Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India, Sect. B Biol. Sci.
DOI 10.1007/s40011-014-0372-1
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Survival and Growth of Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon)
in Inland Saline Water Supplemented with Potassium
Sudhir Raizada • C. S. Purushothaman • V. K. Sharma • V. Harikrishna
M. Rahaman • R. K. Agrahari • J. Hasan • G. Venugopal • A. Kumar
Received: 25 December 2013 / Revised: 16 April 2014 / Accepted: 27 May 2014
Ó The National Academy of Sciences, India 2014
Abstract Survival and growth of tiger shrimp (Penaeus
monodon) at three salinity levels, 5, 10 and 15 g/L were
investigated in potassium deficient natural inland saline
water (PD-ISW) and potassium supplemented inland saline
water (PS-ISW). Shrimps reared in PS-ISW survived well,
whereas total mortality occurred in PD-ISW. The survival
at 45 and 60 days at the salinities of 5, 10 and 15 g/L was
assessed in PS-ISW. The supplementation of potassium
showed significant effect on the survival rates at different
salinities. Length-weight studies at different salinities and
periods of time in PS-ISW showed significant differences
in the linear component, but there was no significant dif-
ference in respect to interaction of salinity and rearing
periods in a two-way ANOVA repeated measures. Growth
parameters indicated that a salinity of 10 g/L was best for
the survival and growth of shrimps in inland saline water of
S. Raizada (&)  V. K. Sharma  V. Harikrishna 
M. Rahaman  R. K. Agrahari  J. Hasan  A. Kumar
Rohtak Centre, Central Institute of Fisheries Education,
Lahli, Rohtak 124411, Haryana, India
e-mail: sudhirraizada@hotmail.com; sraizada@nbfgr.res.in
Present Address:
S. Raizada
Fish Conservation Division, National Bureau of Fish Genetic
Resources, Canal Ring Road, P.O. Dilkusha, Telibagh,
Lucknow 226 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
C. S. Purushothaman
Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Fisheries University
Road, Seven Bungalows, Versova, Mumbai 400 061,
Maharashtra, India
G. Venugopal
Kakinada Centre, Central Institute of Fisheries Education,
Beach Road, East Godavari District, Kakinada 533 001,
Andhra Pradesh, India
•
the site with potassium supplementation. Individual cations
and ratios between other cations were found to be equally
important for survival and growth. The results of the
present study will be useful in utilizing degraded ISW sites
for the culture of tiger shrimp.
Keywords Inland saline water  Tiger shrimp 
Survival  Growth
Introduction
Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) is a brackish water spe-
cies cultured in coastal areas as an important and valuable
aquaculture commodity with high export demand. Efforts
made to culture this species in inland saline water (ISW)
which is generally deficient in potassium (potassium defi-
cient ISW, PD-ISW) in natural form were unsuccessful,
however the species survived well when K? (potassium
chloride, KCl) was supplemented (potassium supplemented
ISW, PD-ISW) in ISW [1–4]. Supplementation of potas-
sium (KCl and K-mag) has also been recommended for the
survival and growth of marine fish species like Australian
snapper [5], mulloway [6], barramundi [7], pacific white
shrimp [8–10] and the giant freshwater prawn larvae [11] in
ISW. ISW is different from coastal seawater in both salinity
and ionic quality which varies from place to place and also
depends on the depth of water aquifer, soil structure, and
rainfall or drought [12]. The ionic quality of ISW of India,
Australia and the USA have been evaluated and major
differences have been observed in the levels of potassium,
calcium and magnesium in comparison to seawater [3, 5,
11, 13–15]. The ionic composition of ISW is more impor-
tant than salinity for shrimp survival and growth. The
concentrations of individual elements (Na?, K?, Ca2?,
123

