Visual Aids (aid = support)

Board (chalk board, white board), OHP - transparencies Pictures/drawings/picture cards/photos

realia, Video, TV, Computer
Group work - 1) What can it be used for? 2) What are it's advantages? 3) What are it's
disadvantages? 4) How is it to be used (tipps, suggestions)?
Conclusion - visuals are supplementary materials; aid memory; focus attention; motivating;
realistic; for visual learners; must be unambiguous; must be attractive but not distractive; they are
‘visual aids’ only if they help!
Board (chalk board, white board)
1) What can it be used for? to write on it, brainstorming, to write key words, to highlight, draw on
it, to affix pictures, cards, tasks on it with magnets, glue pads. For writing on the chalk board and
on the white board you need chalk (white, and in other colours) and highlighters/markers.
2) What are it's advantages? Cheap, practical, big enough so that all students can see it, can be
used in multiple ways, you can add and erase information as you go along, it doesn't need
electricity, it's always there.
3) What are it's disadvantages? old – fashioned, sometimes boring, problems with sponge and
blackboard cleaning, position, time consuming, teacher's handwriting ( if it is bad then students
can't read what is written on the board)
4) How is it to be used (tipps, suggestions)? organisation is important; use the whole blackboard,
write big enough, mind your handwriting, if you have a relly bad handwriting then you should
print some things and attach them on the board in order to make it easier for students to
understand and connect things, speak while writing on the bord, use different colours, combine
writing on the board with other things (attach pictures, cards, etc ), attach cards that are big
enough, don't put too many things on the board, esp. not when the learners are very young
OHP
1) What can it be used for? for displaying tasks, text used in lesson, pictures, etc.., displaying test
questions, lyrics of the song, it is an alternative to the board
2) What are it's advantages? transparency is economical (you can re-use it), you don't have to
give handouts, everyone can see it, saves time, you prepare transparencies at home, so you can
check everything (pronunciation, spelling), you can erase/add information, your face is turned to
the class/towards the students, pile transparencies - you can put one transparency on the top of
other transparency  very useful for timelines
3) What are it's disadvantages? won't work if there is a problem with electricity, lack of space to
show the projection, sitting arrangement, take care of preparation of transparency, sometimes you
have to make the room dark so that the projection could be seen, problems with handwriting
(solve them with printing)
4) How is it to be used (tipps, suggestions)? combine it with other more modern ways of
teaching, only important information should be presented on the transp. if you have a bad
handwriting, don't write on the transparency, print it! Use markers in colours
Pictures
1) What can it be used for? describing, storytelling, matching, putting in the right order,
practising spelling and pronunciation, used as prompts, used to show/illustrate the meaning of the
word/vocabulary
2) What are it's advantages? many students are visual learners  better learning, memorizing,
etc.. saves time, can be reused, you have approach to many types of the pictures, and besides that
you can draw them, print, use some pictures out of the newspaper
3) What are it's disadvantages? sometimes it takes too much time to prepare them (pictures), if
there is too much material, then it can be very expensive to print it, interesting, but if used to
many times it becomes boring

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4) How is it to be used (tipps, suggestions)? use large pictures and place them in a good position,
don't use ambiguous pictures, display them with OHP, use them more then once, but with
different aims, use pictures that are straightforward (that they show exactly that what is taught),
use contemporary pictures, appropriate pictures „A picture is worth a thousand words!“
Video
1) What can it be used for? listening to the native speakers, listening to the language itself,
making connections between visual and spoken, learning pronunciation, learning how to behave
in different situations
2) What are it's advantages? good for acquiring pronunciation, shows students the outside world,
any kind of situation can be brought into the class, audio and visual support, connecting pictures
with sound and meaning, motivating and interesting
3) What are it's disadvantages? maybe the students have already watched it, inappropriate
language, video recorder/computer is maybe not available in all classrooms, you rely on
equipment and that it would work, without electricity you can't watch it, sitting organisation
4) How is it to be used (tipps, suggestions)? careful choice of videoclips, appropriate topic and
language, interesting, meaningful, check the equipment, always have a plan B, give students pre-
viewing, while-viewing and post-viewing tasks/activities
Computer
1) What can it be used for? Ppt, videos, songs, audio, pictures, tests, Internet, smartboard
2) What are it's advantages? quick access to lots of information, no paperwaste, economical,
brings dynamic into the classroom, fun, contemporary, mobility, visible, up to date, saves time
3) What are it's disadvantages? doesn't work without electricity, unreliable sources, different
document formats, time consuming (for example, when you are making a ppt)
4) How is it to be used (tipps, suggestions)? always precheck if the computer works, don't use it
too often, use multiple sources
Use of the computers by learners: 1 student on 1 computer, or 2 students on 1 computer, they
work on prepared programs, etc.

