REVIEWER

CONTEMPORARY WORLD
LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION

METAPHORS OF GLOBALIZATION
1. Solid- opposed modernization /industrialization
2. Liquid- Symbolize the start of modernization or Industrialization
3. Flow- symbolizes the intensitive interaction

GLOBALISM- IS AN IDEOLOGY THAT REPRESENT THE CORE CLAIMS OF GLOBALIZATION

Globalization- is about liberalization
-benefits everyone
-further the spread of democracy in the world

MANFRED B. STREGER
-THE EXPANSION AND INTENSIFICATION OF SOCIAL RELATIONS AND CONSICIOUSNESS ACROSS
WORLD TIME AND WORLD SPACE

KENICHI OHMAE
-GLOBALIZATION MEANS THE ONSET OF THE BOARDLESS WORLD

MARTIN ALBROW
- ALL THOSE PROCESS BY WHICH THE PEOPLES OF THE WORLD ARE INCORPORATED INTO A
SINGLE WORLD SOCIETY

ANTHONY GIDDENS
-GLOBALIZATION CAN THUS BE DEFINED AS THE INTENSIFICATION OF WORLDWIDE SOCIAL
RELATIONS WHICH LINK DISTANT LOCALITIES IN SUCH A WAY THAT LOCAL HAPPENINGS ARE
SHAPED

GLOBALIZERS -argue that globalization is profoundly transformative set of social process that is
moving us into a new chapter of human history (Albrow 1997: Held and McGrew, 2007).

DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION
1. Economic dimension- it deals with the intensification and stetching of economic interrelation
across the globe. In addition to the more traditional factors of production, labour and land,
economic, globalization includes gigantic’ flow of capital and technology that stimulatestrade in
goods and services

2. Political Dimension- this refers to the expansion and acceleration of political relations and
interdependencies across world time and world space. These process raise more important
issue pertaining to the politics of the modern nation-state and the international state-system

3. Cultural Dimension- The cultural dimension of globalization influences the use of language,
the shape of world religions, global media, food, fashion, films literature, music and numerous
other aspect of global public life.

4. Ecological Dimension- this signifies the compression of our natural environment ecological
globalization highlights the increasing inter connection across national boundaries. Ecological
problems aretransitional in nature, requiring global collaboration and global solution
LESSON 2 IDEOLOGIES ON GLOBALIZATION

MARKET GLOBALIZATION- is a hegemonic system of ideas that make normative claim about a
set of social processes called globalization
SOCIAL IMAGINARIES- are deep seated mmodes of understanding that provide the most
general parameter within which pople image their communal excistence

1. Globalization is the liberization and global integration of markets

- Like all ideologies globalism starts with the attempt toestablish an authoriatative account of
what the phenomenan is all about. For neoliberals such as definition is anchored in the idea of
self regulaating market that serves the framework for a future global order. Neoliberal seek to
cultivate in the popular mind the uncritical association of ‘globalization’ with that they assert
to be the benefits of market liberization

2. GLOBALIZATION IS INEVITABLE AND IRREVERSIBLE

- The second mode of decontesting globalization turns the adjacent concept historical
inevitability. In the last decade, the public discourse on globalization describing its projected
path was saturated with adjective like irresistable inevitable, inexorable and irreversible
3. NOBODY IS IN CHARGE OF GLOBALIZATION
-The third mode of decontesting globalization hinges on the classical libreal concept of the self
regulating market. The semantic link between globalization market and the adjacent idea of
leaderness is simple: if the unditurbed working of the market indeed preordain a certain course
of history, then globalization does not reflected the arbitary agenda of a paricular social class or
group. In other words, globalist are not in charge in the sense of imposing their own political
agenda on
people

4. GLOBALIZATION BENEFITS EVERYONE

-This claim lies at the very core of globalism because it provides an affirmative answer to the
crucial normative question of whether globalization should be considered a 'good' or bad
althing. Globalists frequently connect their arguments to the alleged benefits resulting from
market liberalization: rising global living standards, economic efficiency, individual freedom,
and unprecedented technological progress. Here are examples of such claims: There can be
little doubt that the exraordinary changes in global finance on balance have been beneficial in
facilitating significant improvements in economic structures and living standards throughout
the world .. . Alan Greenspan, Chairman of the US Federal Reserve Board Globalization's
effectshave been overwhelmingly good. Spurred by unprecedented liberalization, world trade
continues to expand faster than overall global economic output, inducing a wave of
productivity and efficiency and creating millions of jobs. Peter Sutherland, Chairman of British
Petroleum We are at an optimistic time in our world: the barriers between nations are down,
economic liberalism is decidedly afoot and proven to be sound, trade and investment are
soaring, income disparities between nations are narrowing, and wealth generation is at record
high levels, and I believe likely to remain so. George David, CEO of United Technologies
Corporation

5. GLOBALIZATION BENEFITS EVERYONE

-This globalist claim rooted in the neoliberal assertion that free market and democracy are
synonyms term. Persistently affirmed as commonsense the actual compatability of these
concepts often goes unchallenged in the public discourse. Here are examples: Francis
Fukuyama, for example, asserts that there exists a ‘clear correlation’ between a country’s level
of economic development and successful democracy While globalization and capital
development do not automatically produce democracies, ‘the level of economic development
resulting from globalization is conducive to the creation of complex civil society with a
powerful middle class
 6. GLOBALIZATION REQUIRES A GLOBAL WAR ON TERROR
Instructive examples of the logical inconsistencies inherent in Claim 6 abound. Take Thomas
Barnett’s article ‘The Pentagon’s New Map’, first published in the March 2003 issue of Esquire
magazine, and subsequently expanded into a bestselling book bearing the same title. Barnett, a
professor of military strategy at the US Naval War College, also serves as the assistant for
strategic futures in the Pentagon’s Office of Force Transformations. In this capacity, he has been
giving his briefings regularly to the US Secretary of Defense, the intelligence community, and to
high-ranking officers from all branches of the US armed forces. In his much-debated article that
later turned into a best- selling book, Barnett argues that the Iraq War marks ‘the
moment when Washington takes real ownership of strategic security in the age of
globalization’. He breaks the globe down into three distinct regions. The first is
characterized by ‘globalization thick with network connectivity, financial transactions,
liberal media flows, and collective security’, yielding nations featuring stable
democratic governments, transparency, rising standards of living, and more deaths by
suicide than by murder (North America, most of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and a
small part of Latin America). He calls these regions of the world the ‘Functioning Core’
or ‘Core’. Conversely, areas where ‘globalization is thinning or just plain absent’
constitute a region plagued by repressive political regimes, regulated markets, mass
murder, and widespread poverty and disease (the Caribbean Rim, virtually all of Africa,
the Balkans, the Caucasus, Central Asia, China, the Middle East, and much of Southeast
Asia). The breeding ground of ‘global terrorist reffers to this region as the non
Intergrating Gap

LESSON 3 THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

What is an economy?
-An economy is the system according to which the money, industry, labor and trade of a
country or region are organized.
COMPONENTS OF AN ECONOMY
The following are the four major components of an economy.
 Goods - these are the products that will be sold
 Service - work done or duties served for another person
 Producer- a person who makes products
 Consumer- the one who buys products
 Law of Supply and Demand - The law of supply and demand is a theory that
explains the interaction between the sellers of a resource and the buyers for that
resource. The theory defines the relationship between the price of a given good or
product and the willingness of people to either buyor sell it.
 Scarcity is having fewer resources that are needed to fill
human wants and needs. In simpler terms it is the state of shortage.
Rarely can one region or nation satisfy all demands of its people. This forces regions
and nations to trade goods and services.