Mg2?) as well as their ratios, vary from site to site. They are
important for normal osmoregulatory functions [15].
Therefore, the objective of the present study was to evaluate
the optimum salinity regime and composition of major ions
suitable for evolving the commercial culture technology for
tiger shrimp in ISW.
Material and Methods
Preparation of Control and Treatment Media
ISW of 18 g/L was pumped from a bore-well and allowed to
settle for a week in cement tanks. The water was then drawn
inside the wet laboratory, filtered with a 100-lm filter-bag and
stored in 12 FRP tanks (1,000 L). The water was disinfected
with bleaching powder at 15 mg/L and vigorously aerated for
at least 48 h before use. The stored water was diluted with
potable water to prepare six tanks, having salinities of 5, 10,
and 15 g/L. Three such tanks having salinities of 5, 10 and
15 g/L were designated as PD-ISW and the other 3 tanks, each
containing water of 5, 10, and 15 g/L salinity were supple-
mented with K? (KCl, K? 49 %) equivalent to coastal sea-
water and designated as PS-ISW tanks. The levels of
potassium amendment at different salinities were adapted
from Boyd and Thunjal [14]. The different media water was
prepared in the same way when needed.
Experimental Animals
Hatchery-bred, post-larvae (PL-10) of P. monodon were
obtained from Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh by air. The PL
were acclimated to 10 g/L salinity and were subjected to
negative PCR test for white spot syndrome virus (WSSV)
prior to dispatch by air to the experiment site (road distance
approximately 1,800 km). The PL were transferred to
artificial seawater of salinity 10 g/L at the experiment site
and reared for 30 days before use in the experiment.
Experimental Design
Eighteen circular FRP tanks (Dia 80 cm, height 60 cm;
300 L capacity) were used for conducting the bioassay.
Tanks were filled with 200 L PD-ISW and PS-ISW media
in triplicate sets of 5, 10 and 15 g/L salinities and treat-
ments were assigned using completely randomized design.
Tanks were provided continuous aeration from a portable
air-blower (Hiblow-60). Each tank was stocked with 150
PL-40 of average weight 100 ± 10 mg acclimated in the
stocking media for 24 h and fed commercial shrimp diet
(CP brand) ad libitum. Around 25 % of the tank water was
changed daily at the time of cleaning the tanks. Mortality
was recorded daily and the dead samples were removed
123
S. Raizada et al.
upon finding. The number of shrimps counted on days 5,
15, 30, 45 and 60, and lengths and weights were recorded
on the 45th and 60th days of rearing.
Water Quality
The water quality of ISW and Coastal seawater with
respect to major cations Na?, K?, Mg2? and Ca2? was
analysed at the beginning and at regular intervals during
the experiment. The temperature, pH, total alkalinity, total
hardness, and dissolved oxygen of the experimental tanks
were analyzed on weekly basis, and calcium and magne-
sium on fortnightly basis following the standard methods of
APHA [16]. Sodium and potassium were measured fort-
nightly with a microprocessor-based flame photometer
(Electronic India, Model 1381E), phosphate with an
ultraviolet spectrophotometer (thermo spectronic), and
salinity by a handheld salinity refractometer (Atago).
Data Analysis
Specific growth rates (SGR) and survival rates (S) were
calculated using the following formulae:
100  ðln Wt  ln W0 Þ
SGR ¼  100
t
where, SGR is specific growth rate, Wt is the total weight at
time t, and W0 is initial weight at the time of commencement
of experiment; and
 
nt
S ¼ 100 
n0
where, S is survival rate (%), nt is the number of prawn at
time t, and n0 is the number of prawns (150) at the com-
mencement of the experiment.
A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repe-
ated measure on survival was conducted to determine
whether there was statistical significance between salinity
and potassium levels in PD-ISW and PS-ISW at different
rearing durations. The significance levels between gain in
length and weight at different days of rearing in different
salinities was also evaluated using two-way ANOVA with
repeated measures. One-way ANOVA was used to deter-
mine the significance levels between water parameters at
different levels of salinity and an independent samples’ ‘t’
test was used to compare the significant difference between
PD-ISW and PS-ISW water parameters at the same salin-
ity. The regression graphs ‘Y’ (simple linear regression)
and ‘R’ (coefficient of correlation) were evaluated for
comparing the length-weight relationship at different
salinities and different period of time using M.S. Excel
(2007). SPSS version 16.0 [17] was used to analyse two-
way ANOVA repeated measures, one-way ANOVA and ‘t’
Rearing of Penaeus monodon in Inland Saline Water

