on the OTWRB.

Keywords: insulation thickness; hot summer and cold winter zone; integrated criteria

1. Introduction
It is imperative to reduce primary energy consumption as well as greenhouse gas emissions
related to residential buildings in China since China has made a promise to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions as well as primary energy consumption at the Paris Agreement [1]. The building sector is
one of the three biggest energy consumers and it is responsible for an enormous amount of greenhouse
gas emissions in China [2,3]. Meanwhile, the residential building sector comprises over 40% of the
energy consumption in China’s civilian construction sector [4]. Reducing primary energy consumption
and limiting the associated greenhouse gas emissions related to residential buildings are the key points
of such objectives.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574; doi:10.3390/su12041574 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 2 of 21

There are five climate zones of China; cold zone, severe cold zone, hot zone, hot summer and cold
winter (HSCW) zone, and hot summer and warm winter zone [5]. So far, there have been remarkable
results for energy savings and reducing greenhouse gas emissions of the residential building sector
in cold and severe cold zones of China. On the other hand, the energy consumption associated with
the residential building sector in the HSCW zone has been continuously increasing [6]. According to
China’s National Bureau of Statistics [7], there were 21% of the national urban residential population
in the HSCW zone. The residential buildings in this area lack central heating systems because of
historical reasons [8,9]. The residentials there heavily rely on mechanical heating and cooling systems
to keep indoor thermal comfort, resulting in a lot of operational energy consumption [9,10]. The energy
consumption for space heating and cooling systems contributes to 50~60% of residential annual energy
consumption [11]. While the thermal efficiency of the envelope of the buildings is relatively poor,
implying huge saving potentials in this area [12]. As a result, increasing building envelope efficiency is
crucial to reducing primary energy consumption and minimizing greenhouse gas emissions associated
with residential buildings in the HSCW zone of China.
Applying an insulation layer on the external wall of a building is a popular method for increasing
building envelope efficiency. By reducing heat loss through the wall [6], energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions associated with the buildings can significantly be reduced economically [13].
Up to this point, applying the insulation layer on the external wall of residential buildings has been
promoted by the government recently in the HSCW zone of China.
Insulation thickness is an important parameter to consider when applying thermal insulation,
thus, there is considerable research about the optimal insulation thickness of the external walls for
residential buildings (OTWRB) [14–18]. Since the climate is one of the most important factors in
determining the OTWRB [19–21], it is necessary to cut down the scope of the contest to the HSCW zone
of China for the OTWRB recommended in this certain area. However, until recently, a few researchers
began to pay attention to the OTWRB in this special part of China. Although these existing studies have
made significant efforts for the selection of the most appreciated insulation thickness of an external
wall, some shortcomings need to be improved.
One shortcoming is the neglect of the intermittent operation mode of the heating and cooling
equipment in the HSCW zone of China. In most research focused on the OTWRB in the HSCW zone
of China [22,23], the space heating and cooling equipment is assumed to maintain a comfortable
temperature for the whole day over the heating and cooling period. However, according to the
results of several investigations [8,12,24,25], there is, in fact, plenty of time when this equipment is
not in operation [26]. Moreover, Fang Ruan believed that these two different operation modes of air
conditioners (continuous and intermittent) resulted in obvious differences in the operational energy
consumption of a building [24]. Based on the conclusion that the heating and cooling demands of
buildings affect the OTWRB, it is reasonable to discuss the impact of different operation modes of air
conditioners on the OTWRB [19].
Another shortcoming of the existing research is the lack of consideration of the integrated impacts
associated with the ITEWB. For the existing research about the OTWRB in the HSCW zone of China,
some of them only considered the energy aspect associated with ITEWB [27,28], while the others
only considered the economic aspect associated with the ITEWB [29,30]. As previously mentioned,
the purpose of applying the insulation layer on the external wall of a building is not only about the
economic aspect, there are more considerations about the energy aspect and the environmental aspect
of the ITEWB. The possibility of considering all these three objectives associated with the ITEWB is
revealed by [31]. Their studies proved that greenhouse gas emissions associated with the ITEWB were
reduced at the economic insulation thickness compared to that at the zero thickness. The necessity of
considering the integrated impacts in the optimization criteria is proved by [14,32,33]. These findings
showed the significant impact of criteria on the OTWRB. As a result, it is worth investigating all of
these impacts of the ITEWB and selecting the most appreciated one for buildings located in the HSCW
 ring the integrated impact associated with ITEWB in terms of economic, ener
ouse gas emissions issues in the HSCW zone of China. Different weighting efficiencies
conomy, energy and greenhouse gas emissions are also considered in this
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 3 of 21
paper. To p
alistic context, the Chinese cities of Wuhan, Changsha, Hangzhou, and Chengdu are
etical scenarios
zone ofwhere
China. Tothe OTWRB
the author’s valuesthere
best knowledge, would be considering
is no paper determined. Comparative
these three factors in the analysi
determining process of the OTWRB in the HSCW zone of China.
for these four The different cities and two different modes of air conditioners (continuo
innovation of this paper is to develop an innovative method to select the OTWRB considering
ttent) is conducted
the integrated toimpact
discuss the with
associated feasibility of the
ITEWB in terms OTWRB.
of economic, energy and greenhouse gas
emissions issues in the HSCW zone of China. Different weighting efficiencies applied to the economy,
energy and greenhouse gas emissions are also considered in this paper. To provide some realistic
rials and Methods context, the Chinese cities of Wuhan, Changsha, Hangzhou, and Chengdu are used as hypothetical
scenarios where the OTWRB values would be determined. Comparative analysis of the results for
these four different cities and two different modes of air conditioners (continuous and intermittent) is
othetical Building
conducted to discuss the feasibility of the OTWRB.

2. Materials and Methods

hysical Information ofBuilding

2.1. Hypothetical the Typical Building
2.1.1. Physical Information of the Typical Building
e same hypothetical buildings are assumed to be located in Wuhan, Changsha, Ha
The same hypothetical buildings are assumed to be located in Wuhan, Changsha, Hangzhou and
engdu. As Chengdu.
shown in Figure 1, these four cities represent the cities in the middle, w
As shown in Figure 1, these four cities represent the cities in the middle, western, eastern
and southern parts of
and southern the
parts HSCW
of the HSCW zonezone of China.
of China.

Figure 1. Four typical cities in the hot summer and cold winter (HSCW) zone of China.

Figure 1. Four
The typical
layout andcities in the
construction hot summer
information andprototype
of the building cold winter (HSCW)
is similar zone
to that of the typicalof China.
building obtained from the field study carried out by Xueping Li, who surveyed above 40 residential
communities built around the 2000s in the HSCW zone of China [34]. Figure 2 shows the floor plan
e layout and construction information of the building prototype is similar to that of the
and the elevation drawing of the case study building. The total floor area of this 12-storey hypothetical
building is 2701.4 m2 .
g obtained from the field study carried out by Xueping Li, who surveyed above 40 res
nities built around the 2000s in the HSCW zone of China [34]. Figure 2 shows the flo
e elevation drawing of the case study building. The total floor area of this 12
etical building is 2701.4 m2.
 The layout and construction information of the building prototype is similar to that of the typical
building obtained from the field study carried out by Xueping Li, who surveyed above 40 residential
communities built around the 2000s in the HSCW zone of China [34]. Figure 2 shows the floor plan
and the elevation drawing of the case study building. The total floor area of this 12-storey
hypothetical building
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 is 2701.4 m2. 4 of 21

Units: mm
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Geometry information of the case study building: (a) The floor plan of the case study building;
(b) The elevation drawing of the case study building.

