University of Kerbala College of Engineering Petroleum Eng. Dept

1
University of Kerbala
College of Engineering
Petroleum Eng. Dept.
Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics

Second Class
supervision Prepared by
Dr farhan Altaee Ridha Falah
University of Kerbala / College of Engineering / Petroleum Eng. Dept. / Fluid Mechanics Lab
Ridha Falah
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Experiment (1) Hydraulic Bench operation using water & oil

Experiment (2) Calibrate Bourdon gauge
Experiment (3) U-tube manometer
Experiment (4) Reynolds number
Experiment (5) Bernoulli's theorem apparatus
Experiment (6) Flow over notch Experiment
Experiment (7) Impact of jet apparatus
Experiment (8) multiphase flow use oil&water
Experiment (9) Flow meters apparatus
Experiment (10) Centrifugal Pump
Experiment (11) Friction loss along pipe
Experiment (12) Cavitation Panel
Exprement (13) Gear pump steady unit
Experiment (14) Fricton loss in bends
Experiment (15) Fludazation
Experiment (16) permablity
Experiment (17) Flow Through an Orifice
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The report Contents

1- name of experiment , name of group ,
1
Date of the experiment, Name of instructor .
2- purpose of the experiment
3- Theory.......................................................... 1
4- Draw the device.............................................. 1
5- Procedures.................................................. 1
6- Paper Readings (Signed)...............................

7- Calculations (detail).................................... 2.5
8- Table of readings........................................
1
9- Graphs ......................................................
10- Discussion................................................
2.5
11-References ................................................
-Theory this section should include the theory behind the
experiment , it should also contain all those equation, theorectical
correlation which are used for comparison with experimental results,
should also be included , ((Don’t simply copy the manual))
-Procedures shold be informative and written in points , it should
be cover all phases of the investigation , it must brifly describe what
was done .
-References used whene writing your report and analyzing the
experiment, thr reference should be completed (name,name of
book,author,volume,date of publication,pages, etc.)
reference should be arranged lphabetically by author .
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Convertion
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Experiment (1) Hydraulics Bench The standard Hydraulics

Bench is used for all the laboratory experiments carried out during
this course. The Bench has a closed water circulating system to
facilitate mobility. Water is stored in an enclosed tank at the bottom
of the bench then pumped up to the experimental setup situated on
top of the bench from which water flows into the upper tank. The
upper tank has a drain controlled by a plug to collect and gauge the
water in the upper tank after which water is drained to the bottom
tank. The volume of water collected in the upper tank (in liters) can
be measured using the graduated scale fixed at the side of the
Hydraulics Bench. The switch of the water pump and the control
valve that regulates the amount of water that flows to the
experimental setup are at the front side of the Hydraulics Bench
Q =V (lit) / T (min) volume flow rate
M°(kg/m)= Q * P mass flow
Question
1- draw hydraulic bench of oil ?
2- what is the difference between water and oil experiment
3- why we use water instead of oil ?
4- numerate Parts of the hydraulic bench device ?
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Experiment (2) CALIBRATION OF A PRESSURE GAUGE

"Calibrate Bourdon gauge"
Purpose
The objective of this experiment is to verify the accuracy of a
pressure gage with a dead weight gage tester
Introduction
The figure below is a schematic of a dead weight tester. There are
three primary components of this device: a fluid that transmits the
pressure, a weight and piston used to apply the pressure, and an
attachment point for the gage to be calibrated. The weight applies a
force over a precisely known area, thereby applying a known pressure
to the fluid. The fluid is water that is essentially incompressible. Since
a dead weight tester is relatively compact the effect of elevation
change son the pressure are negligible. The pressure at the piston face,
therefore, is equal to the pressure throughout the water in the tester.
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Experimental procedure
1- Install the pressure gauge to the gauge cylinder of the tester and
ensure that the connection is tight .
2- Remove the piston and fill the cylinder and the reservoir with
clean water to half full and take the "zero" gauge reading
3- Insert the piston into the cylinder , open the ball valve to allow
air bubbles to move into the reservoir .
4- Rotate the piston to the minimize friction effect and take the
gauge reading due to piston weight .
5- Add more weights on the piston and record the readings until all
weights are used .
Calculations :
P=F/A
Where: P=Pressure(N/m2 ), F=Force(N), A=cross section area cm2
Diameter of piston = 0.01784 m
W= mass of piston + mass added to piston
Calculate the W, F, P, Pg , absolute gauge error , gauge error%
**absolute gauge error = (Measured Value – Actual Value) /Actual Value
Example : W=1.5 kg , F=W*g = 1.5 *9.81 = 14.7 N
P= F/A , A = Π/4 D2 , ( 1 bar = 1.0197 kg/cm2 )
W kg FN P bar Pg bar absolute gauge error Error%
1.5 14.7 .. …. ….. ….
Plot : 1- pg & P
2- absolute gauge error & pg
3- F & pg
Questions :
1- why we remove the bubbles from instrument
2- what happen when The device is not vertical .
3- Numerate the type of pressure ?
4- Numerate the errors in the experiment ? and how to handle errors .
5-The fluid In the experiment is compressible or not ? why
References : 1- Patton, M.Q. (1990), Qualitative Evaluation and
Research Methods , 2nd ed., Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
2- scholar.google.com/Wikipedia
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Experiment (3) U-tube manometer