test. The data were expressed as mean ± SD. Significance
was considered at p \ 0.05.
Results and Discussion
The quality of ISW was compared with that of coastal
seawater (CSW) for major cations Na?, K?, Mg2? and
Ca2? at 5, 10 and 15 g/L salinities (Table 1). Significant
differences were observed in potassium level in ISW in
comparison to CSW at all the three salinity levels. ISW:
CSW ratios for potassium were recorded as 0.21:1.00 at
5 g/L, 0.12:1.00 at 10 g/L and 0.08:1.00 at 15 g/L salini-
ties. The ratios of potassium were found inversely pro-
portional to salinity which was in contrast to coastal
seawater. Calcium also showed significantly higher values
in ISW in comparison to CSW. ISW:CSW ratios for cal-
cium were recorded as 3.10:1.00 at 5 g/L, 3.85:1.00 at
10 g/L and 2.89:1.00 at 15 g/L salinities, which followed a
parabolic curve between 5–15 g/L. There were compara-
tively less differences amongst sodium and magnesium
ions in comparison to potassium and calcium. The level of
sodium was found higher only at 5 g/L salinity in ISW and
was low at both 10 and 15 g/L. Magnesium also followed
similar trend with higher levels at 5 and 10 g/L salinities,
and low at 15 g/L salinity in comparison to CSW.
In PS-ISW, the levels of sodium, magnesium and cal-
cium were insignificant from that of PD-ISW with the
exception of potassium, where higher levels were main-
tained through amendment with KCl at all salinities. Other
water parameters like temperature, pH, total alkalinity, and
dissolved oxygen were not significantly different both
between the same salinity and amongst different salinities
with the exception of total hardness which differed sig-
nificantly as salinities increased but was insignificant
between the same salinities (Table 2).
Mortality started both in 10 and 15 g/L salinities in PD-
ISW within 12 h and total mortality occurred within 3 days
at salinity 15 g/L and in 6 days at salinity 10 g/L. The rate
of mortality was, however, slow at salinity 5 g/L where
total mortality did not occur for 40 days. The PL survived
in all the PS-ISW treatment media at 5, 10 and 15 g/L
salinities up to 60 days of experiment period (Fig. 1;
Table 3). Survival levels of 90 % on day 45 and 88 % on
day 60 were recorded at 10 g/L salinity, which was sig-
nificantly higher than at the salinity of 15 g/L with the
survival of 81.3 % on day 45 and 78.7 % on day 60, and
also at 5 g/L salinity with the survival of 72.7 % on day 45
and 63.4 % on day 60 (Table 3).
The rate of mortality in PD-ISW water increased with an
increase in salinity from 5 to 15 g/L, which was different
from the behaviour of P. monodon in seawater. The opti-
mum salinity of coastal seawater for growth and survival of
P. monodon has been reported as 25 g/L by Lee et al. [18],
15–25 g/L by Ferraris et al. [19] and 1.7–40 g/L by Caw-
thorne et al. [20], which was in contrast to the present study
as the mortality rate was observed to be the highest at the
salinity 15 g/L and lowest at 5 g/L. However, the survival
rate in all PS-ISW media supplemented with potassium
was higher than that in PD-ISW though there was signifi-
cant difference among treatments (salinity and potassium
supplementation) [F (5, 10) = 704.19], rearing durations
[F (4, 8) = 68.38] and combined interaction of treatments
and rearing durations [F (20, 40) = 9.16] on survivals
(Fig. 1).
Collins and Russel [1] also reported survival of P.
monodon by increasing potassium level from 5.9 to
40.0 mg/L at low salinity of 3 g/L ground water. The
present findings were greatly supported with the work of
Tantulo and Fotedar [4] on P. monodon, who did not
observe any difference in survival rates in ISW fortified
with 100 % K? and seawater at salinities 5, 25 and 45 g/L.

