Bio Score: Chapter 2: Cell Structure and Functions

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BIOLOGY STUDENTS COMPANION RESOURCES
BIO SCORE
CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
SUBTOPIC : 2.1 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

LEARNING OUTCOMES: a) State the three principles of cell theory.
b) Explain the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
c) Illustrate and compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (plant
and animal cells).
.
MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ All living things are composed of cells (All organisms are composed of one
a) State the or more cells).
three principles
of cell theory. ▪ Cells are the structural and functional unit of life.
▪ All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
▪ Pro : before, early, primitive, first

b) Explain the ▪ Karyon : nucleus
structures of
prokaryotic ▪ Prokaryotic cell : Cell that has genetic material that is not enclosed by
and eukaryotic nuclear membrane.
cells. ▪ e.g. of prokaryotic cell: bacteria
(Circular) DNA • Is found in a single and coiled chromosome.
• Not associate with histone protein.
• Not enclosed in a nucleus (lies freely in cytoplasm).
• Located in a nucleoid region.
Plasmid • Small, double-stranded circular DNA
• Containing extra genes / provide genetic
informations for certain activities of cell
Shape • Spherical (cocci)
Explanation • Rod-shaped (bacilli)
about structure • Spiral
of bacteria Glycocalyx / • Outside of / external to cell wall
Capsule • Made up of polysaccharide and protein
• Protect against immune system of host cell
Cell membrane • Membrane and other structures that surround and
protect the cytoplasm
• Main components are phospholipid bilayer and
embedded proteins
• Control the flow of materials into and out of cell
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Cell wall • Made up of peptidoglycan
• Provide structural support and maintain shape of the
bacterial cell
Cytoplasm • Semifluid (water-based) solution

• Composed of water and organic molecules
• Enclosed by plasma membrane
Fimbria (sin.); • Fine, hair-like bristles that present in multiple
Fimbriae (pl.) numbers
• Help bacterial cell in adhesion to host cell or other
bacterial cell
Pilus (sin.); • Bristle-like structures that present single or in pairs
Pili (pl.) • Longer than fimbria
• Help in adhesion to another bacterial cell during the
transfer of DNA (sex / conjugation pilus)
Flagellum (sin.); • Long fibers / structures that protrude from the
Explanation Flagella (pl.) surface of the bacteria cell
about structure • Mainly for locomotion / movement / motility
of bacteria Ribosome • Tiny particle compose of RNA and protein
• Site of protein synthesis
Mesosome • Irregular fold in plasma membrane
• Site of cellular respiration
Structure of bacterial cell
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Different shape of bacterial cell
Structure of flagella, fimbriae and pilus
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ Eu : true
▪ Karyon : nucleus
Eukaryotic cells ▪ Eukaryotic cell : Cell that has genetic material that is enclosed by nuclear
membrane.
▪ E.g. of eukaryotic cell : animal cell, plant cell
▪ Have membrane-bounded nucleus

▪ Nuclear envelope / membrane enclose the nucleus (separating its contents
from the cytoplasm)
▪ Genetic material is linear DNA that is associated with histone protein
▪ Has membrane-bounded organelles
▪ There are two classes of organelles :
1) Endomembrane system : organelles that communicate with one another via

small vesicles or membrane channels
2) Energy related organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts
Explanation
about structures
of eukaryotic
cells
DNA associate with histone protein
Structure of an animal cell
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Structure of a plant cell
c) Illustrate and
compare the
structures of
prokaryotic
and eukaryotic
cells (plant
and animal
cells).
Illustration of
prokaryotic cell
(e.g. bacterial
cell)
Structure of a prokaryotic cell
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Plant cell
Illustration of
eukaryotic cells
Animal cell
Structure of eukaryotic cells
***Refer to similarities and differences

Comparison
Similarities :
between
prokaryotic and
- Both cells are surrounded by plasma membrane
eukaryotic cells
- Both cells have DNA as genetic material
- Both cells have cytoplasm, ribosome, smooth and rough ER, mitochondria,
nucleus, nucleolus
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Comparison
between
prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Features / Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

characteristics
Cell division
By mitosis or meiosis or
Binary fission with no
both with spindle fiber
spindle formation
formation
Animal cell has no cell wall,
Cell walls Composed of plant cell has cellulose cell
peptidoglycan wall and cell wall of fungi
composed of chitin
Membrane-
bounded Absent in prokaryotic
Present in eukaryotic cells
organelles cells
Has large size (80S)