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 Communicative Competence
Sandra J. Savignon
Communicative competence – the ability of language learners to interact with other speakers and to make
meaning. Competence - expression, interpretation, negotiation of meaning
Communicative skills – “the skills that are needed to get one’s meaning across, to do things in the second
language, to say what one really wants to say”. Role-playing exercises, games and other communicative
classroom activities à their purpose is involving learners in the experience of communication

The role of grammar in communicative competence - both attention to form and involvement in
communicative events are important. Communication cannot take place in the absence of structure, or
grammar, a set of shared assumptions about how language works, along with a willingness of participants to
cooperate in the negotiation of meaning. Integration of form-focused excercises wth meaning-focused
experience à development of communicative ability

Four components that make up the content of communicative competence: 1) Grammatical competence
– the ability to recognize lexical, morphological, syntatic and phonological features of language and
manipulated at the level of words and sentences 2) Sociolinguistic competence, or social rules of language
use – understanding the roles of participants of communication, information is exchanged, and the functions of
interaction 3) The competence of speech, which is linked to the ability to percieve or produce a separate
proposal 4) The competence of verbal strategies used to compensate imperfect knowledge of the rules,
imperfect possesion of something, when you can not remember the word and want to let the other person
know that he intends to continue communication, must collect his thoughts, did not understand a word, etc.
Through practice and experience in an increasingly wide range of communicative contexts and events,
learners gradually expand their communicative competence. The relative importance of these components
depends on the overall level of communicative competence, but each is essential. Moreover, all the

3
components are interrelated. This means that when an increase occurs in one area, that component interacts
with other components to produce a corresponding increase in overall communicative competence.

Common reference levels

The Common European Framework divides learners into three broad divisions which can be divided into six
levels: A Basic User A1 Breakthrough or beginner A2 Waystage or elementary B Independent User
B1 Threshold or intermediate B2 Vantage or upper intermediate C Proficient User C1 Effective
Operational Proficiency or advanced C2 Mastery or proficiency
The CEFR describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in reading, listening, speaking and writing at
each level:
A1 - Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the
satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and
answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and
things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly
and is prepared to help.

A2 - Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate
relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography,
employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of
his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.

B1 - Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly
encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise while
travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics
which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes &
ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.

B2 - Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics,
including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of
fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without
strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a
viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.

C1 - Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning.
Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions.
Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can
produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of
organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.

C2 - Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information
from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent
presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating
finer shades of meaning even in the most complex situations.

- based on Hymes’ theory of language use in society life

- social factors interfere with or restrict grammar use because the rules of use are
dominant over the rules of grammar

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- necessary to distinguish two kinds of competence: 1) linguistic competence-deals with producing and
understanding grammatically correct sentences 2) communicative competence-deals with producing and
understanding sentences that are appropriate and acceptable to a specific situation
- other terms thought to be more effective in describing what it means to know and to be able to use language
knowledge have been developed
- Bachman’s communicative language ability (CLA) - combines in itself the meanings of both language
proficiency and communicative competence. Bachman and Palmer proposed one of the most comprehensive
models of language ability, which is a further development of Bachman’s communicative language ability
(CLA). They consider use of language as interaction between users of language and their context
(communicative language ability is a concept comprised of knowledge or competence and capacity for
appropriate use of knowledge in a contextual communicative language use).
- Traits such as personal characteristics, topical knowledge, affective schemata and language ability influence
the communicative language ability.
- Personal characteristics – individual attributes that are not part of sb’s language ability but which may still
influence sb’s performance on language tests (age, foreign language aptitude, socio-psychological factors,
personality, cognitive style, language use strategies, etc.). Topical knowledge (knowledge schemata or real-
world knowledge) – can be loosely thought of as knowledge structures in long-term memory (provides the
information base that enables sb to use language with reference to the world in which he/she lives). Affective
schemata – affective or emotional correlates of topical knowledge; provides the basis on which language
users asses the characteristics of the language use task and its setting in terms of past emotional experiences in
similar contexts. Language ability – language competence (language knowlegde) and strategic competence.

- Their notion of communicative language ability consists of two parts:

1.language knowledge (static) organisational knowledge, grammatical knowledge, textual knowledge,
pragmatic knowledge, illocutionary competence, sociolinguistic competence
2.strategic competence (active and dynamic) goal setting: what the individual intends to do; assessment:
the individual evaluates the setting and the resources available to cope with it; planning: the person decides
how to use what he/she has

Organizational Competence - comprises knowledge of how utterances or sentences and texts are organized.
The two areas of organizational competence that Bachman and Palmer distinguish: grammatical knowledge
(includes vocabulary, syntax, phonology and graphology) and textual competence (focuses on cohesion and
rhetorical or conversational organization).

Pragmatic Competence - concentrates on the relationship between the forms of language (utterances,
sentences, texts) and the user’s communicative goals and the setting of language use. “The constraints they
encounter in using language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other participants
in the act of communication.”
Pragmatic competence is subdivided: - the ability to use language to express ideas and get things done, the
functions of the language, and it encompasses - knowledge of ideational functions: language used to form
ideas and express people’s experiences of the real world; knowledge of manipulative functions: language
used to manipulate others and affect the world around them; knowledge of heuristic functions: language used
to widen people’s knowledge of the world around them and to solve problems; knowledge of imaginative
functions: language used to imagine out loud, express one’s and other’s imaginations, and for aesthetic and
humorous purposes. The appropriate use of registers, dialects or varieties, cultural references, and figures of
speech. The ability to use natural or idiomatic expressions is considered part of sociolinguistic competence.

Strategic Competence - comprised of three metacognitive strategies: (1) goal setting: identifying a set of
possible tasks, choosing one or more of them and deciding whether or not to attempt to complete them (2)
assessment: a means by which language use context is related to other areas of communicative language
ability: topical knowledge and affective schemata (3) planning: deciding how to make use of language
knowledge and other components involved in the process of language use to complete the chosen task
successfully

5
Conclusion - Bachman and Palmer reject the notion of reading, writing, listening and speaking as skills, and
argue that they should be seen as language use activities. Their concept of language competence comprises
components of knowledge that are relevant to all modes of language use. Preferable because of its detailed and
at the same time very organisational description of basic components of communicative competence. The only
drawback is that their definition of grammatical competence is still limited to grammatical form.