Table 1 Comparison of water quality of PD-ISW, PS-ISW and coastal seawater* at 5, 10 and 15 g/L salinity
Salinity (g/L) Treatment Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium
(mg/L) Ratio ISW:CSW (mg/L) Ratio ISW:CSW (mg/L) Ratio ISW:CSW (mg/L) Ratio ISW:CSW

5 PD-ISW 2,143a 1.40:1.00 11.4b 0.21:1.00 265.1a 1.35:1.00 188.5a 3.10:1.00

a a a
PS-ISW 2,167 1.42:1.00 54.8 1.01:1.00 266.6 1.36:1.00 182.6a 3.14:1.00
Coastal seawater 1,523b 53.5a 195.5b 58.0b
10 PD-ISW 3,114a 1.02:1.00 12.8b 0.12:1.00 467.5a 1.36:1.00 446.6a 3.85:1.00
a a a
PS-ISW 2,973 0.97:1.00 105.1 0.98:1.00 471.0 1.20:1.00 446.0a 3.84:1.00
Coastal seawater 3,045a 107.0a 391.0b 116.0b
15 PD-ISW 3,991b 0.87:1.00 13.7b 0.08:1.00 561.8a 0.95:1.00 503.0a 2.89:1.00
b a a
PS-ISW 3,968 0.86:1.00 153.5 0.95:1.00 559.0 0.95:1.00 499.0a 2.86:1.00
Coastal seawater 4,568a 161.0a 586.5a 174.0b
* Adapted from Boyd and Thunjal [14]
Data in the same column within each salinity having different superscript letters (a, b) are significantly different at a level of 0.05

123
 S. Raizada et al.

Table 2 Water quality of PD-ISW and PS-ISW tanks at different salinities

Parameter Treatment Salinity
5 g/L 10 g/L 15 g/L

Temperature (°C) PD-ISW 132.73 ± 0.11a 131.80 ± 0.87a 132.30 ± 0.36a

a a
PS-ISW 132.44 ± 0.95 132.85 ± 1.52 132.79 ± 1.74a
pH PD-ISW 18.49 ± 0.17a 18.39 ± 0.04a 18.38 ± 0.98a
a a 1
PS-ISW 18.22 ± 0.20 18.23 ± 0.11 8.25 ± 0.14a
a a
Total alkalinity (mg/L) PD-ISW 1244.0 ± 6.0 1243.6 ± 5.5 1251.0 ± 1.0a
a a
PS-ISW 1238.8 ± 5.8 1226.0 ± 10.6 1232.0 ± 4.7a
c b
Total hardness (mg/L) PD-ISW 12166 ± 28.8 13800 ± 50.0 14483 ± 28.8a
PS-ISW 12213 ± 67.2c 13737 ± 11.7b 14600 ± 139.1
a

Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) PD-ISW 15.50 ± 0.17a 16.00 ± 0.20a 16.03 ± 0.58a
a a
PS-ISW 15.17 ± 0.31 15.08 ± 0.38 15.04 ± 0.39a
c b
Sodium (mg/L)* PD-ISW 12143 ± 50.6 13114 ± 12.8 13991 ± 38.1a
c b
PS-ISW 12167 ± 50.0 12973 ± 123.0 13968 ± 86.4a
a a
Potassium (mg/L) PD-ISW 111.4 ± 0.15 112.8 ± 0.87 113.7 ± 0.15a
PS-ISW 254.8 ± 5.70c 2105.1 ± 4.18b 2153.5 ± 6.61a
c b
Magnesium (mg/L) PD-ISW 1265.1 ± 9.9 1467.5 ± 10.6 561.8 ± 11.6a
b a
PS-ISW 1266.6 ± 13.8 1471.0 ± 12.4 559.0 ± 17.8a
c b
Calcium (mg/L) PD-ISW 1188.5 ± 20.0 1446.6 ± 30.5 1503.0 ± 5.77a
c b
PS-ISW 1182.6 ± 16.9 1446.0 ± 23.6 1499.0 ± 29.4a
Data in the same column within the same parameter having different subscript figures (1, 2) are significantly different at a level of 0.05. Data in
the same row having different superscript letters (a, b, c) are significantly different at a level of 0.05
n = 5 for all PS-ISW treatment tanks and 5 g/L PD-ISW tanks, n = 1 for other control tanks

Fig. 1 Effect of salinity and

potassium supplementation on
survival of P. monodon during
different rearing period

The major cause of mortality in shrimps, therefore, was 5, 8, 15, 21]. Deficiency of potassium in ISW has been
assessed to be the deficiency of potassium in inland ground responsible to cause mortality in fishes [5, 6, 22], crusta-
saline water. Low level of potassium in inland saline ceans [1, 3] and molluscs [23]. High mortality rate at 15
ground water has been reported by several researchers [3, g/L and the low rate at 5 g/L in PD-ISW indicate that the