Ribosome Has small size (70S) ribosome; Small size (70S)
ribosome ribosome present in
organelles
Linear DNA located in
Circular DNA lies freely
Genetic double membrane-bounded
in cytoplasm.
materials nucleus.
DNA not associate with
DNA associate with histone
histone protein.
protein.
Simple flagella lack of
Complex flagella with '9+2'
Flagella '9+2' microtubule
microtubule arrangement
arrangement
Plasmid Present in some bacteria Absent in eukaryotic cell
Cellular Site of cellular respiration Site of cellular respiration is
respiration is mesosome mitochondrion
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BIO SCORE
CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
SUBTOPIC : 2.2 Structures and functions: Cell membrane and organelles
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Show the detailed structures of typical plant and animal cells and state the organelles present.
b) Explain the structures and functions of the following organelles : nucleus, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosome, ribosome, mitochondria,
chloroplast and centriole.
c) Show the structure of plasma membrane based on Fluid Mosaic Model.
d) Explain the structure of the plasma membrane and the functions of each of its components.
MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
a) Show the detailed

structures of
typical plant and
animal cells and
state the
organelles
present.
Animal cells seen under light compound microscope
Detailed structures
of typical plant and
animal cells
Plant cells seen under light compound microscope
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Detailed structures
of typical plant and
animal cells
Animal cells seen under electron microscope
Plant cells seen under electron microscope
Organelles present in
plant and animal
cells
Organelles in animal cell
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Organelles present in
plant and animal
cells
Organelles in plant cell
b) Explain the
structures and
functions of the Organelle :
▪ Structures that suspended within cytosol and perform specific
following
functions inside cell.
organelles : ▪ Can be divided into membranous organelles and non-membranous
nucleus, rough organelles
endoplasmic
reticulum, Membranous Non-membranous
smooth organelles organelles
endoplasmic Nucleus Ribosome
reticulum, Golgi Chloroplast Centriole
Mitochondria
body, lysosome, Rough ER
ribosome, Smooth ER
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus
chloroplast and Lysosome
centriole.
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Organelles Structures Functions

Nucleus ▪ Spherical or oval in shape • Store genetic
▪ Double membrane nuclear information /
envelope enclose the nucleus genes of a cell :
Explanation on the and separate it from cytoplasm. contain
structures and ▪ Has outer membrane that is chromatins /
functions of continuous with endoplasmic chromosomes
organelles reticulum and also has inner in nucleoplasm
membrane • Control
▪ Inner part of nucleus is production of
nucleoplasm which is semifluid RNA and
medium containing chromatin, proteins in cell
nucleotides, mineral ions, • Control all
enzymes and nucleolus activities of cell
▪ Surface of nuclear membrane by regulating
has nuclear pore that regulate the synthesis of
entry and exit of molecules e.g. proteins and
protein, RNA from nucleus. enzymes
▪ Nucleolus is small dense
spherical body within nucleus
that consist of RNA and protein
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Rough ▪ Consist of network of ⚫ Synthesis secretory

endoplasmic membranous flattened proteins (e.g.
reticulum (ER) sacs called cisternae hormone)
▪ Membrane of ER - polypeptides
separate the ER synthesized by
lumen @ cavity / ribosomes are
cisternal space from transported to
the cytosol ER lumen
▪ Membrane of rough - inside ER
ER is continuous with lumen, the
the outer membrane polypeptides
of nucleus are modified by
▪ There are ribosomes enzymes (add
on outer surface of carbohydrate
the rough ER chain to the
Explanation on the membrane protein
structures and forming
functions of glycoprotein)
organelles
⚫ Involve in
intracellular
transport of
proteins (the
glycoprotein is
packaged inside
transport vesicle and
the vesicle is carried
to Golgi body)
Smooth ER ▪ Consist of network of ⚫ Site of lipid
membranous tubules synthesis
called cisternae ⚫ Breakdown of
▪ Membrane of ER stored glycogen to
separate the ER glucose in liver
lumen @ cavity / ⚫ Store calcium ions
cisternal space from in sarcoplasmic
the cytosol reticulum of skeletal
▪ Lack of ribosomes on muscle
outer surface of the ⚫ Detoxify drugs and
smooth ER membrane poison in liver
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Golgi ▪ Consist of a group of ▪ Modify,