Communicative Language Competences

(Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages- CEFR)
Communicative language competences - (together with general competences) enable learners for the
realisation of their communicative intentions. Those competences which empower a person to act using
specifically linguistic means. Components: linguistic competences, sociolinguistic competences,
pragmatic competences

1. Linguistic competences
1.1. lexical competence 1.2. grammatical competence 1.3. semantic competence 1.4. phonological
competence 1.5. orthographic competence 1.6. orthoepic competence

1.1. Lexical competence - knowledge of, and ability to use, the vocabulary of a language. Lexical
elements: Fixed expressions: greetings, phrasal idioms, phrasal verbs, compound prepositions, fixed
collocations consisting of words regularly used together. Single word forms include members of the open
word classes and closed lexical sets. Grammatical elements: articles, quantifiers, demonstratives,
personal pronouns, etc.

1.2. Grammatical competence - the ability to understand and express meaning by producing and
recognising well-formed phrases and sentences (as opposed to memorising and reproducing them as fixed
formulae) 1. morphology 2. syntax the ability to organise sentences to convey meaning is a central aspect
of communicative competence.

1.3. Semantic competence - deals with the learner’s awareness and control of the organisation of
meaning. 1. Lexical semantics deals with questions of word meaning: relation of word to general
context: reference, connotation and exponence of general specific notions. Interlexical  relations:
synonymy/antonymy, hyponymy, collocation, part-whole relations, componential analysis, translation
equivalence

1.4. Phonological competence – involves a knowledge of, and skill in the perception and production of –
the sound-units of the language and their realisation in particular contexts; the phonetic features which
distinguish phonemes; the phonetic composition of words; sentence phonetics; sentence stress and rhythm;
intonation; phonetic reduction; vowel reduction; strong and weak forms; assimilation; elision.

1.5. Orthographic competence – involves a knowlegde of and skill in the perception and production of
the symbols of which written texts are composed. Learners should know and be able to perceive and
produce: the form of letters in printed and cursive forms in both upper and lower case; the proper spelling
of words, including recognised contracted forms; punctuation marks and their conventions of use;
typographical conventions and varieties of font; logographic signs in common use (e.g. @, &, $, etc.)

1.6. Orthoepic competence – learners are required to read aloud a prepared text, or to use in speech
words first encountered in their written form, need to be able to produce a correct pronunciation from the
written form. This may involve: knowlegdje of spelling conventions; ability to consult a dictionary and a
knowledge of the conventions used there for the representation of pronunciation; knowledge of the
implications of written forms, particularly punctuation marks, for phrasing and intonation; ability to
resolve ambiguity (homonyms, syntactic ambiguities, etc.) in the light of the context.

6
2. Sociolinguistic competences
Concerned with the knowledge and skills required to deal with the social dimension of language use : 2.1.
linguistic markers of social relations 2.2. politeness conventions 2.3. expressions of folk-wisdom 2.4.
register differences 2.5. dialect and accent

2.1.Linguistic markers of social relations - divergent in different languages and cultures, depend on such
factors as a) relative status, b) closeness of relation, c) register of discourse, etc.
use and choice of greetings, use and choice of address forms, conventions for turntaking, use and choice
of expletives (e.g. Dear, dear!, My God!, Bloody Hell!, etc.)

2.2. Politeness conventions - they vary from one culture to another and are a frequent source of inter-
ethnic misunderstanding, especially when polite expressions are literally interpreted. ‘positive’ politeness:
showing interest in a person’s well being, sharing experiences and concerns, ‘troubles talk’. ‘negative’
politeness: avoiding face-threatening behaviour (dogmatism, direct orders, etc.), expressing regret,
apologising for face-threatening behaviour (correction, contradiction, prohibitions, etc.). appropriate use
of ‘please’, ‘thank you’, etc. and impoliteness.

2.3. Expressions of folk wisdom - these fixed formulae, are frequently used in newspaper headlines –
proverbs, idioms, familiar quotations, expressions of belief or attitudes
ALSO - graffiti, T-shirt slogans, TV catch phrases, work-place cards and posters now have this function

2.4. Register differences - the term ‘register’ refers to systematic differences between varieties of
language used in different contexts. Differences in level of formality: frozen, e.g. Pray silence for His
Worship the Mayor! formal, e.g. May we now come to order, please. neutral, e.g. Shall we begin?
informal, e.g. Right. What about making a start? familiar, e.g. O.K. Let’s get going. intimate, e.g. Ready
dear?
in early learning, a relatively neutral register is appropriate, unless there are compelling reasons otherwise.

2.5. Dialect and accent – sociolinguistic competence also includes the ability to recognise the linguistic
markers of, for example: social class, national origin, ethnicity, occupational group, etc. Such markers
include: lexicon, grammar, phonology, vocal characteristics, body language, etc. Before adapting dialect
forms, learners should be aware of their social connotations and of the need for coherence and
consistency.

3. Pragmatic competences
Concerned with the learners knowledge of the principles according to which messages are: 1.
organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence) 2. used to perform communicative
functions (functional competence) 3. sequenced according to interactional and transactional
schemata (design competence)

3.1. Discourse competence – the ability of a learner to arrange sentences in sequence so as to produce
coherent stretches of language. Includes knowledge of and ability to control the ordering of sentences in
terms of – topic/focus, given/new, natural sequencing-e.g.temporal, ability to structure and manage
discourse in terms of: a.) thematic organisation, coherence and cohesion, logical ordering, style and
register, rhetorical effectiveness.