123
Rearing of Penaeus monodon in Inland Saline Water

Table 3 Survival percentage of P. monodon larvae at varying salinities with PD-ISW and with PS-ISW during different rearing durations
Salinity Potassium treatment Initial no. 5 days 15 days 30 days 45 days 60 days

5 g/L PD-ISW 150 26.0 18.0 4.0 0.0 0.0

PS-ISW 150 100.0 94.7 91.3 72.7 63.3
10 g/L PD-ISW 150 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PS-ISW 150 99.3 94.7 94.0 90.0 88.0
15 g/L PD-ISW 150 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PS-ISW 150 98.7 92.7 92.7 81.3 78.7

mortality rate depends on the ratio of potassium with that weight], but there was no significant (p [ 0.05) effect of
of salinity in ISW as ISW:CSW potassium ratios were combined action of salinity and rearing durations [F (2,
assessed higher (0.21:1.00) at salinity 5 g/L, in comparison 118) = 0.93 and F (2, 118) = 1.88 respectively for length
to salinities of 10 g/L (0.12:1.00) and 15 g/L (0.08:1.00) in and weight] (Figs. 2 and 3).
PD-ISW (Table 1), which were similar to the findings of
Fielder et al. [5]. Partridge and Lymbery [7] correlated
potassium deficiency in ISW with the elevated level of
plasma sodium and chloride, lower water content and
muscle potassium concentration. Low potassium level in
ISW has also been reported to cause widespread, severe
skeletal muscle degeneration and necrosis that affect both
epaxial muscle groups and muscles within the pharyngeal
area in Lates calcarifer [22]. Its supplementation improved
mortality, degeneration and necrosis of skeletal muscle,
SGR, sodium, chloride and potassium concentration in
plasma [7]. Potassium is the main cation of intracellular
fluids, while sodium and chloride are the major extracel-
lular ions [24]. These are essential electrolytes for acid–
base balance in animals [25]. The maintenance of potas-
sium balance within the body is necessary for the proper
functioning of membrane potential and all life systems.
The lack of an adequate supply of K? in water profile has Fig. 2 Effect of various salinities supplemented with potassium on
been shown to negatively impact survival and growth of L. length of P. monodon during different rearing durations
vannamei [15, 26]. The supplementation of potassium in
ISW improves osmoregulatory capacity and organo
somatic indices of P. monodon [4], though with a longer
exposure time to ISW, the impact of potassium on prawn
condition indices become more pronounced [27].
Growth analysis of shrimp was performed in PS-ISW
water to observe the effect of salinity and potassium sup-
plementation on body indices on days 45 and 60. The
growth in terms of length was found highest at 10 g/L
salinity followed by the salinities of 15 and 5 g/L,
respectively, on days 45 and 60. The growth in terms of
weight also followed more or less similar trend both on day
45 and day 60. The maximum gain in weight was recorded
at salinity 10 g/L followed by salinities 15 and 5 g/L at day
45 and 60. A two-way ANOVA with repeated measures
showed significant growth both in length and weight with
respect to the effect of salinity [F (2,118) = 9.02 for length
and F (2, 118) = 4.52 for weight) and rearing durations [F Fig. 3 Effect of various salinities supplemented with potassium on
(1, 59) = 83.40 for length and [F (1, 59) = 71.02 for weight of P. monodon during different rearing durations

123
 S. Raizada et al.

Table 4 Growth parameters of P. monodon at varying salinities supplemented with potassium and rearing durations
Parameter 5 g/L 10 g/L 15 g/L
45 days 60 days 45 days 60 days 45 days 60 days