The other typological characteristics of the building prototype are in Table 1.

Table 1. Typological characteristics of the building.

Floor Area per

Resource Storey Construction Plane Form
Household
three bedrooms, one living around 112 m2
This paper 12 (multi-story) reinforced concrete
room and one dining room (about 100 m2 )
Reference [35] [9,36,37] [9] [12]

The construction information about the envelope of the building is presented in Table 2. The data
is based on the field study carried out by Xueping Li [34].

Table 2. U value of the envelope of the typical building.

U Value of the Building Component (w/m2 k)

Resource
Ground/Exposed Floor Roof Window
this paper 1.79 0.77 2.67
[34] —— 0.785 2.8

As shown in Table 3, the structure of the external wall of the typical building is obtained from
the field study carried out by Xueping Li, and it is a very common structure in the HSCW zone of
China [34]. EPS (expanded polystyrene) is one of the most widely used insulation materials for external
walls in this area [30,38,39]. The thermal conductivity of the EPS is 0.4 w/mk in the case study building.

Table 3. Structure of the external wall of the typical building.

Layer (Outside to Inside) Thickness (mm)

Cement mortar 20
Expanded polystyrene 30
Reinforced concrete 200
Cement mortar 20

The thickness of the insulation layer of the external wall of the buildings is 30 mm for EPS for the
present situation [40]. In this paper, optional values of insulation thickness of the external wall are 30
mm, 50 mm, 70 mm, 90 mm, 110 mm, 130 mm, and 150 mm.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 5 of 21

According to the field studies carried out by [34,40–42], split air conditioners fed by electricity are
a popular choice to keep indoor comfort in such an area of China, as there is no central heating system
in this area because of historical reasons. The details of the thermal system of the case study building
are presented in Table 4. Two operation modes of air conditioners are presented in Table 5.

Table 4. Thermal system setting of the hypothetical building.

Factor Assumption Reference

Equipment heat gain 4.3 W/m2 [43]
Heating space Living room and bedroom [44]
Cooling space Living room and bedroom [44]
From 1st December to 28th
Heating period [45]
February of the following year
Cooling period From 15th June to 15th September [34]
Heating setpoint temperature 18 ◦ C [43,45]
Heating trigger temperature 16 ◦ C [46]
Cooling setpoint temperature 26 ◦ C [43,45]
Cooling trigger temperature 29 ◦ C [47]
Infiltration rate (ach) 1.0/h [43,48]
Coefficient of performance (COP) of Heating system 1.9 [30,43,49]
Coefficient of performance (COP) of Cooling system 2.3 [30,43,49]

Table 5. Two operation modes of air conditioners of the hypothetical building.

Scenario Space Daily Operation Time Reference

Bedroom 0:00–24:00
Continuous [44]
Living room 0:00–24:00
0:00–8:00
Bedroom
Intermittent 22:00–24:00 [50]
Living room 17:00–22:00

2.1.2. Meteorological Information of the Typical Building

As shown in Table 6, the meteorological data adopted in this paper is from The Solar and Wind
Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) project. This database has the typical hourly meteorological
data, and it is known for accurate solar information. Since solar radiation is significant for the building’s
operational energy, particularly for the cooling load, this database is adopted in this paper [51].

Table 6. Meteorological information of the hypothetical building.

Annual Average
Location Dry-Bulb Wind Speed Global Radiation External RH HDD CDD
Temperature (◦ C) (m/s) (W/m2 ) (%)
Wuhan 15.89 2.32 163.14 76.55 1122.62 224.12
Changsha 16.31 2.36 151.28 80.91 1020.10 220.78
Hangzhou 15.51 2.50 152.97 77.72 1094.81 169.78
Chengdu 15.76 1.08 146.03 81.04 949.50 14.40
HDD: heating degree days for the base temperature of 18 ◦ C during the heating period. CDD: cooling degree days
for the base temperature of 26 ◦ C during the cooling period.

2.2. Calculation of Operational Energy Consumption of the Hypothetical Building

Generally, there are two different methods to compute energy consumption for space heating
and cooling. One method is the equation-based method and another method is the simulation-based
method. In the reference, they found out that the equation-based method might not lead to a desired
accurate result of the energy demand for space heating and cooling [52–54]. For a more accurate heat
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 6 of 21

transfer calculation, the dynamic meteorological data and the dynamic indoor temperature should be
considered. However, because of the calculation constraints, this approach makes use of assumptions
to simplify the equations in calculating heat transfer.
To overcome this kind of simplification of inputs in the equation-based method, some authors
adopted the simulation-based method [53]. Thanks to the great computing power of computers, it can
make good use of these amounts of inputs and it can automatically calculate the operational energy
consumption of buildings with high accuracy.
There are a variety of building simulation tools used in the research, such as Energy Plus, Integrate
Environmental Solution-Virtual Environment (IES-VE), and Designer‘s Simulation Toolkits (DeST).
Among these tools, IES-VE is a popular commercial software used worldwide including China [55].
The validation and accuracy of this software have been proven by the BESTEST (Building Energy
Simulation Test) standard of the International Energy Agency (IEA), green building rating schemes and
amounts of existing studies [56–59]. Moreover, it has extensive capabilities for modeling customize
systems and controls, which allows for the simulation of the intermittent operation mode of air
conditioners in the case study.
For this study, ApacheSim module and Apache HVAC module of IES-VE are mainly used. Apache
HVAC module is a supplement module for detailed settings of the HVAC system of case study
building. The Apache HVAC module enables users to adjust the air conditioner settings, including the
operation mode. The ApacheSim module helps users to calculate the space heating and cooling energy
consumption of the building automatically. In this software, heat conduction and storage, convection
heat transfer, heat transfer by air movement, long-wave radiation heat transfer, solar radiation, casual
gains, and thermo-physical properties of air can be all considered in the ApacheSim calculation.
As a verification measure, the operational energy calculated for Hangzhou is compared with the
results of past studies. As shown in Table 7, the computed value is comparable with the results in
previous studies.

Table 7. Comparison of energy consumption as calculated by IES-VE (Integrate Environmental

Solution-Virtual Environment) in this paper for Hangzhou with existing research.

