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Diana Jurisic

China and France’s Roles in World War II

The Second World war was a conflict of such magnitude that it had a significant

impact on all countries around the globe. The effects of this relatively recent war would

be the cause of much political, economic and social change for those involved. This

paper will focus on the effects of World War II on China and France: two countries

fighting on two fronts of the conflict against different enemies. In comparing the two

distinct nations and their different foes, some common scenarios arise given the

common circumstance of war, such as its effects on the population and a change in

ruling government after the war. Most importantly, in the comparison between these

countries is China’s determination and success in obtaining its sovereignty while

France’s many internal conflicts would cause it to turn itself over to the Germans.

The story of China in World War II is one of unrelenting resistance despite their

lack of unity and weak military. The Chinese government had gotten much criticism from

other Western powers for its lack of effective action in the war. In light of this, it is

fascinating to see China triumph while France, despite its status as a great power,

surrendered to the Germans after just 6 weeks. France’s quick surrender is attributed to

the country’s politically divided state between the fascists and the communists.

Since the 1800s, China had been dealing with foreign imperialism that would

result in a series of unequal treaties. The humiliating Treaty of Nanjing, signed in by the

Qing dynasty, permitted concessions for imperialist colonies. This foreign presence in

China led to the introduction of Christianity, which caused the Taiping movement to
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arise. The Qing dynasty, not backed by military force, put power in the hands of local

officials to handle the rebellion and succeeded. The immediate problem with the Taiping

was resolved, but the means by which the government achieved this would set the

stage for a culture of autonomous warlords in China.

In the late 19th Century the Chinese began to plot an overthrow of the

government in favor of new revolutionary leader, Sun Yat-sen. The Qing dynasty felt

threatened by his popularity and drove him out of China - but not before Sun left his

mark on the Nationalist movement. Following this, revolutionaries demanded that a

Wuhan military commander announce independence or be killed, to which he complied

as well as many other cities thereafter and announced themselves as part of a new

republic.

At this time, a man named Chiang Kai-shek began assembling troops in his

home province. In February of 1912 the last Chinese emperor stepped down; China

was now a republic, but power remained in the hands of the warlords. General Yuan

Shikai used his military strength to install himself as president and ban the Nationalist

party. He would remain president until his death in 1916. Sun Yat-sen and Wang

Jingwei attempt a revolutionary government again and form an alliance with the Soviet

Union that allowed the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to expand. Chiang climbed up

the ranks in the Nationalist military and became head of military council, and Wang

ascended to head of political council when Sun Yat-sen died in 1925.

Chiang Kai-shek despised the communists and throughout his rule would take

actions to undermine their role, despite their alliance and the aid they provided for the
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Nationalists. Chiang would campaign throughout China, capturing territories to place

under Nationalist rule and in Shanghai he made an agreement with local gangs to kill

communists in the area, which put an end to their alliance. Chiang now declared himself

as ruler and, in 1928, he formally established his government in Nanjing where his rule

was strongest. The Nationalist government became very corrupt as its officials abused

their power to extort the population even in the face of poverty.

In September of 1931 Japan’s Kwantung Army staged a bomb on their own

railway in Manchuria to instigate an invasion of China. Chiang and Wang Jingwei begin

preparing China for an inevitable war against Japan, but they more needed time so

Chiang reached a compromise with Japan through the Tanggu Truce, which recognized

Japanese puppet state Manchukuo. Chiang began secret talks with the Soviet Union for

an anti-Japanese alliance, and the communists and Nationalists agreed to focus their

attention on foreign invasion and table their civil war conflict for a later time.

War broke out in summer of 1937 between China in Japan following the Marco

Polo Bridge incident in Wanping. The Japanese were concerned that war with China

would make them vulnerable on their front in Nomonhan with the USSR. Although a

ceasefire was achieved locally, Japan mobilized troops to the area anyway and China

quickly followed suit, anticipating an all out war against their Japanese oppressors. On

July 26 the Japanese conquered the prized city of Beiping while cities in Northern China

under militarist control continued to fall like dominos. Chiang had no choice but to

compromise with the communists and allow them to establish their own forces.