apparatus / flattened membranous sacs packaging and
Explanation on the body called cisternae sorting of
structures and ▪ Each cisterna has lumen protein
functions of ▪ Has two sides : cis face and • Cis face
organelles trans face receive
▪ Cis face is usually located transport
near the ER and receive vesicles
transport vesicles from ER from ER
▪ Trans face bud off transport • Products of
vesicles containing specific ER are
products to be carried to modified
other locations inside cell or during
to plasma membrane for their transit
secretion from cis face
to trans face
of Golgi body
• Trans face
package the
modified
products in
transport
vesicles and
sort the
vesicles
to be
transported
out of Golgi
body
▪ Form lysosome
▪ Form
polysaccharide
s e.g. pectin in
Golgi body of
plant cells
which then
incorporated
with cellulose
into cell walls
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MAIN IDEAS/ EXPLANATION NOTES

KEY POINT
Lysosome ▪ Spherical in shape 3) Involve in
▪ Single-membrane intracellular food
bounded organelle digestion
▪ Produced by Golgi (phagocytosis)
apparatus
▪ Contains hydrolytic 4) Involve in
enzymes autophagy
(digestion of old
@ worn out
organelles)
Explanation on the
structures and 5) Involve in
functions of autolysis
organelles (digestion of old
@ damaged cells
results in apoptosis
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Ribosome ▪ Not bounded by ⚫ Site of protein

membrane synthesis
▪ Are complexes made of - most of the
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) proteins made by
and protein free
▪ Consist of two subunits ribosomes function
: large subunit and within cytosol
small subunit - bound ribosomes
▪ Can be found as free make proteins
ribosomes (suspended that
in cytosol) and bound are inserted into
ribosomes (attach to membranes, for
rough ER) packaging within
organelle e.g.
lysosome or
secretory proteins
Mitochondria ▪ Rod-shaped ⚫ Site of cellular

▪ Double membrane- respiration /
bounded organelle : energy @ ATP
- smooth outer production
membrane
- highly folded inner
membrane forming
cristae
▪ Cristae is highly folded to
increase the surface area
of inner membrane thus
increasing the efficiency
of energy / ATP
production
▪ Intermembrane space is
the narrow region between
outer and inner
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membranes
▪ Mitochondrial matrix
containing enzymes, DNA
and ribosomes is enclosed
by the inner membrane
Chloroplast ▪ Double membrane-bounded ▪ Site of photo-

organelle synthesis
▪ Outer and inner membrane is
separated by very narrow
intermembrane space
▪ Inside chloroplast is another
membranous system in the form
of flattened, interconnected sacs
called thylakoids
▪ Stack of thylakoids are called
granum
▪ Thylakoid membrane contain
photosynthetic pigments e.g.
chlorophyll
▪ Fluid outside thylakoid is
stroma which contain enzymes,
DNA and ribosomes
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Centriole ▪ In animal cells, ⚫ May help
microtubules grow out to organize
from centrosome (region the spindle
that is located near the fibre
nucleus) during
▪ Within the centrosome of mitosis and
animal cells, is a pair of meiosis in
Explanation on the centrioles animal
structures and ▪ Each centriole is cells
functions of composed of nine sets of
organelles triplet microtubules
arrange in a ring
Endomembrane System:
• Components of endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope,

endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, various kinds of
vesicles, vacuoles and plasma membrane.
• The system carries out variety of tasks in the cell, including synthesis of
proteins, transport of proteins into membranes and organelles or
out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids and
detoxification of poisons.
• The membranes of this system are related either through direct physical
continuity or by formation of vesicles (membranous sacs).
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c) Show the
structure of
plasma
membrane based
on Fluid Mosaic
Model.
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▪ Fluid Mosaic model is proposed by Singer and Nicolson

▪ Fluid because phospholipids and proteins are able to move laterally /
side by side in the phospholipids bilayer
d) Explain the ▪ Mosaic because arrangement of different proteins partially or fully
embedded or attached to the phospholipids bilayer
structure of plasma
membrane and
functions of each of
its components
▪ Two main components of plasma membrane are phospholipids and

proteins
▪ Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that means have both

hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
- hydrophilic head
- hydrophobic tail
▪ Importance of hydrophobic regions in plasma membrane :

- allow the cell membrane to be selectively permeable
- allow movement of lipid soluble molecules
- reduce loss of water from inside cell
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ Cholesterol are found in plasma membrane of animal cells between the
tails of phospholipids
Explanation on the
structure of plasma
membrane and
functions of each of
its components
▪ Function of cholesterol is to regulate fluidity of membrane under the
influence of temperature
- reducing fluidity of membrane / membrane less fluid at warm
/higher temperature
- membrane more fluid at lower temperature
▪ Two types of membrane proteins :