Purpose
Measures positive negative and differential pressures using tube
manometer
Theory
Manometer is an device employed to measure pressure. There are a
variety of manometer designs. A simple, common design is to seal a
length of glass tubing and bend the glass tube into a U-shape. The
glass tube is then filled with a liquid, typically mercury, so that
all trapped air is removed from the sealed end of the tube. The glass
tube is then positioned with the curved region at the bottom. The
mercury settles to the bottom (see the picture at the left).After the
mercury settles to the bottom of the manometer, a vacuum is produced
in the sealed tube (the left tube in the picture). The open tube is
connected to the system whose pressure is being measured. In the
sealed tube, there is no gas to exert a force on the mercury (except for
some mercury vapor). In the tube connected to the system, the gas in
the system exerts a force on the mercury. The net result is that the
column of mercury in the left (sealed) tube is higher than that in the
right (unsealed) tube. The difference in the heights of the columns of
mercury is a measure of the pressure of gas in the system
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Liquid Gas
Calculation :
H cm P. N/m2 Vcm3 P N/m2 error %
P. = ꝭ g h (liquid) P =N.R.T/V (gas)

ꝭ = density of fluid V = volume of air
g = 9.81 m/sec2 R= 0800.2 atm .Lit /mol . k
h = Height T= temperature in Kelvin )K=C+273)
N = 22 mol
Plot : H cm & V cm3
Questions :
*What are the characteristics of the liquid used in the experiment?
*Why use with water, mercury or green gage oil
*What is the unit of pressure in the measurement: (blood pressure and
the tire device) and under the oil well
*What type of pressure is measured in this experiment?
*What happens if the end of the manometer is closed
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Experiment (4) Reynolds Number

Purpose
to determining the type of flow occurring: laminar or turbulent or
transition
Introduction
The unit has been designed for students experiment on the laminar,
transition and turbulent flow. It consists of a transparent header tank
and a flow visualization pipe. The header tank is provided with a
diffuser and stilling materials at the bottom to provide a constant head
of water to be discharged through a bell mouth entry to the flow
visualization pipe .The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless ratio
of inertia forces to viscous forces
Inertia force (Fi) = mass . acceleration of flowing
Where : mass = ρ V & acc = m/t2 & m/t = u
= ρ V. u / t
= ρ u V/t V = area . length (L.A) & L/t = u
2
=ρu A
Viscous force (Fv) = Shear stress . area
= τ. A
= μ. du/dy . A at any time du/dy = u/L
By definition Reynolds number:-
Re= Fi/Fv
= ρ u2 A / μ. u/L . A
=ρuL/μ
Reynolds number for pipe flow is :-
Re  ρ u d / 
=ud/v
where:
Re = Reynolds number
u = velocity of fluid (m/s)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
d = tube diameter (m)
 = dynamic viscosity of fluid (pa/s) (kg/m. s )
v = kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)
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Table :
Volume L Time s Q L/s U m/s Re phenomena
Use table to know the density (ρ) and viscosity () :
use interbolation if the temputer not found, Example temputer is 25 C

( 25- 21.85 / 31.85 - 21.85) = (X - 72.7 / 70.9- 72.7)
Then find X= density at 25 C
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Graph
Re against Velocity
Questions:
1. Why do we use Reynolds number?
2. What is the relationship between flow rate and Reynold ?
3. Is the Reynolds number obtained dependent on tube size or shape?
4. Draw a fully developed laminar and turbulent velocity profile (pipe
flow). Explain why they are different.
4. why we use glass balls ?
5. define: over flow , Colored liquid , control valve , transition flow
6. what is difference between dynamic and static fluid ?
7.Why does the turbulent flow appear ?
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Experiment (5) Bernoulli's theorem apparatus

Purpose
To verify Bernoulli's equation by demonstrating the relationship
between pressure head and kinetic head.
Introduction
The Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the sum of pressure head,
velocity head and the potential head is constant along a stream line for
a steady, in viscid and incompressible flow of fluid.
Static pressure at various points along the wall of a transparent venturi
tube are directly measured on a manometer, distribution Static
pressures are measured using multi-tube manometer having a
manifold with an air bleed valve. The characteristics of the flow in
both convergent and divergent portions of the venturi can be studied.
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Theory
Bernoulli's theorem states that ``the total head of the liquid flowing
between two point remains constant provided there is no loss due to
friction and no gain due to an application of outside work between these
two point ``
The total head (H) of the flowing liquid is made up of an elevation head
or static head (Z) , pressure head ( ) and velocity head ( ),
mutually convertible into each other`s form .
H= + +
Where : H = total head , m

V = velocity ,
p = pressure ,
Z = elevation , m
= specific weight of fluid ,
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81
Thus for point 1 and 2

+ + = + + (1)
Where : = friction loss between 1 and 2
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If the Bernoulli's tube is an a horizontal position then and if the

friction loss between point 1 and 2 is very small , then :
+ = + (2)
- = - (3)
Since section (1) and section (2) of the Bernoulli’s tube are different in
diameter then velocity is different from . this can be demonstrated
by the water levels at point 1 and 2 of the Manometer . from the
Bernoulli's theorem we can see that the lowest pressure will be at the
throat of the tube .
We can further calculate the difference of pressure head between two
point and can compare it with a measured value . the difference between
the theoretical and measured value is mainly due to frictional losses .
If Vol = Volume of flow measured from the measuring tank ,
t = Measuring time , s
A = Cross-section area ,
D = Diameter of Bernoulli's , m
From equation (3) we have
= - ]
= [( –( ]
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=8x [ – ]
= - 8x [ – ] …………….. (4)
The dimension of equation (4) is in m .