3.2. Functional competence - concerned with the use of spoken discourse and written texts in
communication for particular functional purposes. Two generic qualitative factors which determine the
functional success of the learner: fluency- the ability to articulate, to keep going, and to cope when one
lands in a dead end. Propositional precision- the ability to formulate thoughts and propositions so as to
make one’s meaning clear.

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 Intercultural Competence
Teaching culture in EFL
Culture in CEFR
• Refers to a set of societal practices which include language
• Learning a language does not equal learning to deal with the cultural features of the communities
where the language is spoken
• It also states that there should be intercultural awareness: Ls should have knowledge of social life
in the target community in order to meet the requirements of L2 communication and should be
aware of the relation between home and target cultures

Intercultural competence
• A set of skills and characteristics that support effective interaction in a variety of cultural contexts.
• Involves the knowledge, motivation, and abilities to interact appropriately with members of
different cultures
• It means that a student understands a variety of significant cultural experiences or achievements of
individuals who are identified by ethnicity, race, religion, gender, the cultural history of various
social groups within a society

• Communicative (behavioural):
message skills, interaction
management, social skills, information
gathering skills, listening and problem
solving
• Affective: to acknowledge and respect
cultural differences, curiosity,
motivation and openmindedness
• Cognitive: self – awareness of one’s
own personal cultural identity and
understanding how cultures vary

Teaching culture in EFL

All students will develop the cultural
understanding, attitudes and performance skills
needed to function appropriately within a
segment of another society and to communicate with people socialized in that culture (Seelye 1993: 29)

Language skills in CEFR:

Reading

To read, the reader must be able to: perceive the written text (visual skills); recognise the script
(orthographic skills); identify the message (linguistic skills); understand the message (semantic skills);
interpret the message (cognitive skills).

The skills involved include: perceptual skills; memory; decoding skills; inferencing; predicting;
imagination; rapid scanning; referring back and forth

Examples of reading activities include: reading for general orientation, reading for information, reading
and following instructions, reading for pleasure. The language user may read: for gist; for specific
information; for detailed understanding; for implications

8
9
 Listening
(description; development through levels; differences between levels)
Description - Receptive language skill; CEFR: Listening - a spoken input produced by one or more
speakers which the language user as listener receives and processes

Levels
A1 A2 A Basic User B1 B2 B Independent User C1 C2 C Proficient User

Listening activities include: listening to public announcements (information, instructions, warnings, etc.);
listening to media (radio, TV, recordings, cinema); listening as a member of a live audience (theatre,
public meetings, public lectures, entertainments, etc.); listening to overheard conversations, etc.

In each case the user may be listening: for gist; for specific information; for detailed understanding;
for implications, etc.
Illustrative scales are provided for: Overall listening comprehension; Understanding interaction between
native speakers; Listening as a member of a live audience; Listening to announcements and instructions;
Listening to audio media and recordings.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state: to what range of inputs
the learner will need/be equipped/be required to listen; for what purposes the learner will listen to the
input; in what mode of listening the learner will engage.

Establishing cut-off points between levels is always a subjective procedure because it can be done
from different topic points: a primary to lower secondary school system or system for adult evening

10
classes; learning the language in the area where it is spoken; higher level language skills for professional
needs; The advantage of a branching approach is that a common set of levels and/or descriptors can be
‘cut’ into practical local levels at different points by different users to suit local needs and yet still relate
back to a common system.

All candidates in listening comprehension tests must enjoy equal conditions.

DIALANG is an online diagnostic system designed to assess a person's proficiency in 14 European
languages. The results are based on the levels from the Common European Framework (CEF).

Spoken interaction and production according to CERF standards

As processes, reception and production (oral and/or written) are obviously primary, since both
are required for interaction. In this Framework, however, the use of these terms for language
activities is confined to the role they play in isolation.

Receptive: Following the media, silent reading; Productive: Oral presentations, written studies,
reports. Productive activities have a particular social value attached to them – INTERACTION -
In interaction at least two individuals participate in an oral and/or written exchange in which
production and reception alternate and may in fact overlap in oral communication.

LEVELS OF SPOKEN INTERACTION AND PRODUCTION - A1 (BEGINNER) A2

(ELEMENTARY) B1 (INTERMEDIATE) B2 (UPPER INTERMEDIATE) C1 (ADVANCED)
C2 (PROFICIENCY)
Writing
To write, the learner must be able to: organize and formulate the message (cognitive and linguistic skills);
handwrite or type the text (manual skills) or otherwise transfer the text to writing; ' Can do‘ descriptors
are provided for some of the strategies employed in performing communicative activities; Strategies are
seen as a hinge between the learner’s resources (competences) and what he/she can do with them
(communicative activities). Common Reference Levels: self-assessment grid A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2

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 WRITTEN PRODUCTION - In

written production activities the language user as a writer produces a written text which is received by a
readership of one or more readers. Examples of writing activities include: completing forms and
questionnaires, writing articles for magazines, newspapers, producing posters for display, writing reports,
memoranda, taking down messages from dictation, creative and imaginative writing, writing personal or
business letters
Illustrative scales are provided for: overall written production, creative writing, reports and essays

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WRITTEN INTERACTION - Interaction trough the medium of written language includes: passing and
exchanging notes, memos, etc. when spoken interaction is impossible or inappropriate; correspondence by
letter, fax, e-mail, etc.; negotiating the text of agreements, contracts, etc. by reformulating and exchanging
drafts amendments, proof corrections, etc.; participating in on-line or off-line computer conferences
Illustrative scales are provided for: overall written interaction, correspondence, notes, messages and
forms

13
 Errors and error correction
Errors and language learning and teaching: Traditional methods (the beginning of the last century):
errors = a sign that learners had not acquired the rules of the language  Ls were exposed to more
explanations and rule learning. Structuralism (based on behaviourism): errors to be avoided at all costs,
i.e. every possibility of making an error should have been avoided; major cause of errors: L1; teaching
method was relying on contrastive analysis: the main goal: predict possible errors so that teaching
materials could be prepared in such a way as to reduce the L1 interference in advance.; imitation and
formation of new habits should lead to an automatic language use free of mistakes.
► today: errors = an integral part of the language learning process; an inevitable side-effect; a
valuable source of information about the process of language learning.