- intrinsic @ integral protein (either fully or partially embedded
in phospholipids bilayer)
- peripheral @ extrinsic protein (attach to phospholipids
bilayer)
▪ Functions of membrane proteins :

- as transport protein
Channel Carrier protein Carrier protein

protein (for passive (for active
- as enzymes transport) transport)
Has specific active site that

binds with specific
substrate during
enzymatic reactions
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
- involve in signal transduction / as cell surface receptor
Act as receptor that has

specific binding site for
Explanation on the signaling molecule e.g.
structure of plasma
hormone
membrane and
functions of each of its
components
- as intercellular joining / involve in cell adhesion
Membrane proteins of
neighboring cells are joined
together forming tissue
e.g. epithelial cells
- as cell surface identity marker or involve in cell

recognition
- provide attachment site for cytoskeleton and

extracellular matrix
Helps to maintain cell

shape and
to stabilize location of
certain membrane
proteins
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ Carbohydrate chains attach to protein forming glycoprotein

(e.g. variation in carbohydrate chain of glycoproteins on the
surface of RBC contribute to the 4 human blood types A, B,
AB and O)
Explanation on the ▪ Carbohydrate chains attach to lipid forming glycolipid
structure of plasma
membrane and ▪ Importance of membrane carbohydrates in cell-cell
functions of each of recognition :
its components - sorting of cells into tissues and organs in animal embryo
- basis for rejection of foreign @ non-self tissue by immune
system (e.g. MHC marker)
- enable cell recognize other cell by binding to molecules
containing carbohydrates on extracellular surface of plasma
membrane
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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
SUBTOPIC : 2.3 Cells are grouped into tissues (animal tissues)
LEARNING OUTCOMES : (a) Describe the types of animal cells & tissues.
(b) Explain the following types of animal cells and tissues:
(i) Epithelial cells, nerve cell, muscle cells and connective tissue.
MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ A group of similar cells and their intercellular substance joined together to
perform a specific function.
a) Describe the
types of animal Four basic types according to their function and structure:
cells & tissues. ▪ Epithelial tissues
▪ Nervous tissues
▪ Muscle tissues
▪ Connective tissues
b) Explain the ▪ Characteristics:
types of animal - Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in single or multiple layer.
cells and - Closely packed and held tightly together by many cell junction.
tissues: - Has little intercellular space.
- Avascular (without blood vessels).
- Has a free surface.
A. Epithelial - Has microvilli (intestine) and cilia (trachea).
tissues - Rest on basement membrane.
- Covers a body surface (epidermis).
- Line inner body cavity, tubes and blood vessels.
- Cover the thoracic and abdominal organ.
- Also found in gland.
▪ General functions:
- Secretion
- Absorption
- Protect external and internal body surfaces from microbes, chemical,
dehydration and friction.
▪ Classification:
• Based on shape and number of cell layers.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Types of Epithelial Tissue:
Types of ▪ Simple Squamous
Epithelium ▪ Simple Cuboidal
Tissue ▪ Simple Columnar
▪ Stratified Squamous
Types Structure Distribution Function

• A single • Air sacs of
layer of lungs
flattened • Glomerular
cells with capsule of
disc-shaped. Kidney
Simple • Central • Lines of heart
squamous nuclei. • Blood vessels
• Allow passage of materials

by diffusion and filtration
where protection is not
important.
• Single layer • Kidney tubule • Secretion of hormone or
of cube- • Ovary surface saliva. (Salivary & Thyroid
shaped & testes gland.)
cells. • Ducts and • Absorption (Reabsorption
• Large & secretory of molecules by Proximal
spherical portions of Convoluted tubule in
Simple central small gland kidney.)
cuboidal nuclei.
• Thicker
than simple
squamous.
• Single layer • Gallbladder • Secretion of enzymes,

of • Duct of gland mucus and other
rectangular/ • Lines the substances.
tall cells. gastrointestinal • Ciliated type propels
• Nuclei tract mucus or reproductive cells
(round or • Uterine tube by ciliary action
oval) near • Bronchi. • Absorbing nutrients.
Simple base of
columnar cells.
• Goblet cells
& cells with
microvilli &
cilia.
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MAIN IDEAS/
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KEY POINT
Types Structure Distribution Function

• Several • Outer skin • Protects underlying
layers cells • Anus tissues in areas subjected
& • Vagina to abrasion.
regenerates • linings of the • New cells formed to
rapidly. mouth replace cell that are
• Cuboidal to • oesophagus. sloughed off.
columnar
Stratified
shape in
squamous
deep layers.
• Squamous
cells form
the apical
layer.
▪ Made up of neuron and neuroglia (supporting cells).