Since the diameter of the tube at each a particular section along the tube
length is fixed , then we can calculate the pressure drop along the tube if the
flow is known . the difference between the theoretical pressure drop and the
actual pressure drop (measured value) is due to the friction in the tube
between these two point .
At the same time we can compare the total head at any point along the
venture tube using a total head probe ( pitot tube`s probe) whose total head is
shown on tube No.7
+ + = + + ………….. (5)
At the stagnation point in the front of the pitot tube tip and
= + (6)
Or = -
Velocity head = - = (Un2-U12)/2g (7)
Therefore the velocity head can be demonstrated by the difference of

total head or stagnation pressure head ( ) measured from pitot tube
and static pressure head ) at that point .
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Volume (L) ….. time (sec) …….. Q (cm3/sec) ……. real ………….
N
act (Un2-U12)/2g real No.7 ∆H
theo ∆ 100%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
real
8
Repeat this for three times by change flow rate

2 2
(Un2-U12)/2g = (8 x Q2 / ∏2 g) [ 1/Dn – 1/D1 ]
theo = real - (Un2-U12)/2g
Plot :
Discussion:
1- What is the purpose of the Bernoulli's experiment?
2- What are the practical applications of Bernoulli equation ?
3- What is the relationship between the pressure and the speed of the
fluid? Explain
4- Why does the pressure measured by the Pitot tube decrease along
the pipe?
5- what is the relationship between the reading of manometer and area
of venture meter ?
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Experiment (6) Flow over notch

Purpose
1- To demonstrate the flow over different weir types.
2- To calculate the coefficient of discharge for different weir types.
3- To study the variation and dependence of the relevant parameters.
Theory
The flow of water between two point over a notch follows Bernoulli's
Point 1 = a point on the surface of a liquid a distance upstream from
the crest of a weir ( usually 4 times the height the notch bottom )
Point 2 = a point in different area above the crest of weir .
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Applying Bernoulli's equation between point 1 and 2 in fig.2 .

+ + = + + (1)
Where : p = pressure ,
V = velocity ,
Z = elevation , m
= specific weight of water ,
= acceleration due to gravity ,
Subscript 1 and 2 refer to point 1 and point 2 in fig.2 .

Since point 1 is on the surface of water and the cross-section area at
point 1 is very large, then pressure = 0 and velocity = 0, and also
point 2 is in the jet over the weir crest then = 0 , from equation (1)
gives :
+ + = + +
= =h
V= = (2)
Then the volume flow rate passing through the differential area will
be
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rectangular notch
Where : b = width of notch , m
Substitute from equation (4) in equation (3) , it gives :
(4)
(5)
For this experiment : b = 30 mm or 50 mm
V-Notch
(6)
(7)
For this experiment : 2 = 90 OR 60

In practice , the actual flow rate should be smaller than the above
theoretical flow-rate due to the energy loss caused by the fluid viscosity .
then the actual flow-rate will be :
Rectangular notch actual flow-rate :

(8)
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V-Notch actual flow rate :

For V-Notch , = tan 45. (9a)
For V-Notch , = tan 30. (9b)
Where : = coefficient of discharge , dimensionless constant

Article In practice , calculation may be made through logarithmic analysis
For a rectangular notch: log = + ,
For a V-notch : log = + ,
Flow HL VLIt TS Qact m3/s HH ∆H Cd

lit/min
Rectangular
notch
V- notch 60
V- notch 90
Trapezoid
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Plot 1- Q(m3/s) & H(m)

2- Cd & H(m)
*Plot a graph of actual discharge against the theoretical discharge
and find Cd value.
Tabulate Log Qact. against Log H.
Plot Log Qact. against Log H and find Cd value.
Discussion
1- Differentiate between :-
Uniform and non-uniform flow ,Steady and unsteady flow
2- What are the applications of notches?
3- Discussion differences obtained from the experiment as
compared to theoretical calculation8
4- Discuss possible factors influencing the results of the
experiment?
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Experiment (7) Impact of jet apparatus

Purpose
To demonstrate and investigate the validity of theoretical expressions
for the calculation of the force exerted by a jet on objects of various
shapes.
Theory
When a water jet of velocity hit a target plate , its velocity will
change to as in figure 2 .
Assume the jet flow rate is along the X ( vertical axis ) with
velocity , after striking the target the jet velocity becomes
and it direction from the origin direction by angle .
Momentum of jet before hitting the target plate =

Momentum of jet after hitting the target plate= cos
This impact force = change in momentum
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= cos
Reaction F by the target plate
F=W( cos ) Newton
Reaction F for various target are
F on flat target , = 90 degree , cos = 0

Thus = Newton (1)
F on cone target , = 120 degree , cos = - 0.5
Assume very little energy loss between nozzle and target
=
Thus = ( 1-(-0.5) ) = 1.5 (2)
F on hemisphere = 180 degree , cos = -1

Thus = - (-1) )
= or 2 times that of flat target . (3)
Impact of jet apparatus

Jet diameter = 7 mm
Jet cross section = 38.48 = 38.48 x
Height of target plate above nozzle = 30 mm
Flow rate = W( ) = W( )=Wx
=
= = 26 W ( )
= – 2gS ( velocity when hitting target plate )
= – 2(9.81)(0.03)
= – 0.5886
= (4)
S is the distance between nozzle and the target plate , this can be
determined by pushing the stem with target but without additional weight
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downward to touch the nozzle . S is the distance that the stem travels . it
is set at 30 mm in the factory . However , this can be reset to other value
at site if necessary by adjustment the screw and tare plate on the stem .
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Calculation
weight Vol T M° Theoretical PERCENT
Q V nozzle Vº target DIFFERENCE
(g) (L) (SEC) L/sec kg/sec impact force
m/sec N %
= – 2gS ( velocity when hitting target plate)