Length (cm)
Average 4.94 ± 0.713 5.56 ± 0.91b 5.27 ± 0.801 6.01 ± 0.76a 5.09 ± 0.562 5.60 ± 0.72b
Minimum 3.2 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 4.0
Maximum 7.0 8.0 8.2 8.0 6.2 7.9
Weight (g)
Average 0.84 ± 0.352 1.20 ± 0.60b 0.96 ± 0.311 1.38 ± 0.53a 0.91 ± 0.291 1.14 ± 0.42c
Minimum 0.26 0.4 0.38 0.55 0.32 0.51
Maximum 2.56 3.68 1.8 3.08 1.9 2.54
Regression (Y) 0.608x - 2.179 0.608x - 2.179 0.663x - 2.606 0.663x - 2.606 0.425x - 1.255 0.547x - 1.917
Correlation (R) 0.840 0.840 0.826 0.826 0.648 0.859
SGR (%) 1.81 ± 0.373 1.60 ± 0.32b 1.96 ± 0.311 1.73 ± 0.27a 1.90 ± 0.322 1.58 ± 0.27c
Data in the same row within the same parameter at 45 days having different superscript letters (1, 2, 3) are significantly different at a level of
0.05. Data in the same row having same parameter at 60 days with different superscript figures (a, b, c) are significantly different at a level of
0.05

The growth in terms of length-weight relationship was
found to follow a linear trend (Y) and a strong correlation
(R) of around 0.826–0.859 existed in PS-ISW, with the
exception of salinity of 15 g/L at 45 days culture. SGR was
found to be significantly different at all salinities and
during different rearing periods. The highest SGR was
recorded at 10 g/L salinity both on day 45 and day 60
followed by 15 and 5 g/L salinities on day 45, and at 5 and
15 g/L salinities on day 60 (Table 4).
A significantly low growth in 15 g/L in comparison to
10 g/L may be due to higher calcium levels which
increases with the rise in the salinity though this species
performs better at salinity 15 g/L than to lower salinities in
natural seawater conditions. Ketola et al. [28] stated that
high level of calcium in water could disturb the osmoreg-
ulatory process. Rahman et al. [3] have reported higher
survival of P. monodon in ISW when the level of calcium
was reduced from 921.8 mg/L to 200 mg/L at a salinity of
12.5 g/L. High level of calcium has also been found to
impair the larval development in Macrobrachium rosen-
bergii [11]. Wurts and Stickney [29] have correlated the
survival and mortality of red drum with calcium-sodium
ratio, and recommended this to be closer to 0.038. Raizada
et al. [11] and Zang et al. [30] have given importance to
Mg2?/Ca2? ratio and recommended this ratio to be main-
tained at 2.5:1.0 and 1.9:1.0 respectively for the larval
rearing of M. rosenbergii, when ISW is used. However, the
role of calcium needs to be evaluated in future studies. Zhu
et al. [21] have reported that the Na?/K? ratio may be a
limiting factor in marine organisms and the manipulation
of these ratios could significantly influence the growth,
energy allocation and feed intake of shrimp. They sug-
gested the optimum ratio to be 34:1 for L. vannamei.
However, in the present study, Na?/K? ratio was found to
be 28.5:1.0 in PS-ISW at the best salinity of 10 g/L and
was similar to the level in seawater at equivalent salinity
[14], which clearly showed that not only the ionic level but
ionic ratios are equally important. Similarly, Mg2?/Ca2?
ratio was also found to be comparatively low in ISW at 5 g/
L (1.46:1.00), 10 g/L (1.05:1.00) and 15 g/L (1.12:1.00)
salinities in comparison to CSW (3.37:1.00) at equivalent
salinities. Since the water quality of inland saline sites
varies from place to place, it needs to be studied in details
to correlate not only the levels of various ions in ISW, but
also the ratios amongst the various major cations for dif-
ferent salinity required for optimum survival and growth in
ISW.
Conclusion
The low levels of potassium in ISW at different salinities
was the major cation responsible for mortality of P. mon-
odon. The supplementation of potassium at the salinity of
10 g/L was found to give higher survival and growth at the
experimental site in comparison to salinities of 5 and 15 g/
L. The most important factor that needs to be studied at
each site is the availability of major cations in the water in
comparison to seawater, as salinity plays secondary
importance.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to Dr. Dilip Kumar, Ex
Director, Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Mumbai,
for providing facilities for carrying out this work. They also record
their sincere thanks to Dr. S. C. Mukherjee, Ex Joint Director, CIFE,
Mumbai, for the constant encouragement in carrying out this work.
The authors also thank the Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi for funding this work under the Niche Areas of Excellence
Project.

123
Rearing of Penaeus monodon in Inland Saline Water
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