NOTES

C H E M I S T R Y

CHEMICAL BONDING
DIPOLES AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

What you already know What you will learn

• Electron deficient compounds • Dipoles in chemistry

• Banana bond • Predicting the percentage of ionic
• Dipole character in a covalent bond from a dipole
moment
• Dipole moment
• Intermolecular forces

Recap

Dipole moment (𝛍)

• Dipole moment is the product of charges and the distance of separation between the charges
in a dipole.

• | µ | = qd where q is the magnitude of charge and d is the distance of separation.
• The direction of a dipole moment is represented by a small arrow with a tail on the positive
centre and a head pointing towards the negative centre. The unit of dipole moment is debye.
Dipole moment of diatomic and polyatomic molecules:
• For diatomic molecules, 𝛍 depends on the electronegativity difference between the atoms.
• For polyatomic molecules, 𝛍 depends on the bond dipole and spatial arrangement.
• The bond dipole moment is a vector quantity, since it has both magnitude and direction.

• R = (P 2
+ Q 2 + 2 PQ cos θ )
• It can also be zero when two oppositely acting bond dipoles cancel out each other.
• For a non-polar molecule, 𝛍net = 0 (Mostly symmetric molecules)
• For a polar molecule, 𝛍net ≠ 0 (Mostly asymmetric molecules)

Predicting the geometry of a molecule using its dipole moment:

• Molecules with zero dipole moments (i.e., 𝛍net = 0) are non-polar like H2, and they have a
symmetrical distribution of electrons and will exhibit symmetrical geometry.
• Molecules with non-zero dipole moments (i.e., 𝛍net ≠ 0) are polar like HCl, and they have
asymmetrical distribution of electrons and will exhibit asymmetrical geometry.

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 02

Finding the net dipole moment

Analyse the net dipole moment for the following molecules:

Solution

1. Ammonia (NH3)
NH3 has a tetrahedral geometry and pyramidal
shape due to the presence of the lone pair. Here,
the direction of the dipole moment due to lone
pair is in the same direction of the resultant N
dipole moment of the three N-H bonds. Hence, H
H
the net dipole moment of NH3 will get added up
and thus, 𝛍net for NH3 ≠ 0. H

2. Methane (CH4) H

CH4 has a perfect tetrahedral shape. Thus,

each bond pair is at equal distance and they C
are symmetrically arranged. Hence, the dipole H
moment of each bond cancel each other, which H
makes the net dipole moment, 𝛍net = 0. H

3. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

SO2 has a bent shape. The resultant dipole
moment due to two S-O double bonds will not
cancel out the dipole moment caused due to lone S
pair. Thus, SO2 has got a net dipole moment,
𝛍net ≠ 0. O O

4. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

CO2 has a linear shape. Thus, the equal and
opposite bond dipoles cancel out each other O C O
making the net dipole moment, 𝛍net = 0.

5. Sulphur tetrafluoride (SF4)

SF4 has a seesaw shape due to the presence F
of one lone pair. It cannot be concluded that the
F
resultant dipole vector of the two equatorial S-F S
bonds will cancel out with the dipole moment
F
created by the lone pair. Thus, SF4 has a net
F
dipole moment, 𝛍net ≠ 0.

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 03

6. Xenon oxytetrafluoride (XeOF4)

XeOF4 has a square pyramidal shape. The dipole
moments created due to the four Xe-F bonds will cancel F F
out with each other. However, the dipole moment created Xe
by Xe=O will not be cancelled by the dipole moment
F F
created by the lone pair. Thus, XeOF4 has a net dipole
moment, 𝛍net ≠ 0. O

7. Xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4)

XeF4 has octahedral geometry. The dipole moments
F F
created due to the four Xe-F bonds will cancel out each Xe
other and dipole moments created by lone pairs will also
F F
cancel out each other. Hence, XeF4 has zero net dipole
moment (𝛍net = 0).
F
8. Xenon difluoride (XeF2)
In XeF2, the dipole moments due to the two Xe-F bonds
Xe
will cancel out each other. Also, the bond dipoles of the
lone pairs in the equatorial plane will cancel out each
other. Thus, XeF2 has zero net dipole moment, 𝛍net = 0. F

Note

• Dipole moment depends on the following:

1. The charges on the dipole 2. The distance of separation

BOARDS MAIN ADVANCED

Some Important Orders to Remember

The order of dipole moments for hydrogen halides is given as follows:

H-F H-Cl H-Br H-I
(1.78 D) > (1.07 D) > (0.79 D) > (0.38 D)

• Fluorine is the most electronegative element known and thus, the magnitude of partial charges
developed on hydrogen and fluorine will be maximum.
• Though the distance between H and I is maximum, the magnitude of charge here dominates
the charge separation.
• Thus, HF has the highest dipole moment (1.78 D) among hydrogen halides.