B. Nervous ▪ Neurons consist of:
tissues - dendrite
- cell body
- axon
▪ Axon
- Single extension of cytoplasm.
- Function: conducts impulse away from the cell body.
▪ Dendrite
- Highly branched extensions.
- Function: conduct signals toward the cell body.
-
▪ Node of Ranvier
- Small uncovered parts of axon between the myelin
sheath.
- Function: Site for accelerating impulse transmission.
▪ Myelin sheath
- Layer of fatty material (surround the axons).
- Produce by Schwann cell.
- Function: Protects axons and provide
electrical insulation.
▪ Neuroglia
- Supports and nourish the neurons.
- Example: Schwann cell
▪ Distribution: Brain, spinal cord and nerves.

▪ Function: to transmit impulse.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ Structures:
C. Muscle - Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement
tissues - Composed of muscle fibers (cell)
▪ Types:
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Cardiac Muscle
▪ Skeletal Muscle
- Consists of several bundles of muscle fibers (cell)
- Muscle fibers consist of myofibrils
- Most are attached by tendons to bone.
- Muscle Fibers (cell): Striated (banding), Cylindrical and long,
Multinucleate, Sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
- Myofibril: Bundle of myofilaments – Actin (Thin Filament) and Myosin
(Thick Filament)
▪ Smooth Muscle
- Lack striation
- Spindle-shaped cells
- Single nucleus
- Involuntary control
- Functions: Propel substances of objects (foodstuff) along internal
passageways
- Location: Wall of internal organs (digestive tract) or hollow organs
▪ Cardiac Muscle
- Has striations
- Single nucleus
- Branched and interconnected
- Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc.
- Involuntary control
- Function: As it contracted, it propels blood into the circulation
- Location: the walls of heart
-
Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle

Tubular shape Spindle shape Elongate shape
Striated Non-striated Striated
Multinucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated
No intercalated disc No intercalated disc Has intercalated disc
Voluntary control Involuntary control Involuntary control
No branch No branch Branched
Attached to tendons of Wall of digestive tract Wall of heart
bone
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having
D. Connective a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.
tissues
▪ Functions:
- Provide support, strength and flexibility.
- Transport of material.
- Store energy.
- Defend body against pathogens.
▪ Compact Bones
1. Compact - Consists of Haversian System or Osteon.
Bones - Forms the external layer of all bones.
- Matrix:
- Hard and rigid with collagen fibres.
- Contains water and impregnated with calcium carbonate and calcium
phosphate.
- Each Havesian System consist of:

- Lamella: Irregular cylinder with layer of matrix.
- Havesian Canal: Contain artery, vein, lymph and nerve fibers.
- Lacunae: Contains osteocytes.
- Canaliculi: contain cytoplasmic strands.
- connect to lacunae to each other and to a central canal.
- transport material to and from blood vessels in the Havesian
Canal.
- Central canal/ Havesian Canal: serves as a passageway for blood
vessels and nerves.
- Volkman Canal: connect the Havesian canals to each other.
- Bones cell:
- Osteoblasts (Bone forming cell): Deposit a matrix of collagen.
- Osteocytes: Non-dividing and inactive bone cells.
- Osteoclasts: Reabsorb the matrix.
-
- Functions of compact bones:
- Skeleton give a body
shape and support.
- Protect internal
organs.
- Attached to
skeletal
muscles
for movement.
- Blood cell production
(bone marrow).
- Reservoir for
calcium
and phosphorus.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Structure of compact bone
2. Hyaline
Cartilage
Structure of hyaline cartilage
▪ Hyaline Cartilage
- Extracellular Matrix:
- Collagenous fiber embedded in chondroitin sulphate
- Hyaline Cartilage Cells:
- Chondroblast: immature cells
- Secrete matrix: chondroitin sulphate and collagen
- Chondrocytes: mature cells
- Maintaining the matrix
- Located in lacunae
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
- Distribution:
- Nose, ears and caps on the ends of some bones.
- Function of hyaline cartilage:

- Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, as well as flexibility
and support
- Supporting trachea and bronchial tube
- Acting as shock absorbers between vertebrates
3. Blood ▪ Blood
- Extracellular Matrix:
- Plasma (water, salts and dissolved proteins)
-
- Cells
- Erythrocytes
- Leukocytes
- Platelets
Erythrocytes: red blood cells

- Biconcave disc-shape
- Lack of nuclei
- Thinner in the center than at its edge
- Contain haemoglobin, enzyme and inorganic ions
- Function: Transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste
Leukocytes: white blood cells

- Larger than erythrocytes
- Spherical in shape
- Have nucleus and organelles
- Two types:
- Granulocytes: Granular cytoplasm
and lobed nuclei
- Agranulocytes: Clear cytoplasm and
nuclei not lobed
- Function: Responsible for antibody

production and other specific defense against pathogens
- Lymphocyte B: Produce antibody
- Neutrophils and Monocytes: Engulf foreign substances
Platelets
- Fragments of cells broken off from large cells in the bone marrow
- No nuclei
- Function:
- Blood clotting
- Repair gaps in the wall of blood vessel
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Blood cells organization
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BIO SCORE
CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
SUBTOPIC : 2.3 Cells are grouped into tissues (plant tissues)
LEARNING OUTCOMES : (a) Describe the types of plants cells & tissues.
(b) Explain the following types of plants cells and tissues:
(ii) Meristem, Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma, Xylem and Phloem.
MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
(a) Describe ▪ Meristematic tissue
the types of
plants cells & ▪ Permanent tissue
tissues. - Ground tissue
- Vascular tissue
- Dermal tissue
(b) Explain the

following types ▪ Meristem Tissue: Undifferentiated embryonic tissue in the active growth
of plants cells regions of plants
and tissues:
▪ Location: Shoot tips and Root tips
1. Meristem ▪ Structure:
tissues - Cells are small and isodiametric
- Have large nucleus
- Have dense cytoplasm and few organelles
- Closely packed
- Have thin primary cell wall
- Cell actively divided
▪ Function: Differentiate to form specialized function
▪ Types and Function:
Types Function
Apical meristem - Elongate shoots and roots.
- Produce primary plant body.
Lateral meristem - Add thickness to woody plants (increase girth).
- Produce secondary plant body.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Types of meristematic tissues
2. Ground
tissues
Types Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Structure - shape: isodiametric - shape: polygonal - Dead at maturity
- thin primary wall - primary wall - Tough and thick
- thin and flexible - thicker than secondary cell
- contain cellulose, parenchyma walls
hemicellulose and - contain impregnated
pectin cellulose, with lignin
- permeable to hemicellulose - No intercellular
water and permit and pectin air spaces
passage of solutes - thickening occur - Pits are present in
- have large central at the corners of the walls
vacuole the walls - Lack living
- nucleus and - pits are present in protoplasts when
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
cytoplasm pushed the wall they mature
to the periphery - Various shape
- cell are loosely and size
packed together - Two types:
- many large - Fiber
intercellular air - Sclereids
space - Structure of
- no secondary wall Fiber:
- Perform most of - Long and
metabolic functions slender
of the plant - Group together
(photosynthesis) in strands
- Synthesizing and - Tapering ends
storing various - Very tiny
organic products cavity in the
(starch and water) center of the
- Intercellular air cell
spaces permit - Structure of
gaseous exchange Sclereid:
- Shorter than
fiber
- Irregular in
shape
- Thick wall
- Lignified
secondary wall
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Distribution - Cortex of stem - Outer regions of Fiber:
- Cortex of roots cortex - Below the
- Mesophyll - Below the epidermis of
- Pulp of fruit epidermis of stem or roots
- Endosperm of leaves, petioles - Around
seed and soft stems of vascular bundle
dicot plant Sclereid:
- Leaf veins - Stem, leaves
- Young stem and seeds
- Fruits (pears
and guava)
Function - Photosynthesis. - Supporting tissue: Fiber:

- Gaseous provide the - Acts as
Exchange and herbaceous plant supporting
buoyancy for with mechanical tissue.
aquatic plants strength and Sclereid:
(Intercellular air flexibility. - Protective
spaces). - Provide much of tissue: gives
- Packing tissues support for stem strength and
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
(around vascular in which support to the
tissues). secondary plant structure
- Food storage growth has not or organ.
- Secretion (Sugary taken place.
nectar, hormones, - Photosynthesis:
enzymes and some
tannins). collenchyma
contain
chloroplast
3. Vascular ▪ Involves in transport of materials around the plant body.