INTERLANGUAGE - Causes of errors: a reminder - DEVELOPMENTAL ERRORS; INTERLINGUAL

ERRORS: (negative transfer); INTRALINGUAL ERRORS (insufficient knowledge of the LT system);
ERRORS CAUSED BY TEACHING METHODS OR MATERIALS

Errors vs. mistakes - ERRORS: regular; systematical; often universal (implying universal learning stages)
;considered to be evidence of learners’ developing competence in L2.
MISTAKES: non-systematic; do not necessarily reflect the learners’ competence; learners normally able
to identify and ‘correct’ their mistakes if asked (SLIPS OF THE TONGUE/PEN).

Sources of errors: some errors reflect Ls’ attempts to make the task of learning and using the L2 simpler;
Ls commit the following errors: omission e.g. leaving out the articles, the –s in plural, etc.;
overgeneralization (e.g. eated); transfer errors (influence of L1)

Error correction - in the FL classroom - Aims of correction: building confidence, raising awareness,
acknowledging achievement and progress, helping students to become more accurate in their use of
language

Decisions to be made when working with oral errors in class - Should I deal with it? Is it useful to
correct it? The danger of over-correction! Factors affecting decision to correct: the Ls purpose in

14
speaking and the type of activity, the nature of the error, the personality of the student, the ability of the
student, the ease with which the error can be corrected. Focus on errors of general interest.
Choosing the appropriate technique: Correction techniques (ways of indicating and correcting errors):
T indicates there is a mistake, but does not provide any further information. (e.g. There’s an error in that
sentence.); T says what was wrong and provides a model of the acceptable version (reformulation); Facial
expression (surprise, frown, raised eyebrows, interest) or gesture; T repeats the sentence up to error (e.g.
They looked for a...?); T uses echo sentence with changed intonation or stress (He go?); T asks a question
(Was this last week?); T asks a one word question (Tense? Past?); T writes the problem sentence on board
for discussion; T exploits the humour in the error; T makes a note of the error and draws attention to it at a
later stage individually or with the whole class; T does not react at all; When should I deal with it?
immediately? end of activity? later? Never?
Who will correct? self-correction, student-student,
teacher-student, small group, or all class
coursebook/reference books

Assessment and evaluation

Definition of terms
• Assessment - the measurement of the ability of a person or the quality or success of a teaching
course, etc. the act of gathering information on a daily basis in order to understand individual students'
learning and needs.
• Evaluation - in general, the systematic gathering of information for purposes of decision making
• both assessment and evaluation are integral components of the teaching-learning cycle; in
effective learning environments, assessment and instruction are inexorably linked. Using a variety of
techniques and tools, the teacher collects assessment information about Ls' language development (in
speaking, listening, writing, and reading skills and language knowledge). Assessment data become the
basis for an evaluation. To evaluate the progress of a learner’s learning T compares assessment
information to curriculum objectives

Purpose of assessment and evaluation - The main purpose: to guide and improve learning and
instruction; to promote learning; build confidence and motivate; develop students' understanding of
themselves as learners; to assist the teacher in planning and adapting for further instruction; grades
(institutional).

Assessment and evaluation principles

• planned, continuous activities which are derived
from curriculum objectives;
• varied in terms of techniques used: learners
should be given opportunities to demonstrate the
extent of their knowledge and abilities in a variety
of ways;
• transparent: T should inform Ls about
assessment and evaluation strategies and plans in
advance;

15
• fair and equitable (free of bias): sensitive to family, classroom, school, and community
situations, and to cultural or gender requirements;
• helpful: should provide positive feedback and encourage Ls to participate actively in their own
assessment
• available: data should be communicated to Ls and parents regularly, in meaningful ways.

Types of Assessment and Evaluation - three types of assessment and evaluation that occur regularly
throughout the school year: diagnostic, formative, summative
• Diagnostic assessment and evaluation - usually at the beginning of the school year. The
purposes: to determine learners' knowledge and skills, their learning needs, and their motivational and
interest levels; to determine where to begin instruction and what content to emphasize; to help in selecting
relevant learning objectives and in designing appropriate learning activities
• Formative assessment and evaluation - focus on the processes and products of learning;
continuous. The main purpose: information about Ls’ progress relative to curriculum objectives, to
gather information upon which instructional decisions and adaptations can be made.
• Summative assessment and evaluation - most often at the end of a unit of
instruction/term/school year end - when Ls can demonstrate achievement of curriculum objectives. The
main purposes: to determine knowledge, skills, and abilities that have developed over a given period of
time; to summarize Ls’ progress; to report this progress to Ls, parents, and teachers. Based on criteria
derived from curriculum objectives. Often assessment and evaluation results provide both formative and
summative information. E.g.: summative evaluation can be used formatively to make decisions about
changes to instructional strategies, curriculum topics, or learning environment; formative evaluation
assists teachers in making summative judgements about Ls’ progress and determining where further
instruction is necessary.