( S Height of target plate above nozzle)
Theoretical impact force:
For flat target = M° * Vº
For 120º cone target = 1.5 * M° * Vº
For hemisphere = 2 * M° * Vº
Plot :
weight against Q
From plot find slope intercept
ρ/gA=0.0202
slope = 0.0019
Discussion:
1. Write on Coefficient of impact?
2. Explain on the results of the computed slope and the shape of the
target plate.
3- why is the actual weight is lower than the theoretical weight ?
4- What are the practical applications of the experiment?
5. Which is more efficient at 90 °, 180 ° or 120 °?
6. Discuss possible factors influencing the results of the experiment?
7. Give examples of uses of water jet momentum in engineering?
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Experiment (8) multiphase flow

Purpose :
Study the effect of changing density and viscosity on Multiphase flow
Theory :
The term multiphase flow is used to refer to any fluid flow consisting
of more than one phase or component. For brevity and because they
are covered in other texts, we exclude those circumstances in which
the components are well mixed above the molecular level .
Flow rate :: The horizontal oil-water flow patterns can be classified
into two broad categories: separated and dispersed flows, according to
the distribution of the phases. At a low flow rate, the oil and water
flow separately as continuous phases. As the oil flow rate increases,
the flow has sufficient energy to entr Vwoter ain and break up the
heavier water into droplets. Some relevant oil-dominated flow
patterns are described below and illustrated .
Viscosity :: The influence of viscosity on the performance of
centrifugal pumps has not received up to the present, the systematic
attention of the pump engineers which this problem deserves in view
of the ever increasing use of the centrifugal pump for the transport of
viscous liquids
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Volume ratio of phase 1 to the total volume of the flow :

ꝭ' = ꝭoil .Voil + ꝭwater . Vwoter
Voil = Voil / Voil + Vwoter and Vwoter = Vwoter / Vwoter + Voil
The pump head of two-phase flow was calculated as the ratio of the
static pressure difference through the pump to the two-phase mixture
specific weight : Hp = ∆p / ɤ oil water
= p2 - p1 / ꝭ' g
Table :
Use 40 lit of water and add 1 lit from oil
Voil P1 P2 Water/oil ꝭ' Hp
0
1
2
3
4
Plot :
Water/oil & Hp
Discussion :
-1 What is the effect of increased liquid density on the flow?
2-Why is viscosity Proportional inversely to flow
3 -Pressure difference increases or decreases when crude oil is added
to the flow system
4- What are the steps to clean the oil pipe
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Experiment (9) Flow meters apparatus
Introduction
In this experiment we will measure the flow in (m3/s) by using four
ways, Venturi meter, Orifice meter, Rotameter and Pitot meters.
We will show later at the experiment that the Venturi is the most
accurate method to measure the flow. This experiment also giving
application of the steady flow Energy Equation and Bernoulli’s
Equation.
Purpose
1-To measure water flow using four methods, Venturi meters, Orifice
meter, Rotameter and Pitot meters .
2- To array the equipments according to its accuracy Devices
3- To determine the coefficients of discharge for device Cdv , Cdo ,
Cdr , Cdp
Orifice Meter
When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe , the velocity of water flowing
through the pipe at or immediately after the orifice is higher than velocity
before the orifice , at the same time , static pressure before the orifice is
higher than the orifice , the pressure difference is measured by a
manometer . in the case , applying Bernoulli’s equation between point 1
and point 2 gives :
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+ + = + + (1)
Subscripts 1 2 mean point 1 and point 2 of the liquid in the pipe . point
1 is before orifice plate , point 2 is at vena-contracta of the jet .
Since hence + = +
= 2g ] (2)
Form continuity equation : =
= (3)
= 2g ]
= 2g ]
= = (4)
Thus the idea flow rate ( theoretical flow rate ) is :
= = ( 5)
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Since there are some energy loss between section 1 and 2 and there are
also a vena-contracta after flow through the orifice . Thus , the actual
flow rate will be :
=A2 (6)
Where : = actual flow rate for orifice , .

= coefficient of discharge for orifice , dimensionless constant
= cross section area of orifice ,
= pipe diameter , m ( ,for the best equipment )
= orifice diameter , m , ( , for the best equipment )
= difference in pressure head , m .
From the above equation
= (7)
For the testing equipment =
Where :’ = constant = (8)
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Venturi meter
Apply Bernoulli`s equation between point 1 and point 2
+ + = + + (1)
Form continuity equation : =
= (2)
Substitute from equation (2) in equation (1), it gives the ideal velocity
of fluid at throat :
= (3)
The ideal flow ( theoretical flow ) through venture meter is then ,
= (4)
Since there are some energy losses between point 1 and point 2 , then ,
the actual flow rate will be less than the above flow , and applying the
coefficient of discharge to the ideal flow gives :
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= (5)
Where : = actual flow rate for orifice , .

= coefficient of discharge of the venturi meter (dimensionless constant ).
= throat cross section area ,
= pipe diameter , m ( ).
= throat diameter , m , ( )
= pressure at section 1 ,
= elevation of section 1 , m .
= elevation of section 2 , m
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Pitot tube
Apply Bernoulli`s equation between point 1 in the pipe and stagnation

point ( point 2 ) in front of the pitot tube , it give :
+ + = + + (1)
Since and = 0 , thus
= = (2)
And actual flow rate is : = (3)
= actual flow rate , .

