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Introduction To Well Logging: 1.1 Oil and Gas Exploration
Introduction To Well Logging: 1.1 Oil and Gas Exploration
Contents
1.1 Oil and Gas Exploration 1
1.2 Well Logging Methods 2
1.2.1 Basic resistivity logging methods 2
1.2.2 Basic induction logging tool 4
1.2.3 Basic propagation logging method 5
1.2.4 Basic laterolog 6
1.3 Nuclear Logging 6
1.3.1 Gamma ray log 7
1.3.2 Neutron log 7
1.3.3 Density log 8
1.4 Sonic Logging 8
1.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Logging 9
1.6 Dielectric Logging 11
1.7 Wireline Logging and Logging While Drilling 12
1.8 Geosteering 13
1.9 Summary of Electromagnetic Logging Tools 15
References 15
Modern oil and gas explorations are more sophisticated. In general, the oil and gas
exploration can be divided into three steps. The first step is to find an oil/gas bearing
reservoir. To do so, geology and geophysical methods such as seismic imaging are
used. The scale of seismic image is in the range of kilometers with a resolution of
hundreds of meters. Once the oil reservoir is located, pilot drilling will be done and
the geophysical properties of the earth formations will be carefully studied based on
drilling samples and logging data. Logging is a closer look of the physical properties of
the formation using various indirect measurements. Logging can be done while
drilling, or after drilling. When the measurement equipment is directly attached to a
drilling bit, the measurement is performed during the drilling. This direct measure-
ment method is called logging while drilling (LWD) or measuring while drilling
(MWD). When the logging is performed after drilling activity in a borehole, the log-
ging tools used are wireline tools. The name wireline comes from the cables that send
power to the logging device and carry logging signals to the surface. The logging data
gives a more detailed geophysical description of the formation surrounding the well
drilled. For most logging tools, the depth of investigation is in the range of a few
centimeters to about 30 ft. The resolution can be as high as millimeter to about a few
feet. The results of the logging process will give petrophysicists a quantitative measure
of the formation parameters so that the production rate, formation quality, depth of
production zone, and productivity can be evaluated.
resistivity would be ready to obtain if the potential difference between any two equi-
potential spheres is given. Consequently, electrical survey can be taken only in
uncased wells and with conductive muds, such as water-based mud and oil-emulsion
mud, otherwise the measurement would be greatly influenced by the mud resistivity.
Practical resistivity logging devices utilize multiple electrodes of various configura-
tions and dimensions to serve different needs. The normal device and the lateral
device are two frequently used electrode arrangements.
The principle of the normal device is shown in Fig. 1.1. A point electrode, A, is
connected to a current source with an intensity of I. Two other electrodes, M and N,
are also placed in the hole. M is near A, while N is far away enough to be approxi-
mately seen as infinite distance. Assume the formation is uniform, its resistivity R can
thus be expressed by
ΔV
R5K
I
where ΔV is the potential difference between M and N. K is a coefficient that
depends on the distances between the electrodes.
The lateral device is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. The principle is quite similar; only the
source is connected with two electrodes, A and B, and both of them are placed in the
M
A
M
A
B
Figure 1.2 The lateral device.
4 Theory of Electromagnetic Well Logging
hole. Sometimes the roles of AB and MN are interchanged, with M as the emit-
ting electrode, and the potential difference between A and B being measured.
The resistivity calculated by the equation above is called apparent resistivity, Ra. In
practice, it reflects the average resistivity of the formation, and is affected by the bore-
hole. The apparent resistivity is the actual resistivity of the formation assuming the
formation is isotropic, homogeneous, and no borehole. Resistivity inversion models
and digital processing are further needed to obtain the true resistivity Rt if the above
conditions are not satisfied, which is often the case. Therefore the apparent resistivity
obtained from any resistivity tool is not actual formation resistivity without data
inversion.
In general, the properties of a device depend on the relative positions of electro-
des. Different electrode distributions may affect the performance of defining bed
boundaries, estimation of fluid content, or showing thinner/thicker layers.