Following the capture of the modern city of Shanghai, Chiang’s forces withdrew to
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relocate to the mountain city of Chongqing for long-term resistance and many refugees

would follow. Once the Japanese gained control of Eastern China,they ceased bombing

of the area. The loss of Shanghai humiliated the Nationalists.

The Japanese captured Nanjing in December of 1937, marking the start of a six

week rampage of murder, rape and theft on the people of Nanjing. Neither Japan nor

the Nationalists would do much to stop the atrocities, and public opinion on Chiang

suffered due to his lack of action. In June of 1938, a desperate attempt to slow

Japanese advance would cause the Nationalists to also commit an atrocity against the

Chinese people by destroying the dike of the Yellow River. While effective in buying the

Nationalists time, this destroyed homes, lives, and created many more refugees. To add

insult to injury, the government demanded more of its people through food redistribution

and drafting for a war that had never been fully explained to the people.

To briefly mention the collaborationist movement in China, Wang Jingwei had

been offered the opportunity to defect and form his own collaborationist government

with the Japanese. He agreed and relocated to Nanjing but would never possess the

power he was promised. Collaboration in China did not really extend further than this or

reach the level of collaboration that France’s Vichy government did. More cities would

continue to fall into Japan’s hands and the outbreak of World War II in the summer of

1939 would effectively cease German aid to the Nationalists as well as conclude the

possibility for Soviet aid for the time being.

Japan’s failed campaigns against Russia in Nomonhan caused them to pursue

interests in the Pacific, and consequently the United States imposed an embargo. The
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Japanese respond by bombing US Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor, effectively bringing

America into the war. The US had its own interest in keeping China in the war, namely

to divide the Japanese front. Chiang Kai-shek finally received the American aid he had

been so desperate for, but was assigned General Joseph Stilwell to help the Nationalist

war effort and who would also be in charge of American Lend-Lease supplies to China.

Chiang Kai-shek’s inability to get along with Stillwell is reflected greatly

throughout the time the General was in China.They disagreed on strategy and use of

lend-lease supplies, not to mention that Stilwell had very little regard for Chiang. The

Nationalist government’s seemingly endless failures provoked Roosevelt to demand

that Stilwell be placed in charge of all forces in China, and Chiang Kai-shek could do

nothing but begrudgingly oblige. Despite having been previously discouraged to do so,

Chiang put in a request with Roosevelt to recall Stillwell and replace him with another

general due to their inability to cooperate with one another. The Nationalist leader

blamed Stillwell’s authority over supplies and claimed this as the reason for China’s

ineffective campaigns. Roosevelt complied and sent over General Albert Wedemeyer to

take his place.

May 8, 1945 would mark the war in Europe as over, but the Japanese continued

their campaign in the Pacific and the Americans unloaded 2 atomic bombs on Japan’s

Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The shaken Japanese agreed to the terms of the Potsdam

declaration and surrendered without conditions. China finally gained full sovereignty

after 8 years of war and Chiang Kai-shek could return to focusing on the communists.

The Nationalist’s wartime contribution had been awarded mostly on the international
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stage with a seat on the United Nations but in the domestically they were not viewed too

kindly by their own who now favored the communists. The United States took action by

sending General George C. Marshall to settle disputes between both sides, but neither

side intended on budging.

For the Nationalists, the trials of war, poor unification, scam war bonds and

persecution of collaborators pushed citizens toward the Communist government. They

offered attractive social welfare programs that many impoverished victims of war could

benefit from. It is important to note that throughout the 8 years that China fought the

war, the communists were mostly left alone by the Japanese which allowed them to fully

develop. The CCP’s success in the Chinese civil war led Chiang Kai-shek to flee to

Taiwan, where he remained under US protection until his death in 1975. The rise of the

Communist Party in China altered the written history of China in the war to exclude as

much of the Nationalist regime as possible. Soldiers that had honorably served under

Chiang were persecuted for their contributions to Chiang’s cause.