= coefficient of discharge for pitot tube dimensionless Constant
= , ( 19 mm )
= pressure head difference , m
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Rota meter
The Rota meter is a tube varying cross-section area . ( hence variable area flow
meter ) . main component of the device are : taper tube , and a float . when
water flows through this tube , part of the water will flow against the the float
imparting impact on the float and raising its level .
The float can be plastic or steel depending on the calibrated flow rate required ,
the higher the flow the higher the water velocity and hence the higher the float .
to keep the float stable and at the centre of the tube , a small steel shaft is used
as a guide .
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Measuring Flow rate of flow meter m3/s

device
Measuring tank
Volume, lit
Time, s
Q , m3/s
Orifice meter
Manomwter L
Manomwter R
Different , mm
Venturi meter
Manomwter L
Manomwter R
Different , mm
Pitot tube
Manomwter L
Manomwter R
Different , mm
From orifice meter =
D0 = 0.029 m D2= 0.017 m

Q , m3/sec ∆h , m Cdv
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For venture = (2g ∆h)0.5
D1 = 0.029 m D2 = 0.017 m
3
Q , m /sec ∆h , m Cdv
From pitot tube Cdp = A (2g ∆h)0.5

D= 0.019 m
Q , m3/sec ∆h , m cdp
Plot
Flow rate against Cdo , v, p
Questions:
3- What is the best measure for this instrument ? why ?
4- Define Co-efficient of Discharge ? what is this range ?
5- Which Q actual or Q theo. is largest ? why ?
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Experiment (10) Centrifugal Pump

Purpose
1- To create head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a
centrifugal pump
2- To determine the operating point of the pump .
Theory
pumps impart momentum to a fluid, which then causes the fluid to
move into the delivery chamber or outlet. Turbines and centrifugal
pumps all fall into this category. The general design is usually simple
with few mechanical parts to fail, however, and it is possible to
operate a centrifugal pump outside ideal parameters while maintaining
good reliability.
Power(W°) and pump efficiency(µ )
Power is the amount of work done per unit time , this unit may be in
watt (Nm/s) or horse power , in this experiment the pump delivers to
the liquid and often referred to as hydraulic potyswer or watt power.
Hydraulic power depends on rate of flow (Q) and pumping head (hp)
or pumping pressure (pp)
W° = ¥Q hp= pQ
Where
W° = power output of the pump W
¥ = specific weight of liquid N/m
Q = flow rate m3/s
hp = pumping head m
p = pumping pressure N/m3
in the case of pressure , p is measured in kg/cm2 and flow rate Q in

lit/min , the power of pump will be
W° = p*Q
= P kg/cm2 * 100 cm/m * 9.81 N/kg * 1min/60sec * 1m3/1000lit
= 1.635 Q = W
Efficiency µP = W°/W!
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W! Pressure kg/cm2 Q lit/min W° µP

discharge Suction Diff V lit T sec Qlit/min
Plot P(kg/cm2) and Efficiency against Q(L/min)

Power (watt) against Q(L/min)
P(kg/cm2) against Q(L/min
Questions:
How many types of pumps?
What factors influence pump selection?
Explain the power of the pump
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Experiment (11) Friction loss along pipe
Purpose
To confirm the head loss predicted by a pipe friction equation
associated with flow of water through a smooth pipe.
Theory
Pressure losses occur during the flow of real fluids due to friction and
turbulence. Pressure losses in pipes, piping elements, fittings and
measuring instruments cause pressure losses and must therefore be
taken into account when designing piping systems.
when fluid flows in a pipe from one point to the next there is an
energy loss due to the fraction between the pipe and the fluid and the
interaction between the particle of fluid .
Type of flow :
There are two types of flows in pipe ; laminar and turbulent flow .
laminar flow is one which particles moves parallel to the pipe where
particles at the centre line of the pipe move faster than those near the
wall . turbulent flow is one which particles move at random in all
direction but generally move forward along with the flow . particles at
the centre line of the pipes and those near the wall move at nearly the
same velocity . turbulent flow results in higher friction loss , s.
laminar and turbulent flow may be defined by Reynolds number
(
Where : =
D = pipe inside diameter , m .

V = average velocity in pipe , .
= density of the fluid ,
= dynamic viscosity of the fluid , or Pa .s
The flow is laminar when and is turbulent when
. flow in which is between 2,000 and 4,000 is considered as
transitional flow .
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42
Energy Loss in Pipe
Energy loss due to the fluid flow in pipe can be explained by an energy
equation as follows :
The energy equation for flow from point number 1 and point 2 of the
same stream is as follows .
+ + = + + + (1)
Where : p = static pressure ,

V = average velocity of fluid ,
Z = elevation of pipe ,
= energy loss per unit weight of fluid , or m
g = acceleration due to gravity ,
Reference point number 1 and point 2 of the pipe respectively . since the
pipe is horizontal and diameter is constant , then
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43
and
Therefore , from equation (1) we get ;
= - (2)
If energy loss is expressed in term of head loss or friction head ( )
loss of energy for laminar flow

from Poiseuille`s experiment , it is found that :
= (3)
Where : L = length of pipe , m . from equation (2)
= (4)
Since ( is constant , then
V (5)
This Poiseuille`s experiment shows that energy loss in laminar flow is

proportional to average velocity of the flow .
Darcy and Weisbach experiments
From experiment by Darcy and Weisbach , it is found that energy loss
for both laminar and turbulent flow may be expressed as :
(6)
Where : f = function factor , dimensionless .