Tissue
▪ Two types:
- Xylem: Vessel Elements and Tracheid
- Phloem: Sieve tube and Companion cell
Types Structure Function
- Secondary wall: lignin
- Ends open and connect to one
Vessel another to form long pipes
Transport water
element - Dead cells with hollow lumen
and dissolved
- More water can flow with less
minerals from
friction
the roots to the
- Thick lignified
Xylem leaves
- Lumen: small and hollow when
mature
- Tapering end wall
Tracheid
- Lots of pits: allow water to move
to another tracheid also
surrounding living cells
Types Structure Function

- Consist of sieve elements (sieve Transport
cells) joined together to form a organic material
long tube. (photosynthesis)
- End walls are perforated forming from one part of
Sieve tube sieve plates with sieve pores. the plant to
- Cells are alive, with thin cellulose another.
walls and protoplasm.
Phloem
- Located beside the sieve tube. Provide ATP for
- Have a nucleus, dense cytoplasm active transport
with small vacuoles. during
Companion
- Metabolically active (have transportation of
cell
mitochondria and ribosomes). organic
- Linked to sieve elements by material.
numerous plasmodesmata.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Xylem
Vessel element Tracheid
Phloem
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BIO SCORE
CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
SUBTOPIC : 2.4 Cell Transport
LEARNING OUTCOMES : (a) Overview the various transport mechanisms across the membrane.
(b) Explain the various transport mechanism across the membrane
(i) Passive transport: Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis.
(ii) Active transport: Sodium-potassium pump and Bulk transport
(Endocytosis and Exocytosis)
MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ Process to move substances across the cell membrane (plasma membrane) are
Transport essential to the life of the cell.
Across ▪ Example: Gaseous exchange
Membrane ▪ Plasma membrane regulates the passage of molecules into and out of the cell.
- Enable a cell to control substances and how much of each enters or leaves
the cell
- It allows the cell to maintain a difference between its internal
environment and extracellular fluid.
- It supplies the cell with nutrients, removes wastes and maintains volume
and pH.
▪ Plasma membrane is selectively permeable.
- Only allow some material to pass.
- Inhibits passage of other materials.
▪ Diffusion of solute across membrane.

Passive ▪ From high concentration region to low concentration region.
transport ▪ Does not require energy/ ATP.
▪ Down concentration gradient.
▪ Until equilibrium is achieved.
▪ 3 types:
- simple diffusion
- facilitated diffusion
- osmosis
▪ Diffusion of solute directly through phospholipid bilayer to move across a

Simple diffusion plasma membrane.
▪ Example of solutes/molecules are lipid soluble molecule, oxygen gas, carbon
dioxide.
▪ Carrier-assisted diffusion of molecules across a cell membrane through

Facilitated specific channels from a region of higher concentration to lower
diffusion concentration.
▪ Help/aid by carrier protein and channel proteins
▪ The process is driven by concentration gradient
▪ Does not require energy/ ATP
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▪ Example of molecules are glucose, fructose, amino acids, some vitamins, urea
▪ Carrier protein:
- bind to molecule and change their shape to move specific molecules in or
out of the cell
- example: glucose
▪ Channel protein:
- have a tunnel that allow movement of ions or charge molecules to move
in or out of the cell
- example: sodium ion or chloride ion
Comparison Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion

between Through the phospholipid bilayer Through the transport protein (carrier
simple diffusion or channel protein)
and
facilitated Happens to the small and non-polar Happens to large and polar particles
diffusion particles
Movement of molecules occur down the concentration gradient
Not require energy
▪ The movement / diffusion of water across a

Osmosis
selectively permeable membrane from area of higher water potential to area
of lower water potential.
▪ Water potential: ψ (psi)
▪ Water molecules move from hypotonic
solution to hypertonic solution until solution are isotonic.
Concept of ▪ Water potential is free energy / potential energy of water.

water potential ▪ The tendency of water molecules to enter or leave from the solution by
osmosis.
▪ Unit of water potential is kilopascal (kPa)
▪ Components of water potential:
- solute potential
- pressure potential
▪ Formula of water potential:
Ψ = Ψp + Ψs
Water potential = pressure potential + solute potential
▪ Solute potential:
- A measure of the change in water potential of the system due to the
presence of solute molecules.
- usually negative value.
▪ Pressure potential:
- The component of water potential due to the hydrostatic pressure that is
exerted on water in a cell.
- usually positive value.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
▪ What happen to animal cell and plant cell in different tonicity of solution?
▪ The movement of molecules / ions from a region of lower concentration