Evaluation process: parallel to instruction, cyclical, involves four phases:

1.)Preparation phase: teachers decide what is to be evaluated; the type of
evaluation to be used (diagnostic, formative, or summative); the criteria for the
judgement of learning outcomes; what are appropriate assessment techniques.
2.)Assessment phase: teachers select appropriate tools and techniques; collect
information on Ls’ progress; determine where, when, and how assessments will
be conducted; consult and inform Ls. 3.)Evaluation phase: teachers interpret the
assessment information; make judgements about Ls’ progress; report progress to
Ls (and parents). 4.)Reflection phase: teachers consider the extent to which the previous phases in the
evaluation process have been successful; evaluate the utility, equity, and appropriateness of the assessment
techniques used; make decisions concerning improvements or adaptations to subsequent instruction and
evaluation.
Assessment and evaluation procedures: what is assessed/evaluated? - Ls’ progress and development in
receptive skills and abilities (listening and reading), productive skills and abilities (speaking and writing),
linguistic knowledge (lexical and grammar), linguistic functions, intercultural competence

Assessment and evaluation procedures: who assesses/evaluates? - teachers gather dana; learners gather
their own data  self-assessment; self-evaluation: Ls assume more responsibility for their own learning
by self-reflection; other learners  peer assessment: Ls collaborate and learn from others

Assessment and evaluation procedures: how? TEACHERS: checklists and rating scales or rubrics to
assess Ls’ achievement; observation (+ anecdotal comments); interviews; video and audio recordings (?)
LEARNERS: portfolios; checklists for self-evaluation; journals

Assessment and evaluation techniques and strategies

• Observation: daily, during language learning activities, unobtrusive, observations can be
recorded (immediately) as anecdotal notes, and on checklists or rating scales.

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• Anecdotal records: notes written by the teacher regarding Ls’ language, behaviour, or learning;
document and describe significant daily events, and relevant aspects of Ls’ activity and progress; can be
taken during Ls’ activities or at the end of the day; should focus on clearly defined objectives or purposes;
can be analyzed later.
• Checklists: usually completed during activities, lists of specific criteria that teachers focus on at a
particular time or during a particular process; used to record whether students have acquired specific
knowledge, skills, processes, and abilities; can have different formats (yes-no checklists; tally checklists;
checklists with space for recording anecdotal notes and comments).
• Rating scales and rubrics: record the extent to which specific criteria have been achieved by the
learner or are present in the learner’s work; record the quality of Ls’ performance at a given time or within
a given process; can be designed as number lines or as holistic scales or rubrics; rubrics include criteria
that describe each level of the rating scale and are used to determine progress in comparison to these
expectations; criteria have to match aspect that Ls have had the opportunity to practise.

Examples of rubrics and scales (CEFR)

Assessment and evaluation techniques and strategies – Portfolios: collections of relevant work that
reflect Ls' individual efforts, development, and progress over a designated period of time; provide Ls,
teachers, and parents with a broad picture of each L’s growth over time, including the L’s abilities,
knowledge, skills, and attitudes; Ls are involved in the selection of work to be included, goal setting for
personal learning, and self-assessment
Examples of portfolios - Guidelines for portfolio use: Brainstorm with Ls to discover what they already
know about portfolios; Share samples of portfolios with Ls (should be as authentic as possible); Provide
students with an overview of portfolio assessment prior to beginning their collections; set up guidelines
for the content of portfolios and establish evaluation criteria for their portfolio collections. Consider the
following: What is the purpose of the portfolio? (Will it be used to determine a mark or will it simply be
used to inform about Ls’ progress?) Who will be the audience(s) for the portfolio? What will be included
in the portfolio (e.g., writing samples only, samples of all language processes)? What are the criteria for
selecting a piece of work for inclusion? Who will determine what items are included in the portfolio (L, T,
both?) When should items be added or removed? How should the contents be organized and documented?
Where will the portfolios be stored? What will be the criteria for evaluation of the portfolio?
Evaluating portfolios: At the end of the term/year when the portfolio is submitted for summative
evaluation, it is useful to review the contents as a whole and record data using the previously set criteria. If
there is need to assign a numerical grade, designate numbers to each set of criteria on the checklist/rating
scale and convert the evaluation into a number grade.
Projects and presentations: written reports, visual representations, oral presentations, or projects which
combine more than one aspect of language use and understanding; criteria should be developed and/or
discussed with students in advance; teachers may assess skill development, knowledge, or learning
processes demonstrated by Ls as they engage in language activities; data gathered during activities can be
recorded as anecdotal notes, on checklists, rating scales, or by using a combination of these.
Quizzes, tests, and examinations: oral or written; most often used for assessing Ls' knowledge of
content; may be used to assess processes and skills; must represent Ls' achievements as accurately as
possible.