Prior to World War II, France was dealing with the aftermath of the first World

War. The economic depression and particularly large population loss led to nationwide

pacifism. The economic state of France drove a wedge between peasants and workers

as well as continue to steepen the divide between left and right leaning politicians. After

much flip-flopping between conservative and liberal governments, the Popular front

government led by Leon Blum, was formed by a united left (socialists, communists,

radicals) and was elected into power. They eliminated fascism but at the same time

brewed anti-semitism and anti-communism among the people. Less than a year later,
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radical centrist Edouard Daladier formed a socialist-free government and came to

power. He raised taxes, increased rearmament spending, pulled France out of the

depression, and promoted anti-communism.

In May 1936, the Germans violated the Treaty of Versailles by remilitarizing

Rhineland and France as well as other powers fail to resist. This went further when the

British and French formalized the Munich Agreement of 1938 which accepted

Germany’s annexation of Sudetenland. This allowed France and Britain more time to

remilitarize. After Munich, French public opinion went from pacifism to anti-fascism -

particularly after Hitler seized Prague. The French rearmament effort largely succeeded

and even closely matched the German’s in everything except air force. France’s

promises for protection of Poland and Czechoslovakia turned out to be hollow, similar to

how the Allies made many empty promises to the Chinese.

Due to the underestimation of new technology, faulty communications equipment

and decision to go against better intelligence, France surrendered to Germany. A poor

military defense was equally complimented by weakness in government through a

divided cabinet that failed to sustain effective communication. The armistice between

France and their occupiers mandated collaboration with the Germans, which the

population disagreed with. The Nazis occupied two-thirds of France, required their hosts

to reduce their military, requisition French goods for German war effort and pay

indemnity. Marshal Petain rose to head the Vichy government, gave himself complete

power and would be the French government that Western Powers recognized as

France’s ruling power. He had intended to eliminate democracy and exclude Jews,
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Freemasons, communists and foreigners. Anti-semitism was not a product of German

influence, as the French already viewed the Jews as too successful and powerful.

The concept that peasant/artisan life was the ideal for France, along with the

belief that Jews and foreigners made it industrial, fueled the National Revolution as

advocated by the Vichy government. Women were faulted for the population decline and

tasked with the burden of protecting the French race. The government concentrated on

reforming the education system to abolish previous system of education-for-all in favor

of only providing it for those of higher status. These were policies were in accordance

with the beliefs of the Catholic Church for the last 70 years.

What is interesting about the Vichy government is that they genuinely believed

that Germany would win the war and that collaboration would grant them power

post-war. Unbeknownst to them, however, is that Hitler did not really trust Vichy and had

no intention of giving concessions despite their collaboration. Most French people

opposed German occupation and hoped for the British to win the war.

Collaboration among the general population was in many ways unavoidable as

German contact became necessary in day-to-day life. For example, peasants who had

their crops requisitioned were technically collaborating with the German war effort even

if they did not want to. The strong German presence in Paris reflected through the

censorship of media, radio, newspaper, and even film. In general, the French people

were among the least inclined group to collaborate with Germany compared to other

nations that came under Nazi occupation.

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The Releve served as a voluntary conscription of French people to work in

Germany that had been so incredibly unpopular that they subsequently created the

STO, which functioned essentially like a draft because the releve failed to acquire

volunteers and many tried to dodge it. This is the policy that created the resistance in

France because many fled to avoid it. It also served as a factor in changing public

opinion.

Vichy followed the German lead regarding aryanization, and anti-semitic policies

went mostly unopposed. Policies were enacted to keep Jews from spending their own

money, segregating them and enforcing visible Jewish identification i.e. Star of David. In

1941-1942, the Germans would switch their stance of Jewish expulsion to extermination

and Vichy collaborated with this directive. The Nazis worked out an arrangement for

Vichy to round up its Jewish population but agreed to round up foreign Jews only, and

most of them were warned beforehand. Up until this point, the assembling of Jews was

mostly aimed at men, but now evolved to include women and children. This policy had a

huge impact on public opinion especially given that nation’s population issue and

marked a growing opposition towards the Vichy government.