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
-Economy is one of the major dimensions of globalization. Economic globalization had
taken place and intensified because of the needs of countries in terms of trading and
international financial support. Specifically,economic globalization is the system of trade
and industry across the world in which countries' economies have been developing to
operate collectively as one system.

Why is economic globalization important?

-Integration of economies worldwide started because of scarcity thus the intensification
of trading happened.Why is economic globalization important?
Integration of economies worldwide started because of scarcity thus the intensification
of trading happened

A brief history on how economic globalization emerged

Due to scarcity or the unequal distribution of resources in the geographical lands and
waters of each country, nations exercised trading.
The first wave of trading happened through the oldest known international trade route,

the Silk Road. Silk Road spanned from China to Middle East and to Europe. (130 BCE-
1453 BCE) It is called the Silk Road because the most profitable products through this

network was silk. The silk road was international but not global because it had no
ocean routes that could reachthe American continent.

Galleon Trade
From 16th century to 18th century, Mercantilism happened. This is where countries
competed with one another to sell more goods as a means to boost their country's
income. They imposed high tariffs, forbade colonies to trade with other nations and restricted trade
routes. The most prominent trading system
that happened in East Asia was the Galleon Trade.
For the past 333 years we have been colonized by Spain. Galleon Trade is a
trade agreement during the Spanish colonization from 16th to 18th century. It
happened during the Mercantilism age.The Spaniards closed the ports of Manila to
all countries except Mexico. Manila became the center of commerce in the east

The Bretton Woods System

-After two world wars, world leaders sought to create a global economic system that
would ensure a longer lasting global peace. The Bretton Woods agreement was created
in a 1944 conference of all of the World War II Allied nations. This was created to
promote peace among nations.
They believed that one of the ways to achieve this goal was to set up a network of
global financial institutions that would promote economic interdependence and
prosperity.

The following financial institutions created are as follows:

1. World Bank- The world bank is an international agency with 189 member-countries. It is formed in
1944 to finance the reconstruction of war-torn countries brought by the devastation of World War II.
At present, it provides low-interest loans, interest- free credit and grants. It focuses on improving
education, health, and infrastructure.

2. International Monetary Fund-is responsible in supervising exchange rate system, and international
payments. It reflects on the amount owed by a country from another country. It also indicates the
economic operation like what it produces, consumes and buys with its money

3. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GATT is a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall purpose was to
promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or
quotas.
The Bretton Woods system had started the revolution on lower tariffs and quotas in
trading between nations. This caused a an easier and faster access of goods from
nation to nation.

Neoliberalism
In the 21st Century, the concept of free trading is called neoliberalism wherein
government intervention is lessened. The capitalists have higher opportunities to gain
more profit since quotas and tariffs are ei’ther eliminated or lessened
’Planned Economy vs Free Market
-Our economy had obviously developed from being a planned economy toa free market
economy.

Planned Economy
-A planned economy has Trade Protectionism as its policy. Trade Protectionism is a policy that protects
domestic industries from unfair competition from foreign ones. The four primary tools are tariffs,
subsidies, quotas, and currency manipulation.

Tools of Trade Protectionism

Tariffs - A tariff is a border tax that needs to paid before a good can be imported in a
country. Normally the buyer, not the seller, pays the tariffs. Governments impose high
tariff rates to protect our local products.As tariff goes higher, the price of the imported
good increases as well, discouraging people from buying it.

Qoutas - Quota, in international trade, government-imposed limit on the quantity, or in

exceptional cases the value, of the goods or services that may be exported or imported
over a specified period of time.

Subsidies - A subsidy is a direct or indirect payment to individuals or firms, usually in

the form of a cash payment from the government or a targeted tax cut. When
government subsidies are implemented to the supplier, an industry is able to allow its
producers to produce more goodsand services. This increases the overall supply of that
good or service, which increases the quantity demanded of that good or service and
lowers te overall price of the good or service.

FREE MARKET
-A free market has trade liberalization as its policy.
Trade Liberalization, or free trade, is a policy to eliminate discrimination against
imports and exports. Buyers and sellers from different economies may voluntarily trade
without a government applying tariffs, quotas, subsidies or prohibitions on goods and
Services

The myth of Economic globalization

Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson famously argue that Globalization, especially
Economic Globalization, is a myth. They argue that such highly internationalized
economy may well be less open than the world conomy during the period 1870 to 1914.
Most companies continue to be based in nations in terms of assets, production facilities,
and sales. Their multinational business stems from such a national base. And there
does not appear to be much in the way of movement toward the development of
multinational businesses. There is no massive shift of investment and employment from
Advanced to developing countries. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) continues to be
mainly in the advanced industrial economies and not in less developed countries. Trade
continues to involved mainly Europe, Japan, and North America (to this list enumerated
in 1999 would now need to be added China and perhaps India); it is not truly global. It is
those nations that possess the ability to govern the global economy (Hirst and
Thompson 1992).
While these are solid arguments, they really come down to the point that contemporary
economic globalization may not be as new or as great as many contend. However, they
do not contradict the idea that today’s economy is globalized and it has grown even
more globalized since since their argument was published a decade ago (Aldama, P. (2018). .

LESSON 4. MARKET INTEGRATION

 MARKET
-Market is a place where exchange takes place and a market comprises a group of buyers
and sellers, who can interact with each other to by sell goods and services. They can
interact with each other with or without physical contact. The transaction can be conducted
over the phone or on the internet. Sellers communicate their offering, price, availability to
the prospective buyers. The buyers purchase there offering by paying money to the seller.
Also the seller seeks feedback about the goods and services sold to the buyer to determine
his satisfaction level.