Therefore a combination of two or more different devices is often used to provide
sufficient information.
Receiver
coil
Eddy
current
loop
Transmitter
coil
Figure 1.3 Induction logging tool.
Introduction to Well Logging 5
where K is a calibration factor that relates to the tool geometry and transmitting cur-
rent, and σa is the apparent conductivity. Here the voltage V is complex, since a phase
shift exists between V and the transmitter current IT. As a result, σa is also complex.
Assume the formation surrounded the tool is infinite and homogeneous, σa can be
seen as an integration over the whole space, given by
ð 1N ð 1N
σa 5σR 1 jσX 5 gðρ; z; σÞ 3 σðρ; zÞdρdz ð1:2Þ
2N 0
where gðρ; z; σÞ represents the contribution of each specific eddy current loop to the
total conductivity, or the sensitivity of the tool at (ρ; z).
Based on the two-coil tool, multiple-coil tools are developed to focus the measur-
ing signal, reduce the borehole influence, and improve the vertical resolution. Such
tools include dual induction tool and array induction tool. After 1990s the Triaxial
tool has been introduced to the market, in which the transmitter and receiver coils are
mounted orthogonally to obtain measurements in all three directions. The operation
frequency of induction tool is usually at tens of kilohertz.
A1
M′1
M1
Focused A0 Focused A′0
current M2 current
M2′
sheet sheet
A2
A′2
Figure 1.5 Two configurations of laterolog: (A) Point electrode; (B) Guard electrode.
Introduction to Well Logging 7
neutron source. These two cases lead to Gamma Ray logging and Neutron logging,
respectively. Nuclear logging can be conducted in open or cased holes, and can be
used with any type of borehole liquid.
hydrogen decreases, the neutrons will go further without collision, and more likely to
be detected by the receiver.
In unshaly zones, hydrogen primarily exists in water, oil, and gas, which are con-
tained in the pores of formations. Therefore the counting rate, which shows the con-
centration of hydrogen, closely relates to the rock porosity. Shaly formations can also
cause high counting rate because of the water bounded in the pores, but since shale is
practically impervious, it does not contribute to the effective porosity. Consequently,
the Neutron log needs to be compared with other logs (e.g., gamma ray) to determine
the real porous zones.
T1 Formation
Mud
R1
Δ
R2 t
Fig. 1.6, a sonic pulse emitted by the transmitter T1 passes through the mud and
enters the formations, where it propagates in all directions. A small fraction of it may
“bend” back, penetrate the mud again and reach the receivers. The time difference
between the pulse arriving at two receivers, Δt, is recorded, so that the round-trip
time through the mud can be eliminated. Note that the logging tool body must be
made from low-velocity materials (e.g., rubber), in order to minimize the energy loss.
One problem of the tool design in Fig. 1.6 is that if the tool is not parallel to the
borehole, or the borehole size changes fast, and Δt is too vague to determine,
the dual-receiver system will not give satisfying results [7]. This can be solved by the
Borehole Compensating tool, which incorporates two transmitters and four receivers,
aligning symmetrically on the tool. The two transmitters emit sound pulses alternately
from both ends of the tool, and the signals captured at the central receivers are aver-
aged to compensate for the tool misalignment.
tool. Most of the existing NMR logging tools are designed for hydrogen detection,
since hydrogen produces a strong signal, and is naturally abundant in water and hydro-
carbons. When no external magnetic field exists, the hydrogen atoms (protons) are
randomly aligned in the formations.
When a magnetic nucleus is placed in a static magnetic field B0, a perpendicular
torque is applied to its spinning axis, making it process around the direction of B0
with a frequency v. For hydrogen, the nucleus can align either with or against B0, as
shown in Fig. 1.7. Since the alignment with B0 is in the low-energy state, this direc-
tion is preferred by most nuclei, so the macroscopic magnetization M is parallel to B0.