Types of tests - a1) achievement after sth to see what Ls have learnt (what they were taught) a2)
proficiency find out what Ls know at that moment regardless of teaching b1) diagnostic find out what
problems, what you need to work on b2) prognostic to see if you’ll go well in a particular course/field
c) types of things we test: c1) discrete-point single language units; one ability (lexis, grammar) c2)
integrative combines many skills (listen & write down) (essay, cloze) d1) direct d2) indirect through a
roundabout way e) how a test is graded: e1) subjective open-ended e2) objective usually one answer
(anybody can grade it) e.g. T/F f1) norm-referenced How well did the learner perform as compared to
other learners taking the same test? - grades are given on the basis of the results, not criteria; - the bell
curve: most Ss in the middle. f2) criterion-referenced Has a given level of proficiency been achieved? -
based on pre-set criteria: everybody could get an A, or everybody could fail

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Characteristics of tests - Is it a good test? quality criteria: standardisation, objectivity, validity,
reliability
• Standardisation - a test is standardised if its administration can be repeated at any time with the
same conditions operating: test material, administrative conditions and scoring procedures must be
identical for all subjects to be tested whenever they are tested.
• Objectivity - a test is objective if it cannot be influenced by the test user in its administration,
scoring and interpretation, precondition for objectivity: standardisation, exact instructions for test
administration, keys, rating scales or check lists for scoring, instructions or examples for test
interpretation.
• Validity - a test is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure, or if it does what it is
supposed to do. construct validity – does it test what it is supposed to test? face validity – a test looks as if
it measures what it is intended to measure (“Does it look like a test?”)
• Reliability - connected with the accuracy of measurement: a test which measures more accurately
is more reliable because it has a smaller error of measurement (“giving the same grade at any time”)
– reliability is documented in a coefficient which can vary from 0 (the test consists entirely of
measuring error) and 1 (the test is completely accurate and has no error of measurement)
– methods: the retest method, the parallel test method, the split-half method and the analysis of inner
consistency.
• backwash effect - what the test makes the Ls learn; the effect of the test; what the test makes Ls
do

Test items (formats): open-response questions, short-answer, matching, T/F, multiple choice questions
(MCQ) E.g.: I _______ to America twice (stem)  1 has been 2 was 3 have been 4 had been
(distractors/options) (the correct answer); gap-filling E.g. cloze-test; c-test

Cloze-test – Procedure: a technique for measuring reading comprehension; words are removed at regular
intervals, leaving blanks; the reader guesses the missing word; traditionally: first sentence whole; then
every tenth word; by carefully selecting words to omit you can make it better. Scoring: exact word
method: the reader must guess the exact word which was used in the original; acceptable (contextually)
appropriate word method: the reader can guess any word that is appropriate or acceptable. Criticism: in
order to ensure a sufficient number of items, cloze tests have to be relatively long; the exact method of
scoring: often too difficult for adult educated native speakers; the acceptable method of scoring: a
subjective component enters the scoring  tests much less reliable; the difficulty of cloze tests depends on
the content words deleted.
C-test - an attempt to improve cloze-tests, an integrative written test of general language proficiency,
consists of five to six short authentic texts, each complete as a sense unit in itself (and arranged in order of
difficulty with the easiest text first), the first sentence is left standing, then the 'rule of two' is applied:
beginning at word two in sentence two the second half of every second word is deleted , numbers and
proper names are usually left complete, if a word has an odd number of letters, the “bigger” part is
omitted, e.g., proud becomes pr-. One-letter words (e.g. I) are ignored in the counting., the process is
continued until there is a required number of blanks (either 20 or 25), the remaining text is left complete,
example of the instructions:'In this test parts of some of the words have been damaged. Please replace
the missing parts.' C-test: example“One cool autumn evening, Bob L., a young professional, returned
home from a trip to the supermarket to find his computer gone. Gone! All so__ of cr__ thoughts ra__
through h__ mind: H__ it be__ stolen? H__ it be__ kidnapped? H__ searched h__ house f__ a cl__ until
h__ noticed a sm__ piece o__ printout pa__ stuck un__ a maga__ on h__ refrigerator do__. His he__ sank
a__ he re__ this sim__ message: can’t continue, file closed, bye.” Scoring: each correct restoration is
given one point, spelling mistakes are counted as mistakes; rarely, there may be alternative solutions, the
final score is calculated by summing the scores for each individual text.

C-test vs. cloze-test - A variety of short passages enables a better sampling of content areas. Also, a
person with special knowledge in a certain field does not have an unfair advantage. By “damaging” every
second word, we can obtain a more representative sample of all the different language elements in the text

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than in the cloze, where normally only every fifth or sixth word is left out. Many more items can be
included in much shorter texts, making the test less time-consuming for the students than the cloze. Unlike
the cloze test, scoring is easy and objective, as there is only one acceptable solution in most cases. As a
rule, students actually like doing C-tests, whereas the cloze test is one of the most frustrating test types for
learners.
Test items (formats) - should be varied: each type is most effective at assessing and evaluating Ls
progress when used in conjunction with the other types; accommodate the different ways that Ls learn and
demonstrate what they have learnt or can do; should be stated clearly and precisely so that Ls know what
it is they are to do
Tests (conclusion) - there are a number of different types of language tests; not one test can be used for
all the purposes for which tests are needed.
Language Teaching Methods

1. The Grammar Translation Method (was originally used to teach ''dead'' languages such as
Latin or Greek, involving little or no spoken communication or listening comprehension) Goals:
to read literature in the LT and so learn and acquire grammar and vocabulary of the LT.
The role of the teacher and student, interaction: Students learn what the teacher knows.
Teacher is the authority. No interaction between students. The teacher guides, explains and
corrects. Characteristics (activities): translating, grammar is taught in deductive way,
memorialization of rules, vocabulary is learnt during translation.
Language skills/areas: all skills, vocabulary, grammar.
L1: mostly used, it is all about translation.
Errors: Students correct each other, correct answers are important.