U Value of the External Heating Energy Cooling Energy Annual Energy

Paper Resource
Wall (w/m2 k) Consumption (kwh/m2 ) Consumption (kwh/m2 ) Consumption (kwh/m2 )
This paper 0.75 25.11 12.06 39.40
[46] 0.72 26 12.5 38.5
[60] 0.87 —- —- 18–38
[61] 0.84 — —- 43.42

2.3. Integrated Estimation Method to Select the OTWRB

2.3.1. Evaluation of the Impacts of ITEWB on Building Performance with Regard to the Economic,
Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Aspects.
In this paper, the optimal insulation thickness is obtained based on the integrated impacts
of the ITEWB on building performance, with regard to the economic, energy and greenhouse gas
emissions aspects.
In the literature, the application of life cycle assessment to the OTWRB is becoming more and
more popular [16,21,62]. Based on this theory, three indicators in the paper, which are life cycle cost
(LCC), life cycle primary energy demand (LPED) and life cycle global warming potential (LGWP), are
selected to present the impacts of the ITEWB on these three aspects.
Under this approach, these three indicators associated with the ITEWB are assessed from
cradle to grave. In general, the life cycle stages of insulation include production, transportation,
operation, maintenance, demolition and waste management. However, considering the minor effects
of transportation, maintenance, demolition and waste management on these three factors in some
cases and the difficulty to obtain these data [63], in this paper, only the production stage and the
operational stage of the insulation layer are considered. In other words, this study is focusing on
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 7 of 21

analyzing the impacts of the variation of the ITEWB on the insulation material and the operational
energy consumption during the insulation material’s lifespan.

• Life cycle cost (LCC)

Based on the existing research [18,54], the LCC associated with ITEWB is defined as:

LCCins = LCCoperation + LCCmaterial (1)

LCCmaterial = 10−3 Cins Aw ξins (2)

LCCoperation = Cop Qop P1 (3)

 
1+i Ne
  
1
 d−i 1 − 1+d i,d



P1 = PWF(Ne, i, d) =  (4)
 Ne


1+i i=d
The abbreviations used in these equations are shown in Table 8.

• Life cycle primary energy demand (LPED)

Table 8. Abbreviations used in the life cycle cost of the insulation thickness of the external wall of
residential buildings (ITEWB).

Abbreviation Explain Units

LCCins Life cycle cost of the ITEWB yuan
LCCmaterial Life cycle cost of insulation material associated with the ITEWB yuan
LCCoperation Life cycle cost of operational energy associated with the ITEWB yuan
Cins Cost of insulation material per unit yuan/m3
Aw Area of external wall m2
ξins The thickness of the insulation layer mm
Cop Cost of operational energy per unit yuan/kwh
Qop Annual operational energy consumption kwh/year
Ne Insulation layer lifetime year
P1 Present worth factor (PWF) –
i Interest rate –
d Inflation rate –

A commonly used Chinese local database, CLCD (Chinese Life Cycle Database) [64], is adopted
in this paper to quantify the impacts of the ITEWB on building performance with regard to energy and
greenhouse gas emissions aspects.
Based on the existing research [33,53], the LPED related to the ITEWB is defined as:

LPEDins = LPEDmaterial + LPEDoperation (5)

LPEDmaterial = 10−3 PEDins Aw ξins ρ (6)

LPEDoperation = PEDop Qop Ne (7)

The abbreviations used in these equations are presented in Table 9.

• Life cycle global warming potential (LGWP)

Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 8 of 21

Table 9. Abbreviations used in the life cycle primary energy demand of the ITEWB.

Abbreviation Definition Units

ρ The density of the insulation material kg/m3
LPEDins Life cycle primary energy demand of the ITEWB kgce
Life cycle primary energy demand of insulation
LPEDmaterial kgce
material associated with the ITEWB
Life cycle primary energy demand of operational
LPEDoperation kgce
energy associated with the ITEWB
Primary energy demand of
PEDins kgce/kg
insulation material per unit
PEDop Primary energy demand of kgce/kwh
operational energy per unit

Based on [53], LGWP related to the ITEWB is defined as

LGWPins = LGWPmaterial + LGWPoperation (8)

LGWPmaterial = 10−3 GWPins Aw ξins ρ (9)

LGWPoperation = GWPop Qop Ne (10)

The abbreviations used in these equations are shown in Table 10.

Table 10. Abbreviations used in the life cycle global warming potential of the ITEWB.

Abbreviation Definition Units

LGWPins Life cycle global warming potential of the ITEWB kgCO2eq
Life cycle global warming potential of insulation
LGWPmaterial kgCO2eq
material associated with the ITEWB
Life cycle global warming potential of
LGWPoperation kgCO2eq
operational energy associated with the ITEWB
GWPins Global warming potential of kgCO2eq /kg
insulation material per unit
GWPop Global warming potential of kgCO2eq /kwh
operational energy per unit

2.3.2. Integrated Estimation Method to Select the OTWRB

To normalize these three indicators, LCC, LPED and LGWP, the min-max method is applied in
this paper as shown in Equations (11)–(13). To integrate and consider all these three aspects associated
with the ITEWB, a weighting sum method is adopted in Equations (14)–(16).

LCCr − LCCr,min
NLCCr = (11)
LCCr,max − LCCr,min

LPEDr − LPEDr,min
NLPEDr = (12)
LPEDr,max − LPEDr,min
LGWPr − LGWPr,min
NLGWPr = (13)
LGWPr,max − LGWPr,min
Zr = w1 ∗ NLCCr + w2 ∗ NLPEDr + w3 ∗ NLGWPr (14)

w1 + w2 + w3 = 1 ( 0  w1 , w2 , w3  1 ) (15)
 𝑍 = 𝑤 ∗ 𝑁𝐿𝐶𝐶𝑟 + 𝑤 ∗ 𝑁𝐿𝑃𝐸𝐷𝑟+𝑤 ∗ 𝑁𝐿𝐺𝑊𝑃𝑟 (14)

𝑤 + 𝑤 + 𝑤 = 1 (0 ≪ 𝑤 , 𝑤 , 𝑤 ≪ 1) (15)

𝑟 = {30 50 70 90 110 130 150} (16)

The abbreviations
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 used in these equations are shown in Table 11. 9 of 21

Table 11. Abbreviations used in the min-max method.

r = {30 50 70 90 110 130 150} (16)
Abbreviation Definition
The abbreviations used in these equations are shown in Table 11.
𝑁𝐿𝐶𝐶𝑟 Normalized life cycle cost of the ITEWB
𝑁𝐿𝑃𝐸𝐷𝑟 Normalized life cycle primary energy demand of ITEWB
Table 11. Abbreviations used in the min-max method.
𝑁𝐿𝐺𝑊𝑃𝑟 Normalized life cycle global warming potential of ITEWB
𝐿𝐶𝐶 ,
Abbreviation The minimumDefinitionlife cycle cost of ITEWB
𝐿𝐶𝐶 ,
NLCCr The maximum
Normalized lifelife
cyclecycle
cost cost
of theofITEWB
ITEWB
𝐿𝑃𝐸𝐷 ,
NLPEDr TheNormalized
minimum life cyclecycleprimary
primary energy
energy demand
demand of ITEWB
of ITEWB
𝐿𝑃𝐸𝐷 ,
NLGWPr Normalized life cycle global warming potential
The maximum life cycle primary energy demand of ITEWB of ITEWB
LCC𝐿𝐺𝑊𝑃
r,min The minimum Thelife
minimum life cycle
cycle global cost of ITEWB
warming potential of ITEWB
,
LCCr,max The maximum life cycle cost of ITEWB
𝐿𝐺𝑊𝑃
LPEDr,min , The maximum life cycle global warming
The minimum life cycle primary energy demand potential of ITEWB
of ITEWB
LPED𝑤 ,r,max
𝑤 ,𝑤 Weighting Theefficiency
maximumassigned to economy,
life cycle primary energy energy
demand and greenhouse gas
of ITEWB
LGWPr,min The minimum life cycle globalemissionswarming potential of ITEWB
LGWPr,max r The maximum
Insulation thickness,life cycleis
which global warming
30, 50, 70, 90,potential
110, 130,of150
ITEWB
mm in this
w1 , w2 , w3 Weighting efficiency assigned to economy, energy and greenhouse gas emissions
r
paper
Insulation thickness, which is 30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150 mm in this paper