Dipole moment of CH3Cl is greater than CH3F

• CH3F and CH3Cl have the same geometry (tetrahedral) and hence, their bond angles are more
or less the same. On calculating the resultant dipole moment, CH3Cl has got a greater dipole
moment than CH3F.

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 04

• Although chlorine is less electronegative, F Cl

the C-Cl bond length is larger than C-F
bond length.
• Here, the charge separation factor
dominates the magnitude of charges.
C C
H H
H H

• Thus, the net product (Dipole moment = H H

Charge × Internuclear distance) of CH3Cl CH3F CH3Cl
is high. Hence, CH3Cl has a larger dipole 𝛍 = 1.85 D 𝛍 = 1.87 D
moment than CH3F.
Fig. 1: Dipole moment of CH3F and CH3Cl

Steric hindrance between the atoms can affect dipole moment

• The steric hindrance between the three

Cl atoms in CHCl3 disturbs the H-C-Cl
bond angle (i.e., H-C-Cl bond angle will
be reduced) and hence, the effective H Cl Cl
vector of the bond dipole component of
each C-Cl bond is also decreased, and the
net dipole moment decreases. C C C
Cl H H
Cl Cl H
• This kind of repulsion will not happen in
CH3Cl, as the three H atoms are not bulky Cl H H
and will not cause steric repulsion. Thus, CHCl3 CH2Cl2 CH3Cl
the resultant dipole moment increases.
𝛍 = 1.01 D 𝛍 = 1.59 D 𝛍 = 1.87 D
• CH2Cl2 does not have a perfect tetrahedral
geometry. Thus, the bond angle is not Fig. 2: Dipole moment of CHCl3, CH2Cl2
exactly 109.5° but close to 109.5°. Hence, and CH3Cl
the resultant component of the two C-Cl
bonds will be slightly less than what we
expect in perfect tetrahedral geometry.

Ammonia (NH3) has a greater dipole moment than nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)

• NH3 has tetrahedral geometry and pyramidal

shape due to the presence of the lone pair.
Here, the direction of the dipole moment
due to lone pair is in the same direction as
the resultant dipole moment of the three
N-H bonds. Hence, the net dipole moment of
N N
NH3 will get added up and thus, the net dipole
H H F
moment, 𝛍net, for NH3 is the higher. F
H F
• The geometry and shape of NF3 are similar
to that of ammonia, i.e., tetrahedral and 𝛍 = 1.47 D 𝛍 = 0.24 D
pyramidal. In NF3, the direction of the dipole
Fig. 3: Dipole moment of NH3 and NF3
moment due to lone pair is in the opposite
direction to the resultant dipole moment of

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 05

the three N-F bonds due to the increased polarity of N-F bonds. Hence, its net dipole moment
decreases. Therefore, the dipole moment of NH3 is greater than that of NF3.

CD3F has a greater dipole moment than CH3F

• Due to the increased electropositivity
of deuterium, the magnitude of partial
positive charge on D will be higher than
that in H.
• This results in an increased effective
dipole moment due to three C-D bonds,
which further causes the net dipole
moment to increase.
• Hence, CD3F has a greater dipole moment
than CH3F.
F F
C C
H D
H D
H D
CH3F CD3F
𝛍 = 1.85 D 𝛍 = 1.86 D
Fig. 4: Dipole moment of CH3F and CD3F

Note

Commonly used units of charge are the following:

4.8 × 10-10 e.s.u

Charge on one electron

1.6 × 10-19 C

BOARDS MAIN
Units of a Dipole Moment (𝛍)

qd× d, where q is the magnitude of charge and d is the distance of separation between the
• | µ | == q
charges.
• The SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb metre (C m).
• Most common unit of dipole moment is debye.