This alignment process is called polarization. However, if an oscillating magnetic field
B1 is applied perpendicular to B0, and the frequency of B1 is exactly equal to v, the
low-energy state nuclei may absorb energy and jump to the high-energy state.
Consequently, the direction of M is gradually tipped while B1 lasts.
In NMR logging, the static field B0 is generated by a permanent magnet, and the
oscillating field B1 is transmitted from an antenna around the magnet. Such radiofre-
quency (RF) energy is in the form of precisely timed bursts: First, a 90-degree pulse
is applied to the polarized protons to change the precessional direction to the trans-
verse plane, generating the first resonance signal on the plane; then a series of 180-
degree pulses follows, reproducing the resonances, or spin echoes, by reversing the
magnetization vectors on the transverse plane. As a result, a decaying signal pulse
series is detected by the antenna on the tool, and this is the raw data measured by the
NMR tool, containing most of the logging information. The pulse train causing spin
echoes is called a CPMG sequence, which is illustrated in Fig. 1.8.
M
ν
B0
Time
Figure 1.8 CPMG sequence and spin-echo trains.
Introduction to Well Logging 11
Gas 1
Oil 2
20 ohm-m water 79
1 ohm-m water 77
0.1 ohm-m water 59
12 Theory of Electromagnetic Well Logging
Pipe
T1
R1
R2
T2
Slot antenna
where β and α are called phase constant and attenuation constant, respectively, shown
by the phase shift and attenuation ratio of the transmitting waves, which are directly
measured by the logging tool.
εc is the complex permittivity, given by
0
σ
εc 5 ε 2 j 1 ε00
ω
0
where the real part ε 5 ε0 εr , and the imaginary part involves the effects of both con-
ductivity σ and the dielectric loss ε00 . When the frequency is low, the imaginary part
is dominated by σ, and is much greater than the real part. To obtain relatively accurate
0
calculation of ε , the operation frequency must be chosen so high ( .15 MHz) that
the real and imaginary parts of εc are comparable.
Two types of dielectric logging tools are used in practice: coil-type and pad-type.
The coil-type tool uses coils as antennas, similar with the propagation tool shown in
Fig. 1.4, only the operating frequency is higher (3050 MHz). The pad-type tool has
a conductive pad with slot antennas acting as a current sheet in a cavity, as illustrated
in Fig. 1.9. During the measurement, the pad is pushed against the borehole by a
mechanical control system. Pad-type tools operate at hundreds to thousands of
megahertz.
Quantitatively, there is a relationship between the dielectric constant, porosity, and
water saturation. Therefore the last two can also be calculated from the dielectric
measurements. Moreover, the measurement of permittivity also assists in other forma-
tion evaluation methods (e.g., crosswell radar investigation), which may be greatly
affected by the variation of permittivity.
monitored so that any stuck can be detected immediately. The logging data are either
stored in the memory of the tools and retrieved on the surface, or directly transmitted
up through the wireline. However, when the borehole is highly deviated or horizon-
tal, it becomes difficult for the tools to enter by gravity. Sometimes the tools must be
pumped into the wellbore to obtain measurements, which makes the logging proce-
dure extremely time-consuming.
LWD offers an alternative way to solve this problem. Instead of logging after dril-
ling, the LWD tools are integrated to the drill pipe as part of the Bore Hole
Assembly, and conduct continuous measurements while the drilling proceeds.
Downhole power is supplied by specially designed batteries or mud turbines, which
leverages the flow energy of the drilling fluid. Data are still recorded to the memory
for download afterwards, or the tools can send part of the information to a telemetry
system, which communicates with the surface in real time.
Several types of telemetry methods are used in practice. The most widespread one
is the mud pulse system, invented in the 1960s [13], which utilizes a valve to adjust
the mud pressure so that it can represent different digital bits. Some companies pro-
vide EM telemetry or acoustic telemetry system, using low-frequency electric source
or sonic source as downhole wireless transmitters. In the past decade, a wired pipe sys-
tem enters the market, offers a new possibility for the telemetry approaches. All of
these methods have advantages and drawbacks in different environments, and the
practice selection depends on the well depth, formation properties, cost, and so on.