‘ Market Integration
’
The term can also refer to circumstances in which the prices of related goods and services
’
sold in a defined geographical location also begin to move in some sort of similar pattern to
’
’ one another. Distribution of productive resources in proper manner is the
essential part of integration. An efficient management of the overall industry is the idea
behind integration so that the economy can serve for the well-being or betterment of
society’

Is a term used to identify a phenomenon in which markets of goods decrease in terms of the prices of
those products. The term can also refer to circumstances
in which the prices of related goods and services sold in a defined geographical location
also begin to move in some sort of similar pattern to one another. Market integration occurs
when prices among different locations or related goods follow similar patterns over a long
period of time. Though products may not be of the same price, the increase and decrease
of prices for both the goods and the services go together.
Distribution of productive resources in proper manner is the essential part of integration. An
efficient management of the overall industry is the idea behind integration so that the
economy can serve for the well-being or betterment of society.

is the phenomenon by which price interdependence takes place. As per

Faminow and Benson (1990) integrated markets are those where prices are determined
interdependently; which is assumed to mean that price change in one market affect the
prices in other markets. Goodwin and Schroeder (1991) described that markets that are not
integrated may convey inaccurate price information which might distort producer marketing
decision and contribute to inefficient product movements.

Global Corporations
The contemporary global corporation is simultaneously and commonly referred to either as
a multinational corporation (MNC), a transnational corporation (TNC), an international
company, or a global company.
Enterprises that engage in activities which add value
(manufacturing, extraction, services, marketing, etc) in more than one country
(United Nations Centre On Transnational Corporations, 1991). The global economy
is being leaded by the big multinational and transnational corporations nowadays.

 Multinational companies
- MNCs place multiple production facilities in multiple
countries under the control of a single corporate structure (Oatley,
International Political Economy 5th Edition). A multinational corporation (MNC)
is a company that operates in more than one country.Generally, multinational
corporations consist of separate companies (called subsidiaries) in different
countries, all of which answer to a central office located in the firm’s home.
 Transnational companies
- are more complex organizations which have
invested in foreign operations, have a central corporate facility but give decision-
making, research and develop (R&D) and marketing powers to each individual
foreign market.

Internalization of Trade and Labor

-As with Japanese autos, American computers and Taiwanese calculators there is an
emergence of a “new international division of labor”. Basically, internalization of labor is a
change in geographical pattern of specialization at the global scale-constantly changing and
very dynamic. Division of labor has taken on spatial dimensions- some areas come to
specialize in certain types of economic activity
At a broad scale :
industrialized countries - manufacture goods non-industrialized countries - raw materials

Offshoring and Outsourcing

-In the previous lesson we have learned that economic globalization keeps on intensifying
due to the need of countries to produce high quality materials. Since each country has its
own expertise and specialization, division of labor occurs. This is where one product is
actually processed and manufactured through the help of other countries. Offshoring and
outsourcing are two examples of how labor are divided worldwide.
Offshoring is when production operations are performed in another country by the same
company. It happens when a corporation builds a separate company, still owned by them,
for a business process on another country.
Outsourcing in which part of a product's manufacture/process are performed in more than
one country or more than one company. It occurs
when a company entrusts a part of their business process to an outside vendor/ another
country.
We live in an age of outsourcing. Firms are subcontracting an expanding set of activities.
Some have become “virtual” manufacturers, owning designs for so many products but
making almost nothing themselves.
Both offshoring and outsourcing are done to save production costs and to produce more
high quality materials. This is also one aspect of the so called market integration.

Types of Integration
Horizontal Integration-This occurs when a firm or agency gains control of other firms or agencies
performing similar marketing functions at the same level in the marketing sequence.
Vertical Integration- This occurs when a firm performs more than oneactivity in the sequence of
the marketing
process.

.Advantages and Disadvantages of Economic Globalization

As a conclusion to the topic global economy and integration of markets, below are listed
advantages and disadvantages of the phenomena of globalization with regard to our
economy. Take note that, market integration, free trade, internalization of labor are all
signs and drivers of the global economy.

Advantages
 Increased choice
*Products worldwide are now more accessible to the consumers as free trade continues to
arise. The internalization of labor creates more high quality goods thus a bigger opportunity
and chance for people to consume better equipments and products.

*Greater potential for growth
Through economic globalization, the chances of each country to grow is bigger. Since
more technologies are being produced, more markets are being integrated and firms have
a larger opportunity to sell their products worldwide, most countries all around the world
benefit as their economy grows.

* Greater employment opportunities
Since more foreign investments will enter the country more job opportunities will be given
to the people. Economic globalization will make give more opportunities for people to earn
money.

Disadvantages
* Increase in gap between the rich and the poor
Because of the dominance of multinational corporations around the world more
opportunities are given to the rich people since they are ones who control these
corporations. When it comes to market competitions, the rich will always be the ones who
can produce more high quality goods and compete in the market. On the other hand, poor
people become laborers of these big corporations having lesser income than those who
owns firms and businesses.
* Lack of opportunities for the poor to have access for markets Sometimes the global economy
that is being developed nowadays are becoming less and less accessible to the poor since only the rich
people are the ones who benefit from it and have the purchasing power to buy different goods.

Exploitation of workers and growers-Because of the internalization of labor production of

labor-intensive products like shoes and clothes since the have the lowest wages and weakest
regulations. Workers from these countries have no other choice but to do

LESSON 5 GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM

Nation – state
- Coercive authority over specific territories (Max Weber)
- Independent political communities with governments(Hedley Bull)
- An imagined political community (Benedict Anderson)
Attributes of Modern International Politics
1. Governed through nation-states(2011, 195)
2. States are considered sovereign (independent).
3. International organizations (UN) and institutions(IMF,WB) facilitate relations between
states.
4. International organizations and institutions promote norms (respect for human rights,
free-trade)


Origins of the nation-state

The Peace of Westphalia (Germany) was package of treaties that ended the
30 years European wars of religion (1618-1648). These European states include the Holy
Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden and the Dutch Republic – agreed to respect one
another's territorial integrity.
The three (3) core points of the Westphalian Treaty are the following: (1) the principle of

state sovereignty, (2) the principle of legal equality of states; and (3) the principle of non-
intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another.

The Birth of Liberal Internationalism

Immanuel Kant (1795) stated that “for states in their relation to each other, there cannot be
any reasonable way out of the lawless condition which entails only war except that they, like
individual men, should give up their savage [lawless] freedom, adjust themselves to the
constraints of public law, and thus establish a continuously growing state consisting of
various nations which will ultimately include all the nations of the world.”
His statement only entails that agreements among states merely avert war, implying that
nations needed to give up their freedom and subject themselves to a larger system of law
(analogue with citizens in a country). Ultimately a form of global government needed to
create and enforce these laws.
Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) however argued that “The end that a disinterested
legislator upon international law would propose to himself would ... be the greatest
happiness of all nations take together.” He coined the term “international” in 1780 adding
that International law means law between states.
Do these ideas mean world government? Do they entail the abolition of states?
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), architect of Italian unification, ardent nationalist, and major
critique of the Metternich system, argued that nationalism and international cooperation
complemented each other. Hence, the world needs cooperation among nation-states.

US President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) contributed to the discussion with his

statement that nations were subject to the universal laws of God, which could be discovered through
reason. The principles paralleled to this argument include: self-
determination, democratic government, collective security, international law, and a league of nations.
In 1917, he proposed “that the nations should with one accord adopt the doctrine
of President Monroe as the doctrine of the world: that no nation should seek to extend its
polity over any other nation or people, but that every people should be left free to
determine its own polity, its own way of development—unhindered, unthreatened, unafraid,
the little along with the great and powerful.”