Note

• Debye (D) and e.s.u cm are related as follows:

11 ×× 10
-18
10-18 e.s.u cm
e.s.u cm == 11 D
D
Dipole moment
Dipole moment forfor HCl molecule == 1.03
HCl molecule 1.03 ×× 10 -18
10-18 e.s.u cm
e.s.u cm
== 1.03
1.03 DD

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 06

• Debye and coulomb metre (C m) are related as follows:

Consider the charge on one electron (q) as 4.8 × 10-10 e.s.u and d = 1 Å (We know that
1 Å = 10-8 cm). Thus, the dipole moment (𝛍) is obtained as follows:
=µ q×
= d 4.8 × 10-10 e.s.u × 10-8 cm
= 4.8 × 10-18 e.s.u cm
= 4.8 D ... ( 1)
Consider the charge on one electron (q) as 1.6 × 10-19 C and d = 1 Å (We know that 1 Å = 10-10 m).
Thus, the dipole moment (𝛍) is obtained as follows:
= × d 1.6 × 10 -19 C × 10 -10 m
µ q=
= 1.6 × 10 -29 C m ... ( 2)
Equating (1) and (2),
4.8 D = 1.6 × 10 -29 C m
i.e., 1 D = 3.33 × 10-30 C m

BOARDS MAIN
Dipole Moment and Percentage Ionic Character

The partial charges developed on the atoms of a compound determines its percentage ionic
character. This can be predicted from the dipole moment. The formula used for calculating the
percentage ionic character is given as follows:

Observed dipole moment

% Ionic character = × 100
Theoretical dipole moment

Observed dipole Experimental

moment value of 𝛍

Theoretical dipole If 100% ionic

moment compound

• The Hannay-Smith equation calculate the percentage ionic character. This equation gives
only an approximate value of the percentage ionic character because here, electronegativity
is used as a parameter, which has got different scales of measurement.

% Ionic character = [ 16 (ΔE.N.) + 3.5 (ΔE.N.)2]

Note

Ionic character (in percentage)

Fraction of charge on each atom of dipole (δ) =
Dipole moment (𝛍) 100

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 07

Finding the percentage

net dipole moment
ionic character

The bond length of HCl is 1.275 Å. If 𝛍 = 1.02 D, then which of the following is HCl?
(a) 100% ionic (b) 50% covalent (c) 83% covalent (d) 40% covalent

Solution

Step 1: Calculating the observed dipole moment in C m

µobserved= 1.02 D = 1.02 × 3.33 × 10-30 C m

Step 2: Calculating the theoretical dipole moment

1 × 1.6 × 10-19 C × 1.275 × 10-10 m
µ theoretical =

Step 3: Calculating the percentage ionic character

Observeddipole
dipolemoment
moment
=
=
=
%
%%Ionic character Observed
Ioniccharacter
Ionic character
Observed dipole moment 100
×××100
100
Theoreticaldipole
Theoretical
Theoretical dipolemoment
dipole moment
moment
CCCm
m
-30
1.02×××3.33×10
1.02
1.02 3.33×10-30
3.33×10 -30
m
=
=
= -10 ×××100
100
100
1×1.6×10-19 -19 C ×1.275×10
-19
m
1×1.6×10
1×1.6×10 CC ×1.275×10
×1.275×10-10 -10
mm
===16.65
16.65
16.65
Now, %
Now,
Now, % Coval
% Covalent
Coval ent character ===100
ent character
character 100---16.65
100 16.65
16.65
83.35 ≈≈≈ 83
===83.35
83.35 83
83
Hence, option (c) is correct answer.

Finding the percentage ionic character

The dipole moment of KCl is 3.336 × 10-29 C m. The interionic distance in KCl is 2.6 Å. Find the
percentage ionic character in KCl.
(a) 100% (b) 50% (c) 80% (d) 40%

Solution

Step 1: The observed dipole moment

3.336 × 10-29 C m
µobserved =

Step 2: Calculating the theoretical dipole moment

1 × 1.6 × 10 -19 C × 2.6 × 10 -10 m
µ theoretical =

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 08

Step 3: Calculating the percentage ionic character

Observed dipole moment
=
% Ionic character × 100
Theoretical dipole moment
3.336 × 10-29 C m
= × 100
1×1.6×10-19 C ×2.6×10-10 m
= 80.2 ≈ 80
Hence, option (c) is correct answer.

Finding the percentage ionic character

A diatomic molecule has a dipole moment of 1.2 D. If its bond distance is equal to 1.0 Å, then what
is the fraction of an electric charge on each atom?
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.52 (c) 0.37 (d) 0.42

Solution

Step 1: Calculating the percentage ionic character

Observed dipole moment
% Ionic character = × 100
Theoretical dipole moment
1.2 × 3.33 × 10 -30 C m
= × 100
1.6 × 10 -19 C × 10 -10 m
= 25

Step 2: Calculating the fraction of electric charge on each atom

Ionic character (in percentage)
Fraction of charge on each atom of dipole (δ) =
100
25
Fraction of charge on each atom of dipole (δ) = = 0.25
100
Thus, each atom of the diatomic molecule carries a charge (δ) of 0.25.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.