The advent of LWD not only decreases the down time, it also helps in optimizing
the drilling operation. With the real-time logging information, the operator can
respond quickly to improve the efficiency and productivity, as well as avoid potential
accidents and tool loss. Also, with the logging tools installed near the bit, the logs are
obtained as the hole is freshly drilled. As a result, the measurements are less affected
by the mud invasion, and hence more accurate. Nowadays, wireline logging is gradu-
ally replaced by LWD, and mostly used for benchmark purposes.
1.8 GEOSTEERING
Geosteering is developed for the purpose of directional drilling. With a mud motor
and a bent subconnected, the orientation and inclination of the well can be changed
without pulling out the drill pipe.
Before drilling a well, the well paths are planned in order to meet specific require-
ments, such as maximizing the productivity, or reducing the expense. To follow this
trajectory accurately, MWD techniques must be applied. Based on the real-time infor-
mation gathered by MWD tools, the borehole position and bit conditions are contin-
uously updated. The information includes inclination, azimuth, weight-on-bit, tool
Table 1.2 Summary of electrical and electromagnetic logging tools
Tool name Major applications Characteristics Major specifications Operating Preferred Maximum Minimum
frequency borehole mud DOI vertical
resolution
1 Induction/Array Wireline resistivity for Accurate for low resistivity Resistivity range 10k100 kHz Higher resistivity 90v 12v
induction formation evaluation formations 0.1500 ohm-m mud
2 Triaxial induction Wireline resistivity for Azimuth resistivity, bed Resistivity range 10k100 kHz Higher resistivity 90v 12v
formation evaluation boundary determination, 0.1500 ohm-m mud
true dip, cross bedding,
unconventional oil and gas
3 Laterolog (Dual Wireline resistivity for High resistivity Resistivity range 10400 Hz Low resistivity 50v 12v
laterolog, Array formation evaluation measurements 0.210k ohm-m mud
laterolog)
4 LWD propagation LWD geosteering, Measuring while drilling, Resistivity range 100k2 MHz High resistivity 78v 6v
resistivity resistivity for formation EM propagation, phase 0.2500 ohm-m mud
evaluation and amplitude resistivity (phase resistivity);
0.2300 ohm-m
(amplitude resistivity)
5 LWD directional Geosteering, boundary Measuring while drilling, Resistivity range 100k2 MHz High resistivity 78v 6v
propagation distance and direction EM propagation, phase 0.2500 ohm-m mud
resistivity detection and distance and amplitude resistivity, (phase resistivity);
to boundary azimuth resistivity and 0.2300 ohm-m
measurement, cross component (amplitude resistivity)
resistivity for formation measurement
evaluation
6 Electromagnetic Wireless downhole and Measuring while drilling, Transmission distance: 150 Hz Medium NA NA
telemetry for surface data low frequency 3000 m, bit rate is resistivity
LWD data communication 110 bps
transmission
7 Dielectric constant Water saturation and Wireline tool, high Both dielectric constant 20 MHz1 GHz High resistivity 14v 1v
tool unconventional frequency and conductivity
8 Far boundary Extremely far boundary LWD tool, very low Boundary detection 100 Hz5 kHz
detection tool detection frequency, azimuth distance can reach 100 ft
antennas
9 Resistivity imaging High resolution and Both LWD and wireline Near borehole resistivity 10 Hz10 kHz Both oil- and 4v 1v
tools shallow DOI imaging water-based
Resistivity range: mud
0.22000 ohm-m
10 Through casing Resistivity measurement Wireline 0.1200 ohm-m 15 Hz NA
resistivity tool through metal casing
Introduction to Well Logging 15
25 MHz–1.1 GHz
100 kHz–2 MHz
Dielectric logs
EM telemetry,
50–1500 Hz
1 Hz–1 kHz
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Figure 1.10 Spectrum of electrical and electromagnetic logging tools.
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16 Theory of Electromagnetic Well Logging
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