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Operational Energy Consumption and the ITEWB
3.1. Operational Energy Consumption and the ITEWB
As shown in Figure 3, for the continuous scenario, the heating energy consumption decreases
As shown in Figure 3, for the continuous scenario, the heating energy consumption decreases with
with the increase of the ITEWB, while the impact of the ITEWB on the cooling load is not obvious
the increase of the ITEWB, while the impact of the ITEWB on the cooling load is not obvious [65]. The
[65]. The heating and cooling energy consumption of the building is more sensitive to ITEWB when
heating and cooling energy consumption of the building is more sensitive to ITEWB when the ITEWB
the ITEWB is smaller. These similar trends are also revealed in [66]. Moreover, for Chengdu, with the
is smaller. These similar trends are also revealed in [66]. Moreover, for Chengdu, with the increase of
increase of insulation thickness, the cooling energy consumption is not reduced, instead, it increases
insulation thickness, the cooling energy consumption is not reduced, instead, it increases slightly [67].
slightly [67].

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(c) (d)

Figure3.3. Heating
Figure Heating and
and cooling
cooling energy
energy consumption
consumption for
forscenario
scenariocontinuous
continuousfor:
for: (a)
(a) Wuhan;
Wuhan; (b)
(b)
Changsha;
Changsha;(c)(c)Hangzhou;
Hangzhou;(d)
(d)Chengdu.
Chengdu.

With the increase of insulation thickness, the thermal transmittance of the external wall
decreases, leading to more difficulties in terms of heat transfer driven by the temperature difference
between indoor environment and outdoor environment [66]. This can lead to a reduction in
operational energy consumption when the indoor thermal environment is more comfortable. It also
 (c) (d)
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 10 of 21
Figure 3. Heating and cooling energy consumption for scenario continuous for: (a) Wuhan; (b)
Changsha; (c) Hangzhou; (d) Chengdu.

With the increase of insulation thickness, the thermal transmittance of the external wall decreases,
With the increase of insulation thickness, the thermal transmittance of the external wall
leading to moreleading
decreases, difficulties in difficulties
to more terms of heat transfer
in terms driven
of heat bydriven
transfer the temperature difference
by the temperature between
difference
indoorbetween
environment
indoorand outdoor environment
environment and outdoor[66]. This can lead
environment [66]. to a reduction
This can lead into operational
a reduction energy
in
consumption when
operational the indoor
energy thermal
consumption environment
when the indoor is more comfortable.
thermal environment isItmore
also can lead to an
comfortable. It increase
also
in operational
can lead toenergy consumption
an increase whenenergy
in operational the outdoor thermal
consumption environment
when the outdooristhermal
more comfortable.
environment
is more comfortable.
For the HSCW zone of China, in the heating period, the indoor thermal environment is more
comfortable Forcompared
the HSCW to zone
theofoutdoor
China, inthermal
the heating period, thein
environment indoor
mostthermal
of time.environment
In a certain is more
range of
insulation thickness, with the thicker insulation layer, the thermal transmittance of the externalofwall
comfortable compared to the outdoor thermal environment in most of time. In a certain range
insulation thickness, with the thicker insulation layer, the thermal transmittance of the external wall
decreases, resulting in less heat loss from the indoor environment. As shown in Figure 4, within
decreases, resulting in less heat loss from the indoor environment. As shown in Figure 4, within a
a certain range of ITEWB, the impact of the ITEWB on the thermal transmittance of the wall is
certain range of ITEWB, the impact of the ITEWB on the thermal transmittance of the wall is reduced
reduced [68].
[68]. As aAs a result,
result, within
within a certain
a certain rangerange
of theofITEWB,
the ITEWB, with
with the the increase
increase of insulation
of insulation thickness,
thickness, the
the heating load of the building decreases and the reduction is smaller
heating load of the building decreases and the reduction is smaller and smaller. and smaller.

1
thermal transmittance of external wall (w/m k)
2

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2
30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)

4. Insulation
FigureFigure thickness
4. Insulation and thermal
thickness transmittance
and thermal of theofexternal
transmittance wall of
the external theofcase
wall thestudy building.
case study
building.
In the cooling period, compared to the heating period, there is more time when the outdoor
thermal environment
In the coolingisperiod,
more comfortable.
compared to the In heating
a certain rangethere
period, of the insulation
is more thickness,
time when with the
the outdoor
increase of theenvironment
thermal ITEWB, for iscities
moreincomfortable.
the HSCW In zone of China,
a certain the
range ofimpact of the ITEWB
the insulation onwith
thickness, the cooling
the
load isincrease of the ITEWB,
not obvious. Besidesforthat,
citiesin
in some
the HSCW zone of where
situations, China, the impact
there is a of the period
long ITEWB on thethe
that cooling
outdoor
load is not
environment obvious.
is more Besides that,
comfortable in some to
compared situations, where
the indoor there is a long
environment, theperiod that
cooling the is
load outdoor
increased
with aenvironment is more layer
thicker insulation comfortable
[67]. compared to the indoor environment, the cooling load is increased
with a thicker insulation layer [67].
The annual energy consumption of the building is determined by the sum of heating energy
The2020,
Sustainability annual
12, x energy
FOR PEERconsumption
REVIEW of the building is determined by the sum of heating energy 11 of 21
consumption and cooling energy consumption. As shown in Figure 5, for all these four cities in the
consumption and cooling energy consumption. As shown in Figure 5, for all these four cities in the
HSCW, when the ITEWB increases from 30 mm to 150 mm, the annual operational energy consumption
HSCW, when the ITEWB increases from 30 mm to 150 mm, the annual operational energy
of the building decreases.
consumption of the building decreases.

Figure Annual
5. 5.
Figure operational
Annual energy
operational consumption
energy forfor
consumption scenario continuous.
scenario continuous.

3.1.1. Impact of Different Cities on the Operational Energy Consumption

As shown in Figure 6, the different cities have different operational energy consumption and the
effects of the ITEWB on these cities are different.
28
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 11 of 21
Figure 5. Annual operational energy consumption for scenario continuous.

3.1.1.Impact
3.1.1. ImpactofofDifferent
DifferentCities
Citieson
onthe
theOperational
OperationalEnergy
EnergyConsumption
Consumption
Asshown
As shownininFigure
Figure6,6,the
thedifferent
differentcities
citieshave
havedifferent
differentoperational
operationalenergy
energyconsumption
consumptionand
andthe
the
effects of the ITEWB on these cities are different.
effects of the ITEWB on these cities are different.
28
Wuhan 25 Wuhan

cooling energy consumption (kwh/m )

heating energy consumption (kwh/m 2)

2
26 Changsha Changsha
Hangzhou Hangzhou
24 Chengdu 20 Chengdu

22
15
20

18 10

16
5
14
30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm) insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure6.6.Energy
Energyconsumption
consumptionofoffour
fourcities
citiesfor
forscenario
scenariocontinuous
continuousfor:
for:(a)
(a)Heating;
Heating;(b)
(b)Cooling.
Cooling.