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 09

BOARDS MAIN ADVANCED

Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are the attractive and repulsive forces that arise between the
molecules of a substance. These forces mediate the interactions between individual molecules
of a substance. Intermolecular forces are responsible for the condensed states of matter. The
particles making up solids and liquids are held together by intermolecular forces, and these forces
affect a number of the physical properties of matter in these two states.

Ion-dipole interactions

Dipole-dipole interactions
Types of
intermolecular Ion-induced dipole interactions
forces

Dipole-induced dipole interactions

Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole

interactions
Ion-dipole interaction

These interactions arise between ions and

polar molecules. For example, when NaCl is
dissolved in water in a beaker, the polar H2O δ+
δ+
δ+
molecules are attracted to the sodium and δ+
δ+ δ- δ-
chloride ions in the beaker, i.e., the partial δ+
δ+
δ- δ-
negative charge on the oxygen atom of H2O will Cl- δ+
Na+
δ-
δ+
attract Na+ and the partial positive charge on the
hydrogen atom will attract Cl-. The strength of δ+
δ+
δ-
δ+ δ-
this interaction depends on the following: δ+
δ+ δ+
δ+

• The magnitude of the dipole moment

Fig. 5: Illustration of an ion-dipole interaction
• Size of the polar molecule
• The size and charge of an ion

Dipole-dipole interaction δ- δ+

δ+ δ-
δ+
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ-
δ-
Cl H Cl H
δ+ δ+
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ+
δ- δ+ δ-
δ+ δ-
δ- δ+ δ- δ+
Attraction
Repulsion
Fig. 6: Attractive and repulsive forces in a dipole-dipole interaction

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 10

It occurs between the oppositely charged ends of two dipoles of the molecule. Dipole-dipole
interactions are attractive forces among polar molecules. Polar molecules have permanent
dipoles formed due to the difference in the electronegativities of the atoms that are associated
with a covalent bond. The partially positive portion of one molecule is attracted to the partially
negative portion of another molecule. Dipole-dipole interactions occur in HCl molecules. Chlorine
is comparatively more electronegative than hydrogen and therefore, acquires a partial negative
charge (whereas hydrogen acquires a partial positive charge).

Ion-induced dipole interaction

+
Here, a non-polar molecule is polarised by an ion
placed in its vicinity. When an ion approaches a
non-polar molecule, the ion will cause a charge
separation in a non-polar molecule. Thus, the
non-polar molecule, upon obtaining a charge, + δ- δ+
behaves as a dipole. This interaction between
an ion and an induced dipole is known as an
ion-induced dipole interaction.
Fig. 7: Illustration of an ion-induced dipole
attraction

Dipole-induced dipole interaction (Debye forces)

These interactions are similar to ion-induced

dipole interactions. However, the differentiating δ- δ+
factor is that non-polar molecules are
transformed into induced dipoles due to the
presence of a polar molecule nearby. δ- δ+ δ- δ+

Fig. 8: Illustration of a dipole-induced dipole

interaction

Note

Size of noble gas ↑

Polarisability ↑

Dipole-induced dipole forces ↑

Solubility in water ↑

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Solubility of noble gases can be explained using the strength of dipole-induced dipole forces.
As we move down the group, the size of the noble gas increases. Thus, the polarisability increases
(i.e., the magnitude of partial charges developed on atoms increases), which leads to an increase
in the dipole-induced dipole force. This leads to its solubility in water to increase.
Thus, the order of solubility of noble gases is He < Ne < Ar < Kr < Xe.

Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interaction (London dispersion forces)

It operates for a short distance and it is the

weakest force. A temporary dipole is induced
when molecules come closer to each other that
causes the electron cloud to shift accordingly. δ- δ+
This creates partial charges and results in
attractions. This kind of force arises due to the
temporary movement of electrons, creating
temporary positively and negatively charged
regions. δ- δ+ δ- δ+

Fig. 9: Illustration of London dispersion

forces

Note

F2
Physical state of halogens
Gases
• London forces increase with increase in
Cl2
the size of the atoms, and this can affect
the physical state of molecules. Existence
of F2 and Cl2 as gases, Br2 as liquid, and
I2 as solid can be explained using London Br2 Liquid
forces. Due to the smaller size of F and
Cl, the nucleus has greater influence over
the electron cloud, which makes it difficult
to polarise. Thus, they experience lesser
London forces of attraction and will exist in I2 Solid
gaseous state.