League of Nations
The League of Nations was founded in the 1919 Paris Peace conference after WW1 which aimed at
maintaining world peace through international arbitration. This also led to the birth
of task-specific international organizations like the WHO and the ILO (international civil service).
However ideal the birth of this organization, several alternative surfaced trying to provoke this
internationalism.

The Socialist International (1889-1916) (Karl Marx)

- “Workers of the world unite” - “The proletariat has no nation”
- Marxist anti-nationalism: affinity to the nation retards the worker’s struggle
- Organization of labor and socialist parties, mainly in Europe
- Achievements: 8-hour working day, International Women’s Day, May 1
- Its parties became major players in the electoral politics of Europe
- Collapsed in 1916 as its member parties supported the war efforts of their respective
States

2. Communist International (Comintern),1919-1943

- Product of the Bolshevik victory in Russia
- Lenin’s tool to promote revolution
- Central body for all Communist Parties across the world
- Dissolved in 1943 to appease Allied Powers
Lenin: “Monopolies, oligarchy, the striving for domination and not for freedom, the
exploitation of an increasing number of small or weak nations by a handful of the richest or
most powerful nations — all these have given birth to those distinctive characteristics of
imperialism which compel us to define it as parasitic or decaying capitalism.”
Ho Chi Minh: “ You must excuse my frankness, but I cannot help but observe that the
speeches by comrades from the mother countries give me the impression that they wish to
kill a snake by stepping on its tail. You all know today the poison and life energy of the
capitalist snake is concentrated more in the colonies than in the mother countries... Yet in
our discussion of the revolution, you neglect the colonies, while capitalism uses them to
support itself, define itself and fight you.”

3. Fascism
- Hitler saw both variants internationalism as an attack on the nation
- Fascists believed in the primacy of ethnic majorities
- Fascists believed in regional spheres of influence
The United Nations (1945- present)
The UN was created to preserve peace after the war and reinforce principles of sovereignty
and non-intervention. It reflected the postwar balance of power. The UN took over the
duties of the League. It grew larger than the league because of decolonization (2015, 193)
Decolonization after the war
- Imperial powers were in ruin and could not maintain colonies
- Wartime defeats exposed the weakness of imperial powers
- Wartime heroes in the colonized world became prominent
After WWII, Cold War divided the world
First world: NATO and the Western Alliance
Second World: Communist countries
Third World: Those caught in between the superpowers
The Bandung Conference (1955)
Having learned from the pitfalls of colonization and as victims of such, 29 countries
gathered in Bandung Indonesia to discuss the fight against colonialism. This conference
established to combat colonialism and neocolonialism by either the US or the USSR. It also
led to the birth of the non-aligned movement. Upon the agreement pf these countries, a
Mazzinian internationalism for decolonizing countries was adapted.
The speech of Indonesian President Sukarno represented the core points of the
conference:
“We are often told "Colonialism is dead." Let us not be deceived or even soothed by that. 1
say to you, colonialism is not yet dead. How can we say it is dead, so long as vast areas of
Asia and Africa are unfree? And, I beg of you do not think of colonialism only in the classic
form which we of Indonesia, and our brothers in different parts of Asia and Africa, knew.
Colonialism has also its modern dress, in the form of economic control, intellectual control,
actual physical control by a small but alien community within a nation. It is a skilful and
determined enemy, and it appears in many guises. It does not give up its loot easily.
Wherever, whenever and however it appears, colonialism is an evil thing, and one which
must be eradicated from the earth ”
LEGACIES OF BANDUNG
1. Third world solidarity
2. Cementing the emphasis on national development against
“neocolonial intervention.”
3. Regionally-driven internationalism

LESSON 6 GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE-is the sum of laws, norms, policies and institutions that define,
constitute and mediate international relations between states,cultures, citizens, intergovernmental
and nongovernmental organization and the market. The absence of a global government doesn’t
mean that we are living in a war-zone. Actually, because of globalization, or the continuous
strengthening of worldwide relations, global governance was made, not through a global
government but through an organization that helps countries bind together. One great exampleof the
is the United Nations.

What Does UN Do?

1 MAINTAIN INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY
2. PROTECT HUMAN RIGHTS
3.DELIVER HUMANITARIAN AID
4PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
5.UPHOLD INTERNATIONAL

READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

3 Aspects in Analyzing Primary Sources

•Content and contextual analysis of selected primary sources.
•Historical importance of text in understanding Philippine History.
•Examining the author’s main argument and point
of view.
”

Content Analysis
•To look at the document itself
•Author’s main argument of thesis or the main idea
• Compare points of view, identify biases, and
• Evaluate the author’s claim based on the pieces of
evidence presented or other available evidence at
the time.

Perspective

•Historical sources are written by various authors

with different perspectives
• Perspective refers to the point of view of the
writer who was the witness of the event.
• Reading a historical event from the different
points of view will enable us to form our own studies of the said event (use of critical and analytical
skills.

6 C’s in Analyzing Primary Sources

• CONTENT – identify the main idea.
• CITATION - identity of the author and the time it was released.
• COMMUNICATION – identify the biases of the author.
• CONTEXT – what is going on in the place where or during the when the
document was created.
• CONNECTIONS – recognize the connection of the primary source to
what you already know.
• CONCLUSIONS – determine the contributions of the primary source to
our understanding of history.
ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT
WHAT IS AN ORGANIZATION
-"collection of persons working together for a Common purpose"

-’Defines “as the process of continuing the work whicH individuals or groups have to performed
provide the best channels for the efficient, systematic, positive, and coordinated application of the
available resources.

-More contemporary definition places organizations as “structural relationship between various

factors inthe enterprise.

- The structural factors are what are called the five M’s – Man, Materials, Machine, Methods and
Money.

FOUR CHARACTERISTICS COMMON TO ALL ORGANIZATION

Coordination of effort- when individuals join together and coordinate their mental and
physical efforts, great and exciting things can be accomplished.

Common goal or purpose- Coordination of efforts cannot take place unless those who have
joined together agree to strive for something of mutual interest. A common goal or purpose gives
organization members a rallying point.

-Division of labor By systematically dividing a complex task into a specialized jobs, an

organization can efficiently use its human resources. Division of labor permits each organization
member to become more proficient by repeatedly doing the same specialized task.

Hierarchy of authority -By systematically dividing acomplex task into a specialized jobs,
an organization can efficiently use its human resources. Division of labor permits each
organization member to become more proficient by repeatedly doing the same specialized
task.

Classifications of Organizations
BY PURPOSE

BUSINESS- Organizations that have underlying purpose to make profit in a socially accepted
manner. Businesses cannot survive, let alone grow, without earning a profit, and profits are
earned by efficiently satisfying demand for products and services.

