Module 6

MODULE 2
SELECTION, PREPARATION AND

PRESERVATION OF SELECTED
FOOD GROUPS
MODULE REVIEW
This chapter presents the most advanced thinking on the selection, storage,
preparation, and cooking of these food groups.
Fruits Shellfish
Vegetables Cereals
Meat Flour
Poultry Starch and Alimentary Pastes
Fish Fats and oil
Sugar
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson students are expected to:
 Discuss the proper selection, preparation and preservation of
selected food groups.
Discussion:
FRUITS
Fruits are produced from flowers. As ripened plant ovaries and
their adjacent tissues, fruits are fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy
and usually sweet with fragrant, aromatic flavors. Most fruits are edible
when ripe.
Fruits differ in structure according to the kinds of flowers from
which they have been developed. Some fruits come from a simple blos-
som and others from a flower with many stamens and pistils. In
addition, there are some fruits formed from many flowers that have
collected together. Nuts, on the other hand, yield a seed rather than a
fleshy portion but are botanically classified as fruit.
Fruit Classification
Fruits may be classified on the basis of consistency and structure:
1. Fleshy fruits — These are fruits from a single ovary, which remain
succulent instead of turning dry at maturity. Examples are: citrus
fruits such as orange, calamansi, grapes, bananas, mangoes, and
others.
2. Dry fruits — Fruits that developed when the ovary opens at

maturity and discharges the seeds, allows them to fall, or fails to
do so. Ex- amples are: nuts, legumes, and cereal grains.
3. Aggregate Fruits — These are fruits that develop from a flower with
carpels distributed loosely or closely over a common receptacle. In
short, they are formed from several ovaries produced as one
flower. Examples are: atis and strawberries.
4. Multiple or Collective fruits — These are fruits that are formed from
many flowers that have collected together. Examples are:
pineapple and jackfruit.
Changes During Ripening
Knowledge of the ripening process of fruits is essential because

most fruits are good only when ripe. Several important changes occur
during ripening: the fruit develops to its full size; the pulpy edible tis-
sue surrounding the seeds becomes soft and tender; the color changes;
the starch content changes to sugar giving a mild, sweet flavor; and the
full characteristic aroma of the fruits develops. However, the enzymes
continue to function even after the fruit has reached its peak of maturity.
Changes beyond this point cause spoilage and deterioration of texture and
flavor.
Ripeness and the manner of ripening may influence the vitamin

content of fruits. For example, the ascorbic acid content of banana is
greatest in fully ripe fruit. Fruits ripened in the sun are rich in ascorbic
acid.
KINDS OF FRUITS
Fleshy Fruits
Dry Fruits
Aggregate Fruits
Collective Fruits
COMPOSITION OF FRUIT FLAVORS
The flavors of fruits are due to the combinations of sugar, acids,
phenolic, aromatic compound and essential oils.
1. Organic Acids
Organic Acids that are located in the cell sap of fruits con-
tribute to its tart flavor. Natural sugar, such as fructose, glucose
and sucrose, contributes to the sweetness of fruits. Acidity usually
decreases as fruits ripen. Citric Acid found in citrus fruits, and ma-
lic acid in apples and strawberries are examples of organic acids in
fruits. These organics acid found in fruits are either volatile or non
volatile.
2. Pectic Substances
Pectin is a general term used for carbohydrates-like substanc-
es found in fruits. It acts as a cementing substance and is partially
responsible for the fruits firmness and structure. It is used
commercially to contribute to the gelling of fruit preserves. Pectin
is very important in the ripening of fruits and the gelling of fruit
preserves.
3. Phenolic Compounds or Tannins

Phenolic compounds are responsible for the browning and
bruising that often occur in ripening fruits. Tannins are commonly
found in unripe fruits, which give them a bitter taste and astringent
feeling in the mouth.
Storage of Fruits
Some fruits are picked and shipped to market in an unripe state.
Unripe fruits are easier to transport than the ripe ones, which are more
delicate. Unripe fruits can be left at room temperature in a paper bag
until ripe. It is best to store them outside the refrigerator. Unripe fruits
are stored commercially under controlled atmosphere storage and with
the aid of preservatives coatings. This process maintains a higher quality
in fresh fruits in shipping over long distances.
Ripe fruits with high water content will spoil quickly within three
days, and it is best to store them unwashed in plastic bags in the refrig-
erator and washed prior to consumption. The plastic bags should be
punctured with air holes. Ripe Bananas are best stored at room
temperature. Refrigeration interferes with their ripening process,
thus causing
their skin to blacken. An overripe fruits should not be stored with the
good ones because they will ruin the others by releasing ethylene gas
that speeds up ripening. Dented, damaged, and bruised fruits should be
sorted out and removed before storing other fruits.
Fruits continue to respire after harvesting, that is, they take in oxy-
gen and give off carbon dioxide. This fruit metabolism is controlled
or retarded and reduced by cold storage.
Fruit Cutting
Pineapple
1. Twist crown 2. Cut pineapple 3. Trim each end, 4. Cut the

off pineapple. in quarters, then cut away quar- tered
lengthwise. the center core fruit into bite
strip and the fruit size pieces.
(as close to the
shell as possible).
Avocado
1. Halve the 2. Twist the 3. Remove the 4. Peel off the

avocado. halves apart. seed by skin and cut
striking it with balls, crescents,
a knife. cubes or slices.
Nutritive Value
Fruits do not contain large amounts of protein and fats but are high
in carbohydrates and water content. They are the best food sources of
minerals and vitamins. Sugars in fruit are in a form ready for use by
the body. The minerals, phosphorus, and iron are found in abundant
quantity in fresh fruits. Although there is a variation of vitamin content
from fruit to fruit, most fruits in the raw state contain some ascorbic
acid. Citrus fruits, berries, and melons are among the best sources of
ascorbic acid. Carotene is present in good amount in yellow fruits such
as papayas, mangoes, and bananas. Fruits are also valuable for their bulk
or indigestible fiber.
The following table gives figures of the nutritive composition of
some locally available fruits.
Table 1. Proximate Composition of Selected