Rearranging equation (6) we obtain
= (7)
If we use the head loss in equation (3) as in equation (6) , we get :
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44
= = (8)
The equation may be expressed in logarithmic form as follows :
= - (9)
loss of energy for turbulent flow

from Darcy & Weisbach experiment
(10)
The above equation shows that energy loss per unit length of pipe is
proportional to the square of the average velocity .
Osborne Reynolds Experiment
From Reynolds experiment the energy loss per unit length for laminar
flow and turbulent flow may be expressed by a graph as shown per
below .
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45
No clear conclusion could be made for translation flow .

For turbulent flow
, ( for the smooth pipe )
, ( for the roughened pipe )
Thus for turbulent flow the energy loss depend on average

velocity or Reynolds number and roughness of the pipe wall
Where : = function
= absolute roughness of pipe
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V T Q U Re f HL
f =from chart
Plot
Calculated f VS Measured Head Loss
Discussion
1- Compare the values of head loss determined by calculation with
those measured using the manometer.
2- Define (equaling pipe, friction factor in the pipe)
3-What is difference between dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity
4- What are the disadvantages of friction fluid ?
5-What materials are used in the pipe industry to reduce friction
Ridha Falah
47
Ridha Falah
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Experiment (12) Cavitation Panel

PURPOSE
To demonstrate that when fluid flow through a conduit pressure drops or
pressure losses occur .
Theory
These pressure losses are due to friction against the tube walls : they
depend on several factors , velocity of fluid , area of the wet surface ,
degree of roughness of the tube walls and needless to stay , the length
of the tube .
To show how cavitation can be prevented by raising the static pressure
of a liquid above its vapor pressure
All liquids evaporate or vaporize when molecules escape from the liquid
surface . if a liquid is contained in closed vessel , the amount of escaping
molecules in the space above the liquid will increase continuously , resulting
in the increase of partial pressure . at the same time , some of molecules in
the space will return to the liquid surface until no more molecules are added
to the space . the pressure of vapor in the space at that equilibrium condition
is called saturated vapor pressure . at any temperature , liquid must have a
pressure higher than its own saturated vapor pressure . if lower . the liquid
will vaporize rapidly or boil, we call the vapor enclosed by the liquid '' bubble ''
Engineers are interested in the saturated vapor pressure because , when a
liquid flows into an area where the pressure reduced to saturated vapor
pressure , the liquid will vaporize or boil and vapor pockets or bubbles
develop . the vapor bubbles are carried along the liquid until the region of
higher pressure is reached , where they suddenly collapsed . this process is
called cavitation . if the vapor bubble are near to ( or in contact with ) a solid
boundary when they collapsed , the force exerted by the liquid rushing into
the cavities create a very higher localized pressure that causes pitting of solid
surface . these forces are also transmitted in all direction by the liquid and act
on contact object such as pipe wall etc . since the rate of collapse is very
higher , it causes the failure to the material and forms a noise and vibration .
the phenomenon is accompanied by noise and vibration which can be
described as similar to gravel going through a centrifugal pump .
When water flow through the venture tube ( fig.3 ) , where the cross-section
area at section (1) is large , the velocity of water at the section is low and the
accompanying pressure at section (1) is high . on the other hand , the
pressure at section (2) is low .
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49
Applying energy equation between section (1) and (2) and neglecting energy
loss between section (1) and (2) gives .
+ + = + + (1)
In the case of horizontal venture tube , , then equation (1) becomes:
+ = + (2)
Cavitation occurs when pressure at the throat is below saturated vapor

pressure , then from equation (2) gives :
= + (3)
= +
= + ( + ) (4)
Where :
= atmospheric pressure 1.103 bar = 1.103x
= (saturated) vapor pressure , , abs .
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= average velocity at section (1) ,

= average velocity at section (2) ,
= elevation of section 1 ,
= elevation of section 2 ,
Table
Plot :
Discussion
1- What kind of the cavition ?
2- What is the damage of cavition ? How to reduce it
3-Cavitation in pumps may occur in two different forms? mention
it
4-What is the relation between pressure and density of
compressible fluid ?
Ridha Falah
51
Exprement (14) Gear pump steady unit

Purpose
To determine the typical operating characteristics of gear pump
2) To understand instrument accuracy and design error analysis and
Pump efficiency
Theory
Positive displacement pumps are in general self-priming and may
require some type of mechanical bypass valve to protect the system
from excessive pressures. This class of pumps is further divided into
reciprocating or piston type and rotary type. Both the gear pump and the
rotary screw pump used in this experiment falls into the class of positive-
displacement rotary pumps.
Rotary pumps are typically used for high pressure, low flow rate,
applications. Excessive leakage is in many cases a problem since no
satisfactory method of sealing the moving surfaces to compensate for
wear has been developed. Consequently, rotary pumps are best suited
for pumping oils and other liquids having lubricating value and sufficient
viscosity to prevent excessive leakage.
The gear pump you will test in this experiment is an external gear type.
The pump consists of two spur gears inside an enclosure and in mesh
with each other
The unit is used to measure the inherent pump performance
including production ofCharacteristics curves of flow rate
against pump total head, motor input,impeller speed, Overall
total efficiency and the Introduction of pump speed laws .
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Calculation :
Qmeasured = h x c / t , L / min
h= the difference in level inside tank between start and stope point, cm
c= tank filling constant = 0.066 L / cm
t = time elapsed , min
Qtheoretical = V x n , L / min
V = pump displacement = 23.1 x 10-3
n = pump revolution speed , rpm
hydraulic power Phydr = Qmeasured x ∆p x 5 / 3 , W

∆p = difference between suction and delivery , bar
Hydraulic efficiency µv = Qmeasured / Qtheoretica