2. Direct Method - The direct method of teaching, sometimes called the natural method. Not
limited to but often used in teaching foreign languages, the method refrains from using the
learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and
France around 1900. Characteristic features of the direct method are: teaching concepts and
vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials, teaching grammar
by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of
adequate linguistic forms in the target language), centrality of spoken language (including a
native-like pronunciation), focus on question-answer patterns, teacher-centering
Goals: to teach the learners how to communicate and think in the LT. The role of the teacher
and student, interaction: The teacher is directing and the students are following. They all
partners. All sorts of interaction (T-S, S-S, S-T). Characteristics (activities): drilling,
communication, using words in sentences. Patterns are very important. Language skills/areas:
speaking, reading, Q-A, all skills, but the most important is speaking. L1: Not used. Errors:
Teacher corrects mistakes but the students are also invited to self- correct.

3. Audio – Lingual Method (is based on behaviourism) - The audio-lingual method, Army

Method, or New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based
on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans,
could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive
feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback. Goals: to drill
students to use grammatical patterns.The role of the teacher and student, interaction: the
teacher is the role model of LT, students follow him. Characteristics (activities): drills and
patterns, to develop habits and automatic use of language through drills. Oral drills: Drills and
pattern practice are typical of the Audiolingual method. These include:
Repetition : where the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it
Inflection : Where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated
Replacement : Where one word is replaced by another

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Restatement : The student re-phrases an utterance. Language skills/areas: All skills important!
The natural order of skills is strictly followed (listening, speaking, reading, writing). L1: not
used. L1 interferes and causes errors. Errors: Errors aren't allowed. Drilling and contrastive
analysis prevent errors. The Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method and the Audio
– Lingual Method are traditional methods!

4. Desuggestopedia Method - What is De-suggestopedia?  It is an approach to education

whose primary objective is to tap the extraordinary reserve capacities we all possess but rarely if
ever use. This method utilises techniques from many sources of research into how best we can
learn. The Bulgarian scientist, Dr. Georgi Lozanov, for example, has demonstrated that through  a
carefully “orchestrated” learning environment including most importantly a specially-trained
teacher, the learning process can be accelerated by a factor of three to ten times enjoyably. Such
results are possible through the proper use of suggestion. The suggestive-desuggestive
process allows students to go beyond previously held beliefs and self-limiting concepts
concerning the learning process and learn great quantities of material with ease and enjoyment.
Goals: to help students eliminate the feeling of not being able to succeed in sth (language
learning). The role of the teacher and student, interaction: Teacher encourages students to
relax and the learning will come naturally. Characteristics (activities): Stimulation through
representation of fine arts, lots of role plays, dialogue, using art, music, teacher uses
pantomime....Language skills/areas: all language skills but in a creative way. L1: used to help
out, the teacher speaks partly English and partly the L1. Errors: Errors are correcte gently and in
a soft voice.

5. The Silent Way Method (is an alternative method) - The Silent Way is a language teaching
method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It
is not usually considered a mainstream method in language education. Goals: The general goal of
the Silent Way is to help beginning-level students gain basic fluency  in the target language,
with the ultimate aim being near-native language proficiency  and good pronunciation. An
important part of this ability is being able to use the language for self-expression; students should
be able to express their thoughts, feelings, and needs in the target language. In order to help them
achieve this, teachers emphasize self-reliance. Students are encouraged to actively explore the
language, and to develop their own 'inner criteria' as to what is linguistically acceptable.Teaching
is subordinated to learning! Teaching serves the learning process. The role of the teacher
and student, interaction: The role of the teacher is that of technician or engineer. The teacher's
task is to focus the students' attention, and provide exercises to help them develop language
facility; however, to ensure their self-reliance, the teacher should only help the students as much
as is strictly necessary. Learners are producing the language, the teacher only gestures, shows
pictures, gives cues. Characteristics (activities): The students begin their study of the language
by studying its sound system. The sounds are associated to different colors using a sound-color
chart that is specific to the language being learned. The teacher first introduces sounds that are
already present in the students' native language, and then progresses to sounds that are new to
them. These sound-color associations are later used to help the students with spelling, reading,
and pronunciation. Language skills/areas: Pronunciation. It is important to say that in this
methid there is no fixed syllabus. Anything can be covered, it all depends on the students' needs.
L1: only sometimes used, when there is a need. Errors: students usually correct each other. It is
a part of the learning

6. Total Physical Response Method - Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching
method built around the coordination of speech and action. It was developed by James Asher, a
professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California .Goals: to teach language

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through physical (motor) activity, achieving understanding of language by physical reactions to
stimulus.The role of the teacher and student, interaction: The teacher gives
commands/instructions. Learners listen and physically follow the instructions, and eventually
take over. In that way they show they understand everything. They don’t speak at all without
instructions.Characteristics (activities): first very simple instructions, and then very complex
ones. Students don't speak at all (until they are ready – until they take over and start giving
instructions).Language skills/areas: Listening. L1: used in the introductory part of the class, not
during the class. Errors: if students don't understand, they imitate other students.

7. The Communicative Approach Method (emphasizes interaction as both the means and the
ultimate goal of learning a language)A contemporary method that is often used nowadays. Goals:
to develop communicative competence. The role of the teacher and student, interaction: The
teacher gives instructions, tells students what to do. Students do what the teacher says. Teacher is
a facilitator. Characteristics (activities): gap filling, use of authentic material, role play ...
Language skills/areas: speaking, reading, listening, writing (all skills). Language functions (to
communicate the intent/message) are more important than language forms. L1: kept to minimum
Errors: not corrected, especially if the fluency is the aim of the activity  the errors can be
dealt with later. Contemporary aspect Eclectic approach: using a variety of methods 
you take the best of all methods.

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