London forces and its influence on physical state

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 12

The van der Waals forces depend on the following:

1. The magnitude of partial charge(s) on the ion(s)
2. The polarity of the dipole
3. The strength of the nuclei

Boiling Point and Strength of van der Waals Forces

Boiling point

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals
the pressure surrounding the liquid (atmospheric pressure) and the liquid changes into a vapour.
• Boiling point is directly proportional to the van der Waals forces or London dispersion
forces. As the van der Waals force increases, the boiling point increases.

Boiling point ∝ van der Waals forces

• Boiling point is directly proportional to the molecular mass of the molecules. A molecule
with high molecular mass will have a high boiling point.

Boiling point ∝ Molecular mass

Note

Boiling point increases down the group. On Moving down the group, the size and molecular
mass increases, which results in increased polarisability of molecules. Hence, the boiling point
increases. The order of boiling points for halogens (homonuclear diatomic molecules) and noble
gases are given.

F2 < Cl2 < Br2 < I2

He < Ne < Ar < Kr < Xe

Order of boiling point for halogen and noble gas

The order of boiling points for compounds with tetrahedral geometry in group 14 are given as
follows:

CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4

Order of boiling point for group 14 hydrides

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 13

Analogy

Due to increased inter-particle attraction, honey is an extremely viscous fluid. When a person
dips his finger into a jar of honey, the dipoles present on honey will attract the charges present
on his finger. This will prevent the subsequent layers of honey coated over the finger to
come out along with the finger. However, here, there is a greater force applied by the person
on his finger, and we can see a line of honey coming out of the jar. This is because of the
intermolecular attraction between particles present in honey.

• Boiling point is directly proportional to surface area. This is because as the surface area
increases, the magnitude of intermolecular forces increases and hence, the boiling point
increases.
• Consider two compounds A and B. The boiling point of A (CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3) is more
than that of B (CH3-CH(CH3)-CH3) because molecule (A) can be easily polarised, as the
control of the nucleus is less. Thus, there are more dispersion forces resulting in an increase
in boiling point.
CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3

CH3 CH CH3
A B

Boiling point A > B

Note

The strength of intermolecular forces follows the order as shown in the following:

Instantaneous
Ion-induced Dipole-
Ion-dipole Dipole-dipole dipole-
> > dipole > induced dipole >
interactions interactions induced dipole
interactions interactions
interactions

Summary

1. Dipole moment and percentage ionic character

Observed dipole moment
% Ionic character = × 100
Theoretical dipole moment
Ionic character (in percentage)
Fraction of charge on each atom of dipole (δ) =
100

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 14

Hannay-Smith equation to calculate the percentage ionic character is as follows:

% Ionic character = [16 (ΔE.N.) + 3.5 (ΔE.N.)2]
Where, E.N. = Electronegativity
2. Intermolecular forces
They are the attractive and repulsive forces that arise between the molecules of a substance.
These forces mediate the interactions between individual molecules of a substance.
Types of intermolecular forces
• Ion-dipole interaction: These interactions arise between ions and polar molecules.
• Dipole-dipole interaction: It occurs between the oppositely charged ends of two dipoles
of the molecule. Dipole-dipole interactions are attractive forces among polar molecules.
• Ion-induced dipole interaction: A non-polar molecule is polarised by an ion placed in its
vicinity. The non-polar molecules, upon obtaining a charge, behave as induced dipoles.
• Dipole-induced dipole interaction: Non-polar molecules are transformed into induced
dipoles due to the presence of a polar molecule nearby.
• Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interaction: This kind of force arises due to the
temporary movement of electrons creating temporary positive and negative charged
regions.
Van der Waals forces depend on the following:
• The magnitude of partial charge(s) on the ion(s)
• The polarity of the dipole
• The strength of the nuclei
Boiling point and strength of van der Waals forces
• Boiling point is directly proportional to the van der Waals force or London dispersion
force. As the van der Waals force increases, the boiling point increases.
• Boiling point is directly proportional to the molecular mass of the molecules. The
molecule with a high molecular mass will have a high boiling point.
• Boiling point is directly proportional to surface area. This is because as the surface area
increases, the magnitude of intermolecular forces increases and hence, the boiling point
increases.
The strength of intermolecular forces follows the following order:

Instantaneous
Ion-induced Dipole-
Ion-dipole Dipole-dipole dipole-
> > dipole > induced dipole >
interactions interactions induced dipole
interactions interactions
interactions

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