Pump efficiency µp = Phydr / Pabsorbed
Pabsorbed = absorbed power , read on gauge 18 ,W
table
Plot :
Discussion
1- What is the difference between suction pressure and discharge
pressure .
2- What pumps are used in the oil field
3- How many types of industrial pumps
4-
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53
Exprement (15) Friction loss in bends

Purpose : To determine the friction factor for the bends
Theory The unit has been designed for students to study on the fluid
friction head losses of an incompressible fluid flow of an incompressible
.The unit is self-contained supplied with facilities for students to study the
friction losses on smooth-bore pipes of various diameters and an
artificially roughened pipe. In addition to the study of losses in straight
pipes and bends .
Calculation
J = k Q2 / D5
Q = flow rate , m3/s
D = pipe diameter
K = factor
Darcy formula k= (0.00164 + 0.000042/D)
Blasius formula k = 0.026/(Re)0.025
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Table
Q L/min ∆H Ɵ10 ∆H Ɵ14 ∆H Ɵ (10-14) J
mm H2O mm H2O mm H2O
Plot ;
Discussion
Define friction factor in the pipe?
What are the requirements when designing pipes
Is the friction depends on the diameter of the tube
What is the effect of viscosity and density on friction
Ridha Falah
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Experiment (16) Fludazation

Theory : The apparatus is designed to facilitate the study of flow through
fixed and fluidized beds of solid particles. There is Provision for the
simultaneous study of air and water systems in the unit to demonstrate
the difference between 'aggregative' and 'particulate' fluidized bed
characteristics. Students can readily observe the important phenomenon
of 'bubbling’. Upward flow of fluid through a bed of particles is a naturally
occurring phenomenon, for example the movement of ground water.
Industrial applications include ion-exchange, extraction of soluble
components from raw materials and other chemical processes .
The experimental apparatus will be used in your investigation of the

minimum velocity of fluidization. You will utilize air and water to examine
the effects on fluid density and viscosity on the fluidized bed. The
equipment is sufficiently instrumented to provide you with data that can
be used to determine the minimum velocity of fluidization using the
concepts presented in Section 2.2. Appendix B provides operating
procedures for starting-up and shutting-down the equipment, as well as
information about the particle sizes and equipment .
Ridha Falah
56
Table
Plot
Discussion
Ridha Falah
57
Experiment (17) Flow Through an Orifice

Objective:
1. Determining the contraction (Cc) and velocity coefficients (Cv).
2. Calculating the discharge coefficient (Cd).
3. To measure the extend of the reduction in flow, contraction of the
stream and energy loss, as water discharge from a sharp edged orifice.
Theory
An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which
water flows. Orifices may have any shape, although they are
usually round, square, or rectangular, but for this experiment a
round orifice was used. For mechanics of fluid, a fluid passing
through an orifice constriction will experience a drop-in
pressure across the orifice. With the time recorded for the
required level in the volumetric tank to rise from 2 to 14litres,
and then with the measurement of the diameter of the orifice,
the pressure drop can then be used to calculate the flow rate of
the fluid. This experiment allows us to detect effect of friction on
water flow. In determining the performance of water through a
jet and the effect of friction on performance, the coefficient of
discharge (Cd), coefficient of velocity (Cv) and coefficient of
contraction (Cc) are needed. These three coefficients allow us
to understand the effect of the friction on water flow more
clearly. Each of these coefficients is a ratio of the actual
performance to ideal performance as related to discharge,
velocity and contraction. All of the three coefficients are also
measures of pressure loss. From this experiment, it is evident
that the energy loss in the system can be directly related to the
difference in head levels between ideal and actual conditions.
Description of Apparatus
The apparatus is designed to be used with the Hydraulic Bench.
Additional orifices can be fitted in the apparatus. The diagram below
shows the arrangement of the tank which is fed from the bench supply
valve through an adjustable vertical pipe terminated in a water settler
just beneath the water surface. An overflow pipe directs the surplus
Ridha Falah
58
water onto the bench top and thence to drain. The water passes down
the tank and leaves through a sharp edged orifice which is fitted into the
base of the tank in such a way that there is no unevenness along the
inner surface. The emerging jet passes through the bench top directly
back into the measuring tank. There is a tapping in the base of the tank
which connects with a plastic tube mounted in front of a vertical scale
showing directly the level of water in the tank above the plane of the
orifice. A second plastic tube is connected to a Pitot tube which may be
introduced into the discharging jet to measure the total head of the jet.
The Pitot tube may be traversed across the jet by revolving a graduated
nut which works along a lead screw having a pitch of 1 thread per mm;
each complete revolution of the nut moves the Pitot tube a distance of 1
mm. This traverse enables the diameter of the jet to be measured by
traversing the sharp blade, supported from the tube, from one side of the
jet to the other.
Ridha Falah
59
To begin the analysis of the free jet flow in terms of velocity, we can
begin with Bernoulli’s energy equation.
𝑃𝑚/ 𝛾+ 𝑍𝑚 +𝑉𝑚 2/ 2𝑔=𝑃𝑛/ 𝛾+ 𝑍𝑛 + 𝑉𝑛 2 / 2𝑔 …………..(1)
Where, P = pressure (Pa)
Z = height displacement from the origin (m)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
𝜸 = specific weight. (N/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
in this equation, pressure 𝑃𝑚 and 𝑃𝑛 are equal (both being atmospheric)
and the velocity 𝑉𝑚 at level M is negligibly small according to our
assumption . Moreover, Equ.1 reduced to:
𝑉𝑛 2/ 2𝑔= 𝑍𝑚 − 𝑍𝑛 ………………..(2)
This can be further simplified since (𝑍𝑚 − 𝑍𝑛 ) = 𝐻𝑜
𝑉𝑛 2 /2𝑔= 𝐻𝑜 ……………………(3)
This result applies to all points in the plane of the vena contracts, so
changing the notation to let 𝑉 𝑜 be the ideal velocity in the plane of the
vena contract, which would occur if there was no energy loss.
𝑉𝑜2/ 2𝑔 = 𝐻𝑜 …………(4)
Because of the energy loss, which in fact takes place as the water
passes down the tank and through the orifice, the actual velocity 𝑉c in
the plane of the vena conracta will be less than 𝑉𝑜 and may be
calculated from the Pitot tube reading by the equation :
𝑉𝑐 2 / 2𝑔 = 𝐻𝑐 ………………………(5)
It is clear that (𝐻𝑜 − 𝐻𝑐) represents the energy loss. The ratio of actual
velocity 𝑉 𝑐 and ideal velocity 𝑉 𝑜 is often referred to as the coefficient of
velocity 𝐶𝑣 of the orifice. From equation 4 and 5 we obtain:
𝐶𝑣 =𝑉𝐶/ 𝑉𝑜= (𝐻𝑐/ 𝐻𝑜) 0,5 …………………….(6)
In a similar sense, the coefficient of contraction 𝐶𝑐 is defined as the ratio
of cross-section of the vena contracta 𝐴𝑐 , to the cross- section of the
orifice 𝐴𝑜 ,
𝐶𝑐 =𝐴𝐶/ 𝐴𝑜= (𝜋/4) 𝑑𝑐2 / (𝜋 4 ⁄ )𝑑𝑜2 =𝑑𝑐2 / 𝑑𝑜2 ………….(7)
Finally, the coefficient of discharge 𝐶𝑑 is defined as the ratio of
the actual discharge to that which would take place if the jet
discharge at the ideal velocity without reduction of area:
𝐶𝑑 = 𝑄𝐶/ 𝑄𝑜 = 𝑉𝑐 𝐴𝐶 / 𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜 = Cv Cc ……………(8)
In terms of quantities measured experimentally
𝐶𝑑 =𝑄𝑐 / 𝑄𝑜 = 𝑄𝑐 / 𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑄𝑐 / (𝐻𝑜)0.5 × 1/ 𝐴𝑜(2𝑔) 0.5
Ridha Falah
60
Table
𝑚 T 𝑄𝑐 (H𝑜)0.5 (Hc)0.5 Cd
(𝑘𝑔) (s) (𝑚3/𝑠) *10-4
H𝑜 cv cc (cv cc)
mm (m)0.5 (m)0.5
Diameter of orifice = d𝑜 = 13 mm
A𝑜 = 1.332x10-4
Plot: sqrt H𝑜 againse 𝑄𝑐 *10-4
DISCUSSION
1. Is Cd constant over a wide range of the flow rates?
2. Do you results show that bernoull’s equation can be applied with
reasonable accuracy ?
3. How accurate are your results ?
Ridha Falah