While anti-semitic attitudes were not uncommon in France, the people did not

feel that it justified persecution of the Jewish people. The treatment of Jews led to

French people offering aid to fellow citizens and the religious conviction of the Catholics

and Christians. Many French Jews were saved as a result but the same warmth did not

really extend to foreigners, perpetuating the common theme throughout France’s story

of World War II that nationality was a key part in French identity. Even the Jews of
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France saw their experience as a greater part of French history and not bearing relation

to their Jewishness or the Holocaust.

Despite the nationalism that most French felt, the Resistance movement started

out quite fragmented yet numerous, and pretty soon they would unify. Often

collaboration and resistance went hand in hand because many who were part of the

rebellion could not cease to collaborate for their survival depended on it. General

Charles de Gaulle is the French revolutionary that took his movement to London after

German occupation. Hisd external resistance united with the internal one in France, but

could not do much due to their lack of military support. Prior to allied invasion, the

French were in a waiting game for some sort of intervention to end their suffering and

when the Allies liberated them in June 1944, the resisters jumped in to join the fight.

The Allies did not want to recognize de Gaulle, but eventually did so due to his

undisputed leadership among the French people. The internal resistance had caused

much damage to infrastructure as means of sabotage against the Germans. The repair

of war damage allowed France to recover economically following the war. The

Communist party posed no threat to Charles de Gaulle, and anti-communists were

punished as a result of the strong communist comeback post-war. French women

experienced public shaming for sexually engaging with German soldiers and post-war

purges took place to punish collaborators. France made it out of the war as one of the

“good guys” despite the major collaboration headed by the Vichy government that had

been officially recognized by the Allies.

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Similarities/Differences

A major difference between France and China is the length of time they fought in

the war as well as the state of their countries at the time the war broke out. China was

neither unified nor prosperous and its armies were weak. France, on the other hand,

had the reputation as a great power and even though they were not in their best state to

participate in another war after WWI, they capitulated relatively quickly in contrast to the

Chinese, who fought for 8 long years. The Chinese had been known for retreating and

their inability to hold their own against the Japanese, but that did not stop their

determination to resist their invaders.

However, the actions of both countries affected the civilian population quite

negatively. In terms of mortality, China suffered more casualties than France. China’s

grain tax (and its poor implementation), corruption, the Yellow River flooding and poor

exchange of war bonds are among the most important. Chiang’s actions - and lack

thereof - were done out of the perceived necessity of maintaining a resistance against

an oppressor; in contrast, the Vichy compromised citizens out of the sincere belief that

collaboration would grant them power in post war years. The atrocities against the

French people consisted of its rounding up of Jews to send to German camps, the

anti-semitic oppression of Jewish workers and conscription of French citizens to be sent

to work for the German war effort. Interestingly, both governments reserved ill feelings

towards the communist party. The common policies of conscription and requisitioning

resulted in dissent of the people from which they governed.

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Unification remained a constant challenge for Chiang throughout the war due to a

divided China and many of the Chinese were not educated on the war, whereas the

French had a revolutionary history that emphasized their heritage and nationalism

despite German occupation. In the scope of collaboration, China did not get anywhere

close to the extent of that in Vichy, but both occupying powers never really intended to

share power with their collaborators. After the war, both countries sought retribution

against certain groups: the French punished collaborators, while in China the

Nationalists and CCP punished each other. Neither of the ruling governments during

World War II would remain in power to enjoy what they believed war would bring them.

To conclude, there are many factors that come into play when a country is at war

and particularly a World War that can change the course of many countries. Geography,

timing, food production, intelligence, technological advances and a well-trained army

are all factors that determine a war successful for the winning side. At the time of the

Second World War, France already had a history of being a great power while China

was not. However, by the end of the war and despite shortcomings, China emerged as

an international power. While the previously mentioned assets are important for winning

a war, even without those things China proves that a country can rise against all odds

and claim independence. Many countries faced similar situations but would respond

differently, and it is through the examination of these events and their long term effects

that we understand the countries’ present.