NON PROFIT SERVICE-Unlike businesses, many organizations survive and even grow, without
making any profit at all. They need to be solvent, of
course, but they measure their success not in peso or dollars, but how well they provide a
specific service for some segment of society.

COMMONWEAL ORGANIZATION-Like non-profit service organizations, commonweal

organizations, offer public services. But, unlike non-profit service organizations, a
commonweal organization offers standardized service to all members of a given population.
They are services organizations for larger populations.

MUTUALBENEFIT ORGANIZATION-Often as in the case of labor unions or political

parties, individuals join together strictly to pursue their own self-interest. Like all other types
of organizations, mutual benefit must be effectively and efficiently managed if they are to
survive. Survival, in this instance, depends on satisfying the needs of the members
(affiliation, security and association).

BY TECHNOLOGY

Long linked technology: This variation of technology involves the serial

interdependence of work. In
other words work flows from person A to person B to person C and so on.

Mediating technology: Many organizations today provide a standard service to large

number of
individuals who want to exchange something such as information, money or
property.

Intensive technologies- Intensive technology has been called a custom technology.

Organizations based
on intensive technology can custom-build their product or service to fit each
customer’s particular set of needs.

What is Business?-Business is defined as an organized effort of individual to produce

and sell goods in order to satisfy the needs of society. Business primarily aims to satisfy the
consumer’s basic and secondary needs. Profit is the main objective of business which
distinguishes it from charitable institutions and government agencies.

What is the Relationship Between Business and Economy?-

-Relationship Between Business and Economy The business firm produces goods and services
from the factors of production provided by society. Consumers, in return, buy these goods
and services. Business firms thus contribute to the country’s economic growth.
The Elements of A Business System

Economics is the study of how a society produces and distributes its desired goods and
services. It deals with how society uses its resources to produce goods and services. These
economic resources to produce are called factors of
production. They are land, labor, capital, and the entrepreneur.

Land pertains to all natural resources.

Labor refers to the physical and mental efforts of the people who produce the goods and
services.

Capital includes all man -made resources used in the production of goods and
services.
The entrepreneurs or the businessman buys and organizes these factors of production to
come out with business that will eventually provide goods and services to the economy.
Why people engage in business?
-Social approval – the businessman has a high social standing in the community. It
used to be that society looked with greater favor upon the soldier, landlord, doctor
and lawyer.
Profit – the major factor of motivation for going into
business is profit.
Service to the community and to employees – many
businessmen render service to the community in donating
money, sponsoring civic activities, setting up facilities for
community needs, or providing opportunities for
employment.

Personal satisfaction – this personal satisfaction comes

about from the social status conferred on those engaged
in business.
Livelihood – people go in business to earn a living.

Power – some people enter into businesses because they

expect to rise to position of prestige, power, and
leadership.
Protection – there are a number of instances where
individuals inherit businesses, and, with the apprehension of
suffering from loss through selling it, decide to run the
business themselves.

KINDS OF BUSINESSES

Commerce- refers to the transfer or exchange of goods and services with the
movement of goods from point of production to point of consumption.

Industry-is primarily concerned with the production of goods, that are used by the
consumers, called consumer goods, or, that are used by other industries in the
further production of other goods, called industrial or producer
goods.

Service- is the third classification of businesses. These enterprises cater to personal

needs of people, or with the rendering of a personal service.

LEGAL FORMS OF BUSINESS OWNERSHIP

Sole/single proprietorship-A form of business is owned by one person; the

simplest, and the most common form of business organization. The Department of
Trade and Industry is the government agency that regulates the trade names of
sole/single proprietorship businesses.
Advantages
The owner keeps all the profits.
The owner makes all the decisions.
It is easy to form and operate.

Disadvantages

The life of the business is limited to the life of the owner. Once the
owner dies, the business will cease to operate under the name of the
proprietor.
The amount of capital is limited only by
the wealth of the proprietor.

Partnership-A form of business owned by two or more persons. The

details of the arrangement between the partners are outlined in a
written document called
articles of partnership. Profits are divided among partners based on their
agreed sharing. The
owner is called a partner.

Advantages

Higher capital because two or more persons will contribute to the

common fund.
It is easy to operate like a sole/single
Proprietorship

Disadvantages
The profits are divided among the
partners.
A partner can be held liable for the acts
of the other partners.
In a lawsuit, the personal properties of
the partners can be held beyond their
contributions and may be used to answer
for any liability of the partnership.

Corporation-A corporation is a business organized as a

separate legal entity (artificial person) under
 the corporation law with ownership divided into
transferable shares of stocks. Emphasize that it
is the law (Corporation Code of the Philippines) that creates a
corporation. The word Corporation/Incorporation/Corp./Inc. appears in
the name of the entity. The voting rights of a shareholder is generally
based on the percentage of ownership. The management of the business
is delegated by the shareholders to the Board of Directors. The
ownership is divided into shares and the value of one share may be
denominated at a smaller amount

Advantages
Can easily raise additional funds by sellingshares of stocks to the public.
Shareholders are not personally liable forthe debts of the corporation.
The extentof their liability is limited to their equity (ownership) in the
corporation.

Disadvantages
It is relatively complicated to set up.
Subject to several legal restrictions as
listed in the Corporation Code of the
Philippines

Cooperatives

A cooperative is a duly registered association of persons with a

common bond of interest, voluntarily joining together to achieve
theirsocial, economic and cultural needs. The owners are called
members who
contribute equitably to the capital of the
cooperative. The members are expected to patronize their products
and services. The word ‘cooperative’ appears in the name of the entity.
This form of business organization is regulated by the Cooperative
Development
Authority (CDA).

Advantages
Enjoys certain tax exemption privilege
Promotes the concept of sharing resources

Disadvantages
Limited distribution of surplus
Requires continuous education programs for members.
The members have active and direct participation in the business of the
cooperative.

*The Firm and its Environment

Business Environment-Business Environment may be defined as the
total surroundings, which have a direct or indirect bearing on the
functioning of business.
It may also be defined as the set of external factors such as economic,
social, political, demographic, technical etc. Which are uncontrollable in
nature and affects the decision's of the firm.

The Environmental Forces

-The importance of knowing the business environment help the business
firm foresee the possible occurrences and strategies to turn the seeming
threat into possible opportunities.

Socio-cultural Environment refer to the structure and dynamics of

individuals and

groups and their

.
behaviors interpersonal relationships
Poverty thought patterns
life expectancy rate beliefs
Literacy Lifestyles

The sociocultural structure and values that a society practice has

considerable influence in the business ‘‘firm.

Political Environment-This includes the political form, the government

policies and attitude towards the business community. All these aspects
have a substantial alignment with the strategies adopted by business
firms.
- Strikes, lockouts and labor disputes adversely affect the business
operations.

Technological Environment- Technology included methods, techniques

and approaches adopted for producing goods and services, and its
distribution. To survive and grow in the market, a business has to adapt
technological changes from time to time.