Thisis
This is because thethemeteorological
meteorologicaldata
dataof of
these four
these cities
four is different.
cities As shown
is different. in Table
As shown in 6, Wuhan
Table 6,
has the has
Wuhan largestthetemperature differencedifference
largest temperature between the indoor the
between environment and outdoorand
indoor environment environment
outdoor
based on thebased
environment HDD on andthe
CDD.
HDDThe annual
and CDD.operational
The annualenergy consumption
operational of building for
energy consumption of Wuhan
buildingis
theWuhan
for largest.is the largest.

3.1.2.Impact
3.1.2 ImpactofofDifferent
DifferentOperation
OperationModes
ModesofofAir
AirConditioners
Conditionerson
onthe
theOperational
OperationalEnergy
Energy
Consumption
Consumption
As shown in Figure 7, the annual energy consumption under intermittent operation mode is less
As shown in Figure 7, the annual energy consumption under intermittent operation mode is less
than that under continuous operation mode. Additionally, the annual operational energy consumption
than that under continuous operation mode. Additionally, the annual operational energy
of the building is less sensitive to the ITEWB. This is mainly because, under the intermittent operation
consumption of the building is less sensitive to the ITEWB. This is mainly because, under the
mode of air conditioners, the operation time of air conditioners is reduced, leading to less heat transfer
intermittent
Sustainability operation
2020, 12, x FOR mode of air conditioners, the operation time of air conditioners is reduced,
PEER REVIEW 12 of 21
in the heating and cooling period.
leading to less heat transfer in the heating and cooling period.
50
Continuous
Intermittent
annual energy consumption (kwh/m )
2

40

30

20

10

0
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)

Annualenergy
Figure7.7.Annual
Figure energyconsumption
consumptionfor
forthe
thecontinuous
continuousand
andintermittent
intermittentscenarios
scenariosfor
forWuhan.
Wuhan.

3.2. Result of the OTWRB for Four Cities

3.2 Result of the OTWRB for Four Cities
The parameters used in the methods described in Section 2.3 are listed in Table 12. These values
The parameters used in the methods described in Section 2.3 are listed in Table 12. These values
are obtained from [15,17,23,30,69].
are obtained from [15,17,23,30,69].

Table 12. Parameters used in the evaluation of the impacts of the ITEWB on building performance.

Parameter Value Unit

i 1% ---
d 5% ---
𝑁𝑒 20 year
𝑃 13.50 ---
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 12 of 21

Table 12. Parameters used in the evaluation of the impacts of the ITEWB on building performance.

Parameter Value Unit

i 1% —
d 5% —
Ne 20 year
P1 13.50 —
ρ 30 kg/m3
Cins 600 yuan/m3
Cop 0.52 yuan/kwh
PEDins 3.95 kgce/kg
PEDOP 0.46 kgce/kwh
GWPins 5.64 kgCO2 eq/kg
GWPOP 1.01 kgCO2 eq/kwh

3.2.1. The OTWRB When Considering Only One Criterion

As mentioned in Section 2.3.1, LCC is used to for the economic indicator associated with the
ITEWB. With the increase of ITEWB, on the one hand, the economic indicator associated with the
operational energy decreases as the operational energy demand decreases. On the other hand, the
economic indicator associated with insulation material increases linearly with the increase in the
insulation material. Figure 8 shows the insulation thickness and the LCC for Wuhan. It shows that
when insulation thickness is enlarged from 50 mm to 70 mm, the reduction in the operational energy
cost outweighs the increase in the insulation material. However, when the ITEWB extends from 70
mm to 90 mm, the reduction in the energy cost cannot offset the increase in the insulation material.
Thus, the lowest
Sustainability LCC
2020, 12, is achieved
x FOR at 70 mm.
PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

Wuhan

120 insulation material

electricity
life cycle
100
cost (ten thousand yuan)

80

60

40

20

0
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
insulation thickness (mm)

Figure8.8.The
Figure TheITEWB
ITEWBand
andthe
thelife
lifecycle
cyclecost
cost(LCC)
(LCC)for
forWuhan
Wuhanunder
undera acontinuous
continuousscenario.
scenario.

The
TheLPED
LPED and LGWP
and LGWP are are
usedused
for the
forenergy and greenhouse
the energy gas emissions
and greenhouse aspects of
gas emissions the ITEWB,
aspects of the
asITEWB,
mentioned
as mentioned in Section 2.3. As shown in Figure 9, the PED of operational energy ispart
in Section 2.3. As shown in Figure 9, the PED of operational energy is a major of
a major
the LPED
part related
of the LPEDtorelated
the ITEWB,to thewhile
ITEWB,the while
PED oftheinsulation material ismaterial
PED of insulation only a small part.
is only Changes
a small part.
inChanges
insulationinthickness determine the operational energy consumption, while
insulation thickness determine the operational energy consumption, while the operational energythe
consumption
operational determines the LPED associated
energy consumption determines with
thethe ITEWB.
LPED The 150 with
associated mm ITEWBthe ITEWB.resultsThe
in the
150least
mm
operational energy
ITEWB results consumption
in the and theenergy
least operational least LPED.
consumption and the least LPED.
The LGWP shows a similar trend as shown in Figure 10. The GWP of operational energy 5
x 10
life cycle PED associated with insulation thickness (kgce)

consumption comprises 14the overwhelming part of the LGWP related to the ITEWB. The 150 mm ITEWB
life cycle
results in the least operational
12 energy and the least LGWP. insulation material
electricity
10

0
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
ITEWB, TheasLPEDmentioned
and LGWP in Section
are 2.3.
usedAsforshown in Figure
the energy and9,greenhouse
the PED of operational energy
gas emissions is a major
aspects of the
part of the LPED related to the ITEWB, while the PED of insulation material is only
ITEWB, as mentioned in Section 2.3. As shown in Figure 9, the PED of operational energy is a major a small part.
Changes in insulation thickness determine the operational energy consumption,
part of the LPED related to the ITEWB, while the PED of insulation material is only a small part. while the
operational
Changes inenergy consumption
insulation thicknessdetermines
determinethetheLPED associated
operational with the
energy ITEWB. Thewhile
consumption, 150 mm the
ITEWB results
Sustainability 2020, in
12, the
1574 least operational energy consumption and the least LPED.
operational energy consumption determines the LPED associated with the ITEWB. The 150 mm 13 of 21
ITEWB results in the least
x 10 operational energy consumption and the least LPED.
5

(kgce) (kgce)
14
x 10
5 life cycle

thickness
14
12 insulation material
life cycle
electricity

thickness
12
10 insulation material

with insulation
electricity
10
8

with insulation
68

PED associated
cycleassociated 46

24
lifePED

02
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
life cycle

insulation thickness of external wall (mm)