University of Kerbala College of Engineering Petroleum Eng. Dept

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1

Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics

Experiment (1) Hydraulic Bench operation using water & oil

The report Contents

4- Draw the device.............................................. 1

6- Paper Readings (Signed)...............................

Experiment (1) Hydraulics Bench The standard Hydraulics

Experiment (2) CALIBRATION OF A PRESSURE GAUGE

Experiment (3) U-tube manometer

H cm P. N/m2 Vcm3 P N/m2 error %

P. = ꝭ g h (liquid) P =N.R.T/V (gas)

Experiment (4) Reynolds Number

Use table to know the density (ρ) and viscosity () :

use interbolation if the temputer not found, Example temputer is 25 C

Experiment (5) Bernoulli's theorem apparatus

Where : H = total head , m

Thus for point 1 and 2

Where : = friction loss between 1 and 2

If the Bernoulli's tube is an a horizontal position then and if the

The dimension of equation (4) is in m .

Velocity head = - = (Un2-U12)/2g (7)

Therefore the velocity head can be demonstrated by the difference of

Repeat this for three times by change flow rate

Experiment (6) Flow over notch

Applying Bernoulli's equation between point 1 and 2 in fig.2 .

Subscript 1 and 2 refer to point 1 and point 2 in fig.2 .

For this experiment : 2 = 90 OR 60

Rectangular notch actual flow-rate :

V-Notch actual flow rate :

Where : = coefficient of discharge , dimensionless constant

For a rectangular notch: log = + ,

For a V-notch : log = + ,

Flow HL VLIt TS Qact m3/s HH ∆H Cd

Plot 1- Q(m3/s) & H(m)

Experiment (7) Impact of jet apparatus

Momentum of jet before hitting the target plate =

Reaction F by the target plate

F=W( cos ) Newton

Reaction F for various target are

F on flat target , = 90 degree , cos = 0

F on hemisphere = 180 degree , cos = -1

Impact of jet apparatus

= – 2gS ( velocity when hitting target plate)

Experiment (8) multiphase ﬂow

Volume ratio of phase 1 to the total volume of the flow :

Experiment (9) Flow meters apparatus

Form continuity equation : =

Substitute from equation (3) in equation (2) , it gives :

Thus the idea flow rate ( theoretical flow rate ) is :

Where : = actual flow rate for orifice , .

For the testing equipment =

Where :’ = constant = (8)

Form continuity equation : =

The ideal flow ( theoretical flow ) through venture meter is then ,

Where : = actual flow rate for orifice , .

Apply Bernoulli`s equation between point 1 in the pipe and stagnation

Since and = 0 , thus