Legal Environment- This refers to set pf laws, regulations

and legalities that affect the business operations.
Every business organization has to follow and obey within the framework
and requirements of the law

Competition- is the rule of thumb in the industry.

Knowing who the players are in the similar industry will give the firm a
good advantage point. It is important to know the competitor's activities
and then design effective strategies using the firm's controllable
variables.

Economic Environment-The survival and success of every business

depend fully on its economic environment

*economic growth * Inflation rates

*interest rates * unemployment rates
*foreign exchange rates * globalization of the economy

SWOT ANALYSIS
Once these elements have been identified and filled in, decision makers
of the firm should be able to have a clear discernment if the goal is
worth pursuing and would push
through as planned to ascertain its success.

Strengths
The advantages or the internal attributes that support a
positive result or edge that you have over the competitors.

Weaknesses
The disdvantage or internal characteristics that work
against a successful outcome compared to the competitors.
Opportunities
Current external factors or trends that can be used to be
taken advantage.

Threats
Current external factors which may cause a problem And cause a
negative impact and jeoparize the business.

PEST ANALYSIS-Refers to Political,Economic, Social and

-Technological that describes a framework of
macro-environmental scanning for market research as part of strategic
management.

-It gives an overview of the environmental forces

that the company has to consider to understand the market growth
better.
-helps the
business spot opportunities
and red flags on significant
threats.
-It guides the direction of change within the business
environment and contributes to avoid starting projects
that are likely to fail for reasons beyond the control
of the organization.

POLITICAL
It is how the Government ‘intervenes in the economy. The
laws, global Issue legislation, regulations,which may have a ‘direct effect
on the business.’

Economic-Taxes, interest rates, inflation, the stock markets and

consumer confidence have to be taken

Social- Changes in lifestyle and

buying trends, media, major events, ethics, advertising and publicity
factors.

Technological- Innovations, access to technology, licensing,

manufacturing, research funding,
Global communications
Nature and Concept of Management

What is Management?-Etymology: from the Italian word "Maneggiare ",

which Means "to handle (tools or equipment)"

Maneggiare- derives from the latin words Manus Which Mean "hand"
and " Agere "which is "to act"

Management-’is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and

controlling the activities of an organization effectively and efficiently to
achieve its goals.

-is the most important subject in business because it

deals with people, establishing and achieving objectives. It is
consequently used in almost every human activity.

-is responsible for proper allocating and using the resources of the
organization.

Management: Arts or Science?-

-SCIENCE IS DEFINED AS "KNOWLEDGE ABOUT OR STUDY OF THE
NATURAL WORLD BASED ON FACTS
LEARNED THROUGH EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATION.

-ARTS IS "SKILL ACQUIRED BY EXPERIENCE, STUDY,

OR OBSERVATION"

Management theories for organizations

Scientific Management-Defined as the use of scientific method to
determine the one best way " for a job to be done Theory of
management which studies the application of scientific methods and
principles for
the purpose of redesigning the work process to
increase efficiency. It emphasizes the importance
of labor in the production process and focuses on
improving the efficiency of workers in production He made a scientific
study of workers, machines, and the workplace by using the method of
standardization of parts, uniformity of work structure and the assembly
line.

Administrative Management Theory

-Administrative management focuses on the overall
management of an organization, emphasizing the
role of managers as administrators of the
organization.

The five functions are planning, organizing,

communicating, coordinating, and controlling.

This was introduced in the early20th century by (Henri Fayol), a French

industrialist.

The fourteen principles of management are as follows:

CENTRALIZATION
SCALAR CHAIN
ORDER
EQUITY
STABILITY AND TENURE OF PERSONNEL
INITIATIVE
ESPRIT DE CORPS
DIVISION OF WORK
AUTHORITY
DISCIPLINE
UNITY OF COMMAND
UNITY OF DIRECTION
PREDOMINANCE OF THE
GENERAL INTEREST
REMUNERATION

Behavioral Management Theory-Theorists then believed that a better

understanding
of human behavior while at work, improved
productivity and that employees are not machines
but considered to be valuable assets in the
organization.

Management Science Theory-The management science theory

originated during the World War II as mathematical, and statistical
solutions to military problems were developed for wartime use.

Management Science Theory contributes to the

managerial decision making, particulary in
planning and controlling.

Organizational Environment Theory- They understood that an

organization is a part of a larger environment outside its boundaries and
is affected by social, technical and economic factors which are in a form
of a systems perspective based on physical sciences.
What is a Manager?

The people in the organization who are responsible for the management
process need to be continually aware that the organization exist as a part
of an environmental that is constantly changing

FUNCTIONS OF A MANAGER
Planning-The basic function of management

-It deals with plotting and jotting down of action plans and decisions in
advance to achieve the pre-
determined goals of an organization

- The manager plans the future course of actions, systematically thinking

about ways and means to accomplish the set goal

Organizing
-It is the process of bringing together pysical, financial and
human resources and developing productive relationship among them
for the achievement of organizational goals Managers must supervise,
lead, motivate, coach, train, guide, and direct his subordinate to work
fficiently and effectively.

Leading- Managers must supervise, lead, motivate, coach, train, guide,

and direct his subordinate to work efficiently and effectively.

Management skills
CONCEPTUAL
A Manager must have the knowledge or the ability to
see the "big picture of any given situation to be able to create ideas and
visualize plans for the future.

TECHNICAL
A manager must possess specific knowledge and the ability to use
different techniques to achieve what they want to achieve

HUMAN
This skill pertains to interpersonal relationship and the ability to work
well with other people

LESSON 1: PHILOSOPHY:
UTS
THE SELF FROM PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES

According to Corpuz et al. (2019), SELF is commonly defined by the

following characteristics:

1. SEPARATE - self is unique or distinct from others.

2. SELF CONTAINED and INDEPENDENT - independent and contained
with its thoughts,
characteristics, and volition.
3. CONSISTENT - has a personality that is enduring and persistent which
allows it to be
examined, described, and measured. It also means that self traits,
characteristics, tendencies, and
potentialities are more or less the same.
4. UNITARY- self is the center of all experiences and thoughts where all
processes, emotions,
and thoughts converge or in command.
5. PRIVATE - each person sorts out information, feelings, and emotions
within the self that is
not accessible to others.

The definition given by Stevens (1996) shows us a comprehensive

characterization of the
self. Additionally, it is also important to identify the factors affecting the
development of the self.
Macayan et al. (2018) outlined four factors affecting one‟s being; these
are:

1. Heredity Heredity plays a significant role in the development of the

various aspects of the self. In
this process, parents „characteristics/ traits are transmitted to their
offspring. For instance, you
have a dark complexion because you inherit the complexion of one or
both of your parents.
Aside from physical, you may also inherit psychological conditions like
being emotionally
unstable.