0
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
Figure 9. The ITEWB and the life cycle primary energy demand (LPED) for Wuhan under continuous
Figure 9. The ITEWB and the life cycle primary energy demand (LPED) for Wuhan under
scenario.
Figure 9. The ITEWB and the life cycle primary energy demand (LPED) for Wuhan under continuous
continuous scenario.
scenario.
The LGWP shows a similar trend as shown in Figure 10. The GWP of operational energy
• Impact of different cities on the OTWRB when only considering one criterion
consumption
The LGWP comprises
shows the overwhelming
a similar trend as part
shownof the LGWP10.
in Figure related to the of
The GWP ITEWB. The 150
operational mm
energy
ITEWB results in the least operational energy and the least LGWP.
consumption comprises the overwhelming part of the LGWP related to the ITEWB. The 150 mm
ITEWB results in the
3
x 10least operational energy and the least LGWP. x 10
2.6
6 6

x 10
6 insulation material x 10
6
) 2eq

3 electricity 2.6
(kgCO(kgCO

insulation
life cycle material
2eq
)

) 2eq)
electricity

cycle (kgCO
life cycle
and elecricity

2 2.4

2eq
life(kgCO
and elecricity

2 2.4

cycle
for insulation

lifefor
1 2.2

GWP
insulation

GWP for
1 2.2
GWP
GWP for

0 2
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
Sustainability 2020, 12, x 0FOR
20 PEER
30 REVIEW
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
2
160 14 of 21
Figure 10. The ITEWB and the lifeinsulation
cyclethickness
global of external
warmingwall (mm) potential (LGWP) for Wuhan under
Figure 10. The ITEWB and the life cycle global warming potential (LGWP) for Wuhan under
• Impact of different
continuous
continuous
scenario. cities on the OTWRB when only considering one criterion
Figure 10. scenario.
The ITEWB and the life cycle global warming potential (LGWP) for Wuhan under
As shown
continuous
As shown inin Figure
scenario. 11, the
Figure 11, the LCC
LCC trend
trend lines
lines forfor allall four
four cities
cities exhibit
exhibit similar
similar trends,
trends, wherein
wherein the
the
value tends
value tendsto todecrease
decreaseearly
earlyand
and then
then eventually
eventually rises.
rises. Such
Such relations
relations between
between the ITEWB
the ITEWB and
and its its
LCC
LCC is also revealed by [15,17,23], the optimal economic ITEWB for these four cities is 70 mm
is also revealed by [15,17,23], the optimal economic ITEWB for these four cities is 70 mm in this case. in this
case.
5
x 10
12
life cycle cost associated with insulation thickness (yuan)

Wuhan
11 Changsha
Hangzhou
10
Chengdu
9

3
20 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)

Figure 11. The ITEWB and the LCC for four cities under the continuous scenario.
Figure 11. The ITEWB and the LCC for four cities under the continuous scenario.

As shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13, when the ITEWB increases from 30 mm to 150 mm, the
LPED and the LGWP decreases. The OTWRB, when only considering energy or greenhouse gas
emissions factor is 150 mm for all these four cities.
5
x 10
14
ckness (kgce)

Wuhan
13 Changsha
12 Hangzhou
Chengdu
 6

associ
ass
5

costcost
5
4

cycle
4

cycle
3

lifelife
320 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
20 30 50 70 thickness 90
insulation 110(mm)
of external wall 130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 14 of 21
Figure 11. The ITEWB and the LCC for four cities under the continuous scenario.
Figure 11. The ITEWB and the LCC for four cities under the continuous scenario.

As shown
shown ininFigures
Figure 12 and
and 13, when13,
Figure thewhen
ITEWB theincreases from 30 mm
ITEWB increases to 30
from 150mm
mm,tothe LPED
150 mm,and
the
As shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13, when the ITEWB increases from 30 mm to 150 mm, the
the LGWP decreases. The OTWRB, when only considering energy or greenhouse
LPED and the LGWP decreases. The OTWRB, when only considering energy or greenhouse gas gas emissions factor
LPED and the LGWP decreases. The OTWRB, when only considering energy or greenhouse gas
is 150 mm factor
emissions for all is
these
150 four
mm cities.
for all these four cities.
emissions factor is 150 mm for all these four cities. 5
x 10
14 x 10 5

(kgce)
14 Wuhan

(kgce)
13 Wuhan
Changsha

thickness
13 Changsha
Hangzhou
12
thickness 12 Hangzhou
Chengdu
insulation 11 Chengdu
11
10
insulation

10
9
with

9
8
with

8
associated

7
associated

7
6
6
PED

5
PED

5
cycle

4
cycle

4
3
lifelife

320 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160

20 30 50insulation70
thickness 90
of external110
wall (mm)130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)

Figure 12. The ITEWB and LPED for four cities under the continuous scenario.
Figure
Figure 12. The ITEWB
12. The ITEWB and
and LPED
LPED for
for four
four cities
cities under
under the
the continuous
continuous scenario.
scenario.
) )
2eq2eq

6
x 10
3 x 10 6
(kgCO

3 Wuhan
(kgCO

2.8 Wuhan
Changsha
2.8 Changsha
Hangzhou
thickness

2.6
Hangzhou
Chengdu
thickness

2.6
2.4 Chengdu
2.4
insulation

2.2
insulation

2.2
2
2
with

1.8
with

1.8
associated

1.6
associated

1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
GWP

1.2
GWP

1
cycle

1
cycle

0.8
0.820 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
lifelife

20 30 50 70 thickness 90
insulation 110(mm)
of external wall 130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
Figure 13. The ITEWB and LGWP for four cities under the continuous scenario.
Figure 13. The ITEWB and LGWP for four cities under the continuous scenario.
Figure 13. The ITEWB and LGWP for four cities under the continuous scenario.
The impacts of insulation thickness on the LCC, LPED and LGWP are most noticeable for Wuhan,
which has the largest operational energy consumption and is less obvious for Chengdu which has the
least operational energy consumption. This is because the reduction of energy consumption is more
obvious for larger building operational energy consumers when the insulation thickness increases
from 30 mm to 150 mm.

• Impact of different operation modes on the OTWRB when only considering one criterion

As shown in Figure 14, for both scenarios, within a certain range of the ITEWB, with the increase of
the ITEWB, the life cycle cost associated with the ITEWB decreases to a certain value and then it starts
to increase when the ITEWB beyond this value [18,70]. The optimal economic insulation thickness is
less for intermittent operation mode than that for the continuous mode. Here are the reasons.
For the continuous operation mode, when the ITEWB increases from 50 to 70 mm, the reduction
of operational energy cost result from the reduction of the operational energy consumption can make
up for the 20 mm increase in insulation material investment. As a result, the total cost for 70 mm
ITEWB is less than that for 50 mm ITEWB. However, for the intermittent operation mode, there is less
operational energy consumption and there is less reduction in operational energy consumption. The
reduction of operational cost cannot make up to the increase in insulation material investment. As a
result, the total cost for 70 mm insulation thickness is more than that for 50 mm insulation.
 thickness increases from 30 mm to 150 mm.
5
x 10
• Impact of different9.5operation modes on the OTWRB when onlycontinuous
considering one criterion

life cycle cost associated with insulation thickness (yuan)

intermittent
As shown in Figure 914, for both scenarios, within a certain range of the ITEWB, with the increase
of the ITEWB, the life cycle cost associated with the ITEWB decreases to a certain value and then it starts
Sustainability 2020, 12,
to increase when1574the ITEWB beyond this value [18,70]. The optimal economic insulation thickness is 15 of 21
8.5
less for intermittent operation mode than that for the continuous mode. Here are the reasons.
8 5
x 10
9.5

life cycle cost associated with insulation thickness (yuan)

continuous
intermittent
7.5
9

7
8.5 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)