Active transport
region to a region of higher concentration region// against concentration
gradient
▪ Require energy in the form of ATP
▪ Require transport / carrier / pump protein
▪ Example is Sodium-potassium pump
▪ Concentration of sodium ions (Na+) is higher outside of the cell; meanwhile

Active transport
concentration of potassium (K+) ions is higher inside of the cell.
(Sodium-
▪ For each cycle, Sodium- potassium pump transport THREE intracellular Na+
potassium
out of the cell and TWO extracellular K+ into the cell.
pump)
▪ Involve phosphorylation; the addition of phosphate group; which cause the
changes in conformation of protein.
▪ 3 intracellular Na+ bind to specific site on carrier / pump protein

Mechanisms /
▪ The binding stimulates phosphorylation of carrier protein by ATP
steps in sodium
▪ The phosphorylation causes the protein to change its conformation
potassium pump
▪ Causing expel of Na+ to the outside of cell.
▪ 2 extracellular K+ bind to specific site on carrier protein
▪ The binding triggers release of phosphate group from carrier protein
▪ Loss of phosphate restore original conformation of carrier protein
▪ K+ is released into the cell
▪ The cycle is repeated.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Sodium-Potassium Pump
▪ Transport materials that are too large

Bulk transport
▪ Materials are transported across membrane via vesicles
▪ Types:
1. Endocytosis: Cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate
matter via formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane.
2. Exocytosis: The cellular secretion of biological molecules by the fusion
of vesicles containing them with the plasma membrane.
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
Endocytosis:
▪ Types of Endocytosis: Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis Pinocytosis
Large solid particles, such as food ad Liquids or dissolved materials are
bacteria are brought inside the cell by taken in via a small vesicle
invagination (an infolding of the cell
membrane)
‘cell eating’ ‘cell drinking’
Uptake of large solid particle Uptake of small liquid droplet
Eg: Engulfing bacteria by the Eg: Taking in of dissolved solutes
macrophage by absorptive cells in kidney and
intestines
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MAIN IDEAS/
EXPLANATION NOTES
KEY POINT
41 | KMPk

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SUBTOPIC : 2.1 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

▪ Pro : before, early, primitive, first

Cytoplasm • Semifluid (water-based) solution

Structure of bacterial cell

Different shape of bacterial cell

Structure of flagella, fimbriae and pilus

▪ Have membrane-bounded nucleus

1) Endomembrane system : organelles that communicate with one another via

Structure of an animal cell

Structure of a plant cell

Structure of a prokaryotic cell

Structure of eukaryotic cells

***Refer to similarities and differences

Features / Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Has large size (80S)

a) Show the detailed

Animal cells seen under light compound microscope

Plant cells seen under light compound microscope

Plant cells seen under electron microscope

Organelles in animal cell

Organelles in plant cell

Organelles Structures Functions

Rough ▪ Consist of network of ⚫ Synthesis secretory

Golgi ▪ Consist of a group of ▪ Modify,

MAIN IDEAS/ EXPLANATION NOTES

Ribosome ▪ Not bounded by ⚫ Site of protein

Mitochondria ▪ Rod-shaped ⚫ Site of cellular

Chloroplast ▪ Double membrane-bounded ▪ Site of photo-

• Components of endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope,

▪ Fluid Mosaic model is proposed by Singer and Nicolson

▪ Two main components of plasma membrane are phospholipids and

▪ Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that means have both

▪ Importance of hydrophobic regions in plasma membrane :

▪ Two types of membrane proteins :

▪ Functions of membrane proteins :

Channel Carrier protein Carrier protein

Has specific active site that

Act as receptor that has

- as intercellular joining / involve in cell adhesion

- as cell surface identity marker or involve in cell

- provide attachment site for cytoskeleton and

Helps to maintain cell

▪ Carbohydrate chains attach to protein forming glycoprotein

Types Structure Distribution Function

• Allow passage of materials

• Single layer • Gallbladder • Secretion of enzymes,

Types Structure Distribution Function

▪ Made up of neuron and neuroglia (supporting cells).

▪ Distribution: Brain, spinal cord and nerves.

Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle

- Each Havesian System consist of:

Structure of compact bone

Structure of hyaline cartilage

- Function of hyaline cartilage:

Erythrocytes: red blood cells

Leukocytes: white blood cells