2. Environment
Another factor affecting our development is the environment. For
instance, you learned to
smoke because you are surrounded by family members who smoke. You
are aggressive because
you are exposed to a hostile environment.
3. Biological
Biological factors like the functioning of the brain, hormones, and
neurotransmitter
substances also affect the development of the self. For instance, you are
depressed because of the
imbalance of neurotransmitter substances such as serotonin and
dopamine.
4. Personal choice
Another factor is personal choice with emphasis on the role of free will
or free choice. For instance, instead of saying that you smoke because of
the influence of your friend (environmental), it should be “I smoke
because
choose to smoke.”

PERSPECTIVE ON THE SELF

-The first one became more concerned about the problem
of the self.
-His lifelong mission is to know oneself.
-He emphasized that the true task of a philosopher is to“know oneself”.
-He stated that the true task of the unexamined life is not worth living.
-He thought that the worst that can happen to anyone is to live but die
inside.
-He explained that all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect
which is the body and while maintaining that there is also a soul that is
perfect and permanent.
-Socrates believed that everynman is composed of body and soul.

PLATO
Plato- Plato is Socrates‟ student who supported his teacher‟s idea. He
added that there are three
components of the soul. The rational soul, spirited and
appetitive soul.
a. The rational soul is the combination of reason and
intellect that governs the affairs of the human person.
b. The spirited part is in charge of emotions.
c. The appetitive soul is in charge of one‟s desire.
Plato stressed that “justice in the human person can only be attained if
the three (3) parts of
the soul are working harmoniously with one
another”.

AUGUSTINE

Augustine-Augustine‟s view of the human

person reflects the entire spirit
of the medieval world when it
comes to man.
 Following the ancient view of
Plato and infusing it with a
newfound doctrine of
Christianity.
 -He speculated that man is of
bifurcated nature.
- He believed that the body is
bound to die on earth and the
soul is to anticipate living
eternally in a realm of spiritual
bliss in communion with God.

RENE DESCARTES

Father of Modern Philosophy.  He claims that there is so much

that we should doubt.
 The only thing one cannot
doubt is the existence of the
self.
 His famous Cogito ergo sums
“I think therefore I am”.
 Descartes believed we are
composed of the cogito (the
mind) and the extenza
(extension of the mind which
is the body).
 The body is nothing else but a
machine that is attached to the
mind.
 He says “but what then, am I?
A thinking thing. It has been
said. But what is a thinking
thing? It is a thing that doubts,
understands (conceives),
affirms, denies, wills refuse;
imagine also and perceives.
 For Descartes, the self is
nothing but a mind
-body
dichotomy. Thought (mind)
always precedes action
(body).
 It is the thought that sets the
direction to human actions but
humans are always free to
choose.

DAVID HUME
-Scottish Philosopher  An empiricist who believes
that one can know only what
comes from the senses and
experiences.
 Empiricism is the school of
thought that espouses the idea
that knowledge can only be

David Hume

possible if it is sensed and

experienced.
 He believed that the self is
nothing else but a bundle of
impressions which is
categorized into two:
impressions and ideas.
 He believed that the self is a
bundle or collections of
different perceptions, which
succeed each other with an
inconceivable rapidity, and are
in perpetual flux and
movement.
 He believed that there is no
self as a mental entity for
“what we call a mind is
nothing but a heap or
collection of different
perceptions...”
 He reduced personality and
cognition to a machine that
may be activated or
deactivated. Death, according
to him obliterates the
IMMANUEL KANT
Kant thinks that the things that
men perceive around them are
not just randomly infused into
the human person without an
organizing principle that
regulates the relationship of
these impressions.
 There is necessarily a mind
that organizes the impression
that men get from the external
world.
 He suggests that the self is an
actively engaged intelligence
in man that synthesizes all
knowledge and experience.
 The self is not just what gives
one his personality. It is also
the seat of knowledge
acquisition for human persons.

Gilbert Ryle- solves the mind

body dichotomy.
-In searching for the self, one
cannot simultaneously be the
hunter and the hunted.
-For him, what truly matters is
the behavior that a person
manifests in his day to day life.

Ryle suggests that the “self” is
not an entity one can locate
and analyze but simply the
convenient name that people
use to refer to all the behaviors
that people make.
-His theory is called logical
behaviorism or analytical
behaviorism
- a theory of mind
which states that mental
concepts can be understood
through observable events.
- He believed that the self is a
combination of the mind and
the body. For him, self is taken
as a whole. He also posited the maxim, “I act, therefore I am.”

MERLEAU PONTY-A phenomenologist asserts that

the mind body bifurcation is a
futile endeavor and an invalid
problem.
- He believed in “I am my
body”.
- He says that the mind and
body are so intertwined that
they cannot be separated from
one another.
- He believed that the living
body, his thoughts, emotions,
and experiences are all one.
- He believed that the body has
its intelligence and it perceived
it based on its senses.
 We know not through our
intellect but our experience.
JOHN LOCKE-His main philosophy on
personal identity is founded on
consciousness or memory.
 For him, consciousness is the
perception of what passes a
man‟s mind. He rejected that
brain has something to do with
consciousness as the brain and
the body may change, while consciousness remains the
same.
-He concluded that personal identity is not in the brain but one‟s
consciousness.
- He believed that consciousness may transfer from one substance to
other (body and soul).
-He believed in tabula rasa
which discusses that everyone
started with a blank slate and
the content is provided by
one‟s experiences over time.

SIGMUND FREUD -He believed that the self is Multi layered.

-The human mind is composed
of three structures id, ego, and superego. 
-Id exists since birth, about instincts.
-The ego operates according to the reality principle.
- Superego operates according to the morality
principle. It has two
systems: conscience; and
ideal self.

PAUL AND PATRISHA CHURCHLAND-Both neuroscientist that introduced

the eliminative materialism- “a radical claim that ordinary, common-
sense understanding of the mind is deeply wrong and that some or all of
the mental states posited by common-sense do not exist”.

-For them, self is nothing else

but the brain, or simply the self
is contained entirely within the
physical brain.

LESSON 2: SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGY:

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

WHAT IS IDENTITY?
Identity refers to who the person is. It is also known to be the quality or
traits of an
individual that makes him or her different from others. Aside from that,
it also refers to how a
person sees and expresses oneself.

CULTURAL IDENTITY VS. NATIONAL IDENTITY

Cultural identity refers to the feeling of belongingness to a certain
cultural group. It is an
individual’s perception of the self that is anchored on race, gender,
nationality, religion,
ethnicity, and language. The cultural identity theory explains why a
person acts and behaves the
way he or she does. It makes sense of how an individual is influenced by
the cultural contexts an
individual is situated.

While NATIONAL IDENTITY is the feeling of belongingness to one state or

nation. Rupert
Emrson, a political scientist defines it as a body of people who feel that
they are a nation. It is
socially constructed and can be shaped by material and non-material
culture. Material culture
represents culture or nationality (ex. national flag) while non-material
culture is the shared
understanding of a group such as norms, beliefs, language, traditions.

1. Individual self reflects the cognitions related to traits, states, and

behaviors that are
stored in memory.
2. Relational self reflects cognitions that are related to one’s
relationships.
3. Collective self reflects cognitions that are related to one’s group.