8
Figure 14. Comparison of LCC of the ITEWB under two scenarios of Wuhan.

7.5
For the continuous operation mode, when the ITEWB increases from 50 to 70 mm, the reduction
of operational energy cost result from the reduction of the operational energy consumption can make
7
up for the 20 mm increase in30insulation
50 material
70 investment.
90 110 As130
a result,
150 the
160 total cost for 70 mm
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
ITEWB is less than that for 50 mm ITEWB. However, for the intermittent operation mode, there is
less operational energy
Figure consumptionofand
14. Comparison LCC there
of the is less
ITEWB reduction
under twoin operational
scenarios of energy
Wuhan.consumption.
The reduction ofFigure 14. Comparison
operational of LCC
cost cannot make of the
upITEWB
to the underincreasetwoinscenarios of Wuhan.
insulation material investment.
Asashown
As result, the in total
Figure
cost15,forfor these
70 mm two different
insulation thickness operation
is more than modes of air
that for 50 mmconditioners,
insulation. with the
For the continuous operation mode, when the ITEWB increases from 50 to 70 mm, the reduction
increase ofAsthe shownITEWB,in Figure
the LPED15, for these
and LGWP two different
associated operation
with themodes ITEWB of decrease.
air conditioners,
For thewith the
intermittent
of operational energy cost result from the reduction of the operational energy consumption can make
increase
scenario, the ofimpact
the ITEWB,
of thethe LPED and
ITEWB on LGWP
the associatedenergy
operational with theconsumption
ITEWB decrease. is For the
less intermittent
obvious, leading to
up for the 20 mm increase in insulation material investment. As a result, the total cost for 70 mm
scenario,
less obvious the impact
variations of the
in the ITEWB on the operational energy consumption is less obvious, leading to
ITEWB is less than that forLPED
50 mmand LGWP
ITEWB. compared
However, for the to the continuous
intermittent scenario.
operation mode, there is
less obvious variations in the LPED and LGWP compared to the continuous scenario.
less operational energy consumption and there is less reduction in operational energy consumption.
) 2eq

6 6
x 10 x 10
The1.2reduction of operational cost cannot make up to 2.6the increase in insulation material investment.
life cycle PED associated with insulation thickness (kgce)

life cycle GWP associated with insulation thickness (kgCO

Continuous
As 1.15
a result, the total cost for 70 mm insulation thickness
Intermittent 2.5 is more than that for 50 mm insulation. Continuous
Intermittent
As shown in Figure 15, for these two different 2.4operation modes of air conditioners, with the
1.1
increase
1.05
of the ITEWB, the LPED and LGWP associated 2.3
with the ITEWB decrease. For the intermittent
scenario,
1
the impact of the ITEWB on the operational energy
2.2
consumption is less obvious, leading to
less obvious variations in the LPED and LGWP compared to the continuous scenario.
0.95 2.1
life cycle GWP associated with insulation thickness (kgCO 2eq)

6 6
0.9 x 10 2 x 10
1.2 2.6
life cycle PED associated with insulation thickness (kgce)

Continuous
Intermittent Continuous
0.85
1.15 1.9
2.5
Intermittent
0.8
1.1 1.8
2.4
30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
insulation thickness of external wall (mm) insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
1.05 2.3
(a) (b)
1 2.2

Figure
Figure
0.95 15. Comparison
15. Comparison of of indicatorsassociated
indicators associatedwith
with the
the2.1ITEWB
ITEWBfor
fortwo
twodifferent
differentoperational
operationalmodes
modes of
of
0.9 air conditioners
air conditioners of Wuhan:
of Wuhan: (a) Comparison
(a) Comparison of of LPED;
LPED; (b)(b) Comparison of
2 Comparison of LGWP.
LGWP.
0.85 1.9
3.2.2. The OTWRB When Considering Different Weighting Efficiencies
0.8 1.8
30 50
Sustainability 2020, 12, x 70 90
FOR PEER 110
REVIEW
insulation thickness of external wall (mm)
130 150 160 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 160
16 of 21
As shown in Figure 16, the different weighting efficiencies ofinsulation thickness of external wall (mm)
economy, energy and greenhouse
(a) (b)
emissions
3.3.2.have a certainWhen
The OTWRB impact on the OTWRB.
Considering DifferentWhen thereEfficiencies
Weighting are fewer weighting efficiencies assigned
to the economic criteria,
Figure 15. Comparison the optimal
of indicators insulation
associatedthickness tendsfor
with the ITEWB totwo
become
different larger.
operational modes
ofAs
airshown in Figure
conditioners 16, the(a)different
of Wuhan: weighting
Comparison efficiencies
of LPED; of economy,
(b) Comparison energy and greenhouse
of LGWP.
• emissions
Impact have a certain
of different citiesimpact onOTWRB
on the the OTWRB.
whenWhen there are fewer
considering weighting
different efficiencies
weighting assigned
efficiencies
to the economic criteria, the optimal insulation thickness tends to become larger.
150
Continuous
OTWRB of Wuhan (mm)

100

50

0
1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions

16. OTWRB
FigureFigure considering
16. OTWRB different
considering weighting
different weightingefficiencies ofeconomy,
efficiencies of economy,energy
energy and
and greenhouse
greenhouse
emissions for Wuhan under the continuous scenario.
emissions for Wuhan under the continuous scenario.

• Impact of different cities on the OTWRB when considering different weighting efficiencies
As shown in Figure 17 and Figure 18, the OTWRB for different cities under continuous and
intermittent operation modes of air conditioners are roughly the same.
150
 0
1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
0 weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions
1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions
Figure 16. OTWRB considering different weighting efficiencies of economy, energy and greenhouse
Figure 16.
emissions forOTWRB
Wuhan considering different weighting
under the continuous scenario. efficiencies of economy, energy and greenhouse
emissions for Wuhan
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 under the continuous scenario. 16 of 21
• Impact of different cities on the OTWRB when considering different weighting efficiencies
• Impact of different cities on the OTWRB when considering different weighting efficiencies
As shown in Figure 17 and Figure 18, the OTWRB for different cities under continuous and
As shown in Figures 17 and 18, the OTWRB for different cities under continuous and intermittent
As shown
intermittent in Figure
operation modes17 of
and
air Figure 18, theare
conditioners OTWRB
roughlyfor
thedifferent
same. cities under continuous and
operation modes of air conditioners are roughly the same.
intermittent operation modes of air conditioners are roughly the same.
150
140 Wuhan
150
130 Changsha
OTWRB for continuous scenario (mm)