PERSPECTIVE ON THE SELF

(GEORGE FREBERT MEAD)
I - represents the unique, free and subjective part
of the self (who we are without too much
consideration of external influences)
 ME - represents conventional and objective part
of the self (assumes roles, learned behavior, and
internalized attitudes of others)
 GENERALIZED OTHERS - an organized
community or social group which gives an
individual his/her unity of the self (internalized) behaviors, beliefs, or
attitudes).

.(20Vygotsky)
Mead and Vygotsky stated that a human person’s
development is with the use of language acquisition and
interaction with others. They believed that:
 The way we process information is normally a
form of internal dialogue in our heads.
 We treat the human mind as something that is
made, constituted through language as
experienced in the external world and as
encountered in dialogs with others.
 A child may internalize values, norms, practices,
and social beliefs, and more through exposure to
these dialogs that will eventually become part of
his world.

Henri Tajfel
Social Identity by Henri Tajfel is defined as the
person’s sense of who he or she is according to
his or her membership in a certain group.
 According to this group, membership is an
important source of pride and self-esteem. It
gives a sense of social identity- social
belongingness to the social world.

Three mental processes:

 Social Categorization- This is similar to how
people categorize things.
 Social Identification- After learning their
category, people adopt the identity of the group
in which they have categorized themselves.
 Social Comparison- This is where they tend to
compare that group with other groups.

(Charles Horton Cooley)

Charles Horton Cooley’s looking-glass self is a
social psychological concept which explains that
the self is developed as a result of one's
perceptions of other people's opinions.
8 People are the way they are at least partly
because of other people's reactions to them and to
what they do.
* Self is built through social interaction (when
people imagine how they must appear to others,
imagine the judgment on that appearance, and
develop themselves through the judgment of
others.
* The looking glass self is made up of feelings
about other people’s judgments of one’s
behavior.
 *The self is built through social interaction which
involves three steps: first, people imagine how
they must appear to others; second, they imagine
the judgment on that appearance; and finally,
they develop themselves through the judgment of
others.

(Erving Goffman)
Erving Goffman’s presentation of everyday life is
also known as the dramaturgical model of social
life. For him, social interaction may be compared
to a theater and people to actors on a stage where
each plays a variety of roles.
 As people interact with one another they are
constantly engaged in impression management- a
process in which people regulate and control
information in social interaction.
 This model of social life assumes that
personalities are not static because they change to
suit the situation.
 The self is a product of the dramatic interaction
between actor and audience. The self is made up
of the various parts that people play, and a key
goal of social actors is to present their various
selves in ways that create and sustain particular
impressions to the different audiences.
 -Kenneth Gergen’s saturated or multiplicitous self-tackles
the following:
 The saturated self is a constant connection to
others, a self that absorbs a multitude of voices.
 People establish multiple selves through the
absorption of the multiple voices of people in
their lives, either in real life or through the
media.
 Through mediums such as the internet and video
games, people can construct idealized versions of
who they are by selectively representing various
aspects of their selves like self-promotion.

Marcel Mauss- According to Marcel Mauss (French Anthropologist)

that every self has two faces:
 Moi - a person's sense of who he/she is, the body,
and basic identity or biological composition.
 Personne - composed of the social concepts of
what it means to be who he is, what it means to
live in a particular family, institution, religion, or
nationality, and how to behave in the given
expectations and influences of others.

Psychological Perspective of the Self

Psychology is the scientific study of human
behaviour and mental processes.
Psyche- soul/ mind & Logos- study
SELF-CONCEPT-is an organized, consistent set of
perceptions of and beliefs about
oneself (Passer & Smith, 2007).
• Carl Rogers asserted that we have two
selves:
Real Self
Ideal self
• Incongruence of the real self and ideal
self can lead to anxiety.

FEEDBACK FROM OTHERS

ABILITIES
GOALS
PAST EXPERIENCE
PHYSICAL FEATURES
SOCIAL ROLES
PERSONALITY TRAIT
VALUES
OWN OBSERVATION

SELF-ESTEEM

• Refers to one’s overall assessment of

one’s worth as a person (Weiten, et al.,
2014).
• Self-esteem is usually describe as high
or low.
• Specific elements of the self-concept
may contribute to self-esteem.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELF-ESTEEM

1. Excessive criticism during

childhood.
2. Child abuse and punishment.
3. Negligence from parents.
4. Constant comparison with others.
5. Expectations.

SELF-EFFICACY

• It refers to the belief in one’s

capabilities to achieve a goal or an
outcome.
• The belief that one can have an
impact on one’s environment- to
account for psychological changes
that come about from a variety of
treatments (Bandura, 1977).

FACTORS AFFECTING SELF-EFFICACY

1. mastery experiences
2. social modeling
3. social persuasion
4. physical and emotional states
“Four (4) Agentic Perspective”
INTENTIONALLY
 Enables us to behave with purpose.
2. FORETHOUGHT
 Allows us to anticipate outcomes
2. SELF-REACTIVENESS
 We can be motivated to regulate our actions
2. SELF-REFLECTIVENESS- We can reflect our thoughts and behaviors
and make needed modifications

“Four (4) steps in observational learning and modeling process”

ATTENTION- In order to learn, you need to be

paying attention.
- Anything that distracts your
attention is going to have a
negative effect on observational
learning.

RETENTION- The ability to store information is

also an important part of the
learning process.
-can be affected by a
number of factors, but the ability
to pull up information later and
act on it is vital to observational
learning.’

Motor Reproduction-Once you have paid attention to the model and

retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you
‘’observed.
-Further practice of the learned
behavior leads to improvement
and skill advancement.’’

Motivation-Finally, in order for observational

learning to be successful, you
have to be motivated to imitate
-Further practice of the learned
behavior leads to improvement
and skill advancement.

LESSON 2.1 THE PH’YSICAL SELF

PHYSICAL SELF- It is commonly referring as our body. It is characterized
as our physical characteristics wherein
we can see gradual changes in our traits and features
of the body
Growth- refers to physical/physiological changes in kinsfolk which are
often quantitative.
Development-pertains to progressive series of changes that occur in a
very relatively predictable pattern as a result of maturation and skill.
MATURATION-It is the unfolding of traits in individuals which are result
from
the interactive relationship of heredity and environment.

I Factors Affecting Physical Growth and Development

Heredity -It is the process of the inheritance of traits

that may be passed from parents to offspring.
Environment - It refers to the factors an individual is
exposed to throughout life which has learning and
experiences.

II Theories of Physical Self

Physiognomy
“physiognōmia”

III BODY IMAGE

-refers to how an individual perceives, thinks, and feels about their body
and physical appearance.

Appearance- refers to everything about a person that others can

observe such as height, weight, skin color, clothes, and
Hairstyle
Self-Esteem- A person’s over all evaluation of his or her own worth.

The Sexual Self