140 Wuhan
120 Hangzhou
130 Changsha
OTWRB for continuous scenario (mm)

110 Chengdu
120 Hangzhou
100 Chengdu
110
90
100
80
90
70
80
60
70
50
60
40
50
30
40
20
30
10
20
0
10 1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
0 weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions
1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions
Figure 17. Impact of different cities on the optimal insulation thickness of external walls for residential
Figure
Figure
buildings Impact
17.17.
(OTWRB)of of
Impact different
when cities
different onon
cities thethe
considering optimal
optimal
differentinsulation thickness
insulation
weighting of external
thickness walls
of external
efficiencies forenergy,
walls
of economy, residential
for residential
and
buildings
greenhouse(OTWRB)
buildings (OTWRB)
gas when
when
emissions considering
considering
under different weighting
different
the continuous weighting
scenario. efficiencies of of
efficiencies economy,
economy, energy, andand
energy,
greenhouse
greenhousegasgas
emissions
emissionsunder thethe
under continuous
continuousscenario.
scenario.
150
140 Wuhan
150
130
OTWRB for intermittent scenario (mm)

140 Changsha
Wuhan
120 Hangzhou
130
OTWRB for intermittent scenario (mm)

Changsha
110 Chengdu
120 Hangzhou
100 Chengdu
110
90
100
80
90
70
80
60
70
50
60
40
50
30
40
20
30
10
20
0
10 1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
0 weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions
1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions
Figure 18. Impact of different cities on the OTWRB when considering different weighting efficiencies
of economy, energy, and greenhouse gas emissions under the intermittent scenario.

The OTWRB for Wuhan is the largest while the OTWRB for Chengdu is the smallest for the same
weighting system. This is because Wuhan has the largest operational energy consumption while the
operational energy consumption for Chengdu is the smallest. As the impact of the increase of ITEWB
is more obvious for larger energy consumers, the reduction in operational energy consumption in
Wuhan is more than that in Chengdu. As a result, within a certain range of ITEWB, the net benefit by
increasing ITEWB in Wuhan is more than that in Chengdu.

• Impact of different operation modes on the OTWRB when considering different

weighting efficiencies

In Figure 19, for half of the various weighting systems, the OTWRB for two different operational
modes of air conditioners are different. This is because of the certain assumption of the intermittent
operation mode in this paper, resulting in differences in operational energy consumption between the
continuous operation mode and the intermittent operation mode.
 efficiencies
In Figure 19, for half of the various weighting systems, the OTWRB for two different operational
modes of air conditioners are different. This is because of the certain assumption of the intermittent
operation mode in this paper, resulting in differences in operational energy consumption between
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 17 of 21
the continuous operation mode and the intermittent operation mode.

150 150
140 Continuous 140 Continuous
130 Intermittent 130 Intermittent
120 120
OTWRB of Wuhan (mm)

OTWRB of Wuhan (mm)

110 110
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1:0:0 0:1:0 0:0:1 0.5:0.5:0 0.5:0:0.5 0:0.5:0.5 0.33:0.33:0.33 0.25:0.25:0.5 0.25:0.5:0.25 0.5:0.25:0.25
weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions weighting efficiency of economy,energy and greenhouse gas emissions

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 19. Impactof
19. Impact ofdifferent
different operation
operationmodes
modesof of air
air conditioners
conditionerson
onthe
theOTWRB
OTWRBfor
forWuhan
Wuhan when
when
consideringdifferent
considering different weighting
weighting efficiency:
efficiency: (a)
(a) Weighting
Weighting 1; (b) Weighting 2.

4. Conclusion
4. Conclusionand
andLimitations
Limitations

4.1. Conclusions
4.1. Conclusions
This study proposes a framework to analyze and select the OTWRB in the HSCW zone of China.
This study proposes a framework to analyze and select the OTWRB in the HSCW zone of China.
The criteria for this selection consider the integrated impacts of the ITEWB on building performance
The criteria for this selection consider the integrated impacts of the ITEWB on building performance
quantified by LCC, LPED and LGWP. Hypothetical buildings are simulated with split air conditioners
quantified by LCC, LPED and LGWP. Hypothetical buildings are simulated with split air conditioners
and using EPS as the insulation material in four typical cities of China, which are chosen as Wuhan,
and using EPS as the insulation material in four typical cities of China, which are chosen as Wuhan,
Changsha, Hangzhou and Chengdu. Two different operation modes of air conditioners (intermittent
Changsha, Hangzhou and Chengdu. Two different operation modes of air conditioners (intermittent
and continuous) are considered in this paper. The main findings of this study are as follows:
and continuous) are considered in this paper. The main findings of this study are as follows:
•• For For the
the continuous
continuousoperation
operationmodemodeof air
ofconditioners in Wuhan,
air conditioners the optimal
in Wuhan, the economic insulation
optimal economic
thickness is
insulation 70 mm. When
thickness considering
is 70 mm. only the aspects
When considering of energy
only the aspectsconsumption and greenhouse
of energy consumption and
gas emissions, the optimal value is 150 mm. For different weighting
greenhouse gas emissions, the optimal value is 150 mm. For different weighting efficiencies assigned to the
efficiencies
economy,to
assigned energy and greenhouse
the economy, energy gas
andemissions,
greenhouse thegas
OTWRB is determined
emissions, the OTWRB to be is
70,determined
90, 110, or 150
to
mm. For all these weighting systems, the OTWRB is larger than the current insulation
be 70, 90, 110, or 150 mm. For all these weighting systems, the OTWRB is larger than the current thickness,
which is 30thickness,
insulation mm. which is 30 mm.
•• When the weighting efficienciesassigned
When the weighting efficiencies assignedto tothe
theeconomy,
economy, energy
energy and
andgreenhouse
greenhouse gas gasemissions
emissions
change, the OTWRB might also change. In this paper, when the range of
change, the OTWRB might also change. In this paper, when the range of insulation thicknessinsulation thickness is 30
is
mm to 150 mm, the minimum OTWRB is achieved when the economic
30 mm to 150 mm, the minimum OTWRB is achieved when the economic factor is the only factor is the only criterion.
On the other
criterion. On hand, the maximum
the other hand, theOTWRB
maximum is obtained
OTWRBwhen sufficient
is obtained weighting
when efficiencies
sufficient weighting are
assigned to the energy and greenhouse gas emissions factors. When larger weighting efficiencies
applied to the energy and greenhouse gas emissions factors, the OTWRB did not become smaller.
• The different operation modes of air conditioners have a certain impact on the OTWRB based on
the results of this study.
• The OTWRB is almost the same for these four cities based on the results of this study. The OTWRB
is found to be the largest for Wuhan, which consumes the most operational energy, and smallest
for Chengdu, which consumes the least operational energy for the same weighting system.

4.2. Limitations
There are still some areas in need of improvement for future research:

• The impact of different kinds of intermittent operation modes of space heating and cooling systems
on the OTWRB is not considered in this paper.
• A general formula to optimize ITEWB related to meteorological data is not provided in this paper.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1574 18 of 21

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation,

resources, data curation, writing—original draft preparation, X.C.; supervision, X.L. and M.S. For research articles
with three authors, all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Key Research and Development Plan of Shaanxi Province (China, No:
2018ZDCXL-SF-03-04).
Acknowledgments: The authors are sincerely grateful to Runming Yao, University of Reading, who kindly gave
suggestions during the research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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