Fruits in 100 gms. Edible Portion
The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI
Fruit Moisture Cho Protein Fat Ascorbic Carotene Iron

% GM GM GM ACID EQUIVALENT MG
MG MG
1. Bananas 68 29.6 1.4 0.2 25 360 0.8

2. Lanzones 83.9 14.2 1.0 0.3 2 –– 0.9
3. Avocado 81.8 10.5 0.9 6.2 14 130 0.8
4. Guava 82.4 16.0 0.8 0.3 127 40 0.9
5. Kasoy 90 13.8 0.7 0.6 67 15 0.5
6. Durian 59.9 36.1 2.0 1.2 44 — 1.1
7. Mango 82.4 16.4 0.6 0.2 46 1165 0.6
8. Sampaloc 83.4 61.4 2.0 0.6 4 — 0.9
9. Papaya 86.6 12.1 0.5 0.3 74 450 1.0
10. Atis 73.3 23.7 1.3 0.4 40 — 0.9
SELECTION OF FRUITS
Efficient selection of fruits involves a consideration of its special
characteristics. Knowledge of these characteristics will ensure the
selection of fruits with desirable qualities. Here are some character-
istics of fruits to consider:
FRUIT DESIRABLE
CHARACTERISTICS
Banana Plump and fully matured; skin flecked
with a brown tip; yellow or brown,
not green.
Mango Golden yellow skin; sweet and
juicy; fully cheeked.
Melon Heavy in relation to size; fragment, nor-
mal in shape; free from decay and dis-
ease; a bit soft when pressed at the bot-
tom end.
Pineapple Yellowish brown; stiff leaves that can
easily be pulled from the fruit; heavy in
relation to size; fragrant.
Citrus fruits Heavy; fine-grained; thin-skinned
(Suha, Calamansi, and smooth.
dalandan)
Strawberries Firm; free from decay; bright red; uni-
formly large in size.
Papaya Firm with trace of yellow at the apex or
between ridges; free from lump; not mis-
shapen.
Avocado Smooth and firm; purplish black.
Guides in Buying Fruits

1. Shop for fruits early in the morning when fruits are fresh.
2. Buy the fruits in season. They are less expensive and better in qual-
ity than those out of season.
3. Because fruits deteriorate rapidly after they have ripened, avoid
buying large quantities at one time, unless you have provisions for
preserving the surplus fruits.
4. Decide how the fruit is to be used before buying it.
5. Select the fruit personally whenever possible in order to make the
best selection for your purpose.
6. Purchase the fruit by weight; the heaviest rather than the biggest
may be the best.
7. Select fruits that are ripe but firm and smooth. Overripe, soft, or
bruised fruits are not desirable.
8. Handle fruits with care to preserve their attractive appearance.
9. Select fruits with good color and aroma; these are guides to ripe-
ness.
10. Fruit price is not an identification of quality or nutritive value but
is determined by supply and demand.
Some Principles in Cooking Fruits

1. Some under ripe fruits of firm texture require cooking because of
their starch content and cellulose structure that needs softening.
Fruit is cooked to provide variety of dishes as well as to prepare it
for canning purposes.
2. Whenever possible, fresh fruits should be cooked with the skin on
for better color, flavor, and nutritive value.
3. Fruit should be cut into uniform pieces before it is cooked so that
all pieces will be tender at the same time.
4. Fruit should be cooked in small amount of water as possible until
tender to prevent loss of vitamins and minerals.
5. The amount of sugar to be added depends on the sweetness of the
fruit. Too much sugar destroys the delicate flavor of the fruit. Fruits
are better cooked in sugar rather than in syrup because too long
cooking in syrup develops an off-flavor.
6. When it is desirable to retain the shape and firm texture of fruit, it
is cooked in sugar syrup or with sugar.
7. Red fruits, such as strawberries, may lose color when heated rap-
idly, so slow heating is preferable.
8. Short cooking time will ensure greater vitamin and flavor retention.
9. Cooked fruit is most palatable when served immediately.
10. Fruits with heavy skin, such as apples, are good to bake because
the peel serves as protective covering and holds in the steam
necessary to soften the cellulose and decrease the loss of
volatile flavors.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FRUIT PRESERVATION:
JELLIES, JAMS, MARMALADE AND CANDIED FRUITS
Jelly
Jelly is the semi-solid food made from sugar and fruits. It is a beau-
tiful colored transparent product with texture so tender. It cuts easily
with a spoon and quivers when removed from its mold. A good jelly
is not syrupy, gummy or sticky. The four essential ingredients in jelly
making are fruits, pectin, acid, and sugar. Not all fruits can be made into
jellies. Only fruits rich in both pectin and acid are ideal for jelly mak-
ing, namely, Guavas, Santol, Tamarind, Bignay, Sour Oranges and
Tart Apple. Pectin is the general term used for Carbohydrates-like
substances found in some fruits that form colloidal solutions in water.
Pectin is capable of forming a gel with sugar and acid.
General Directions for Jelly Making

1. Choose fruits with high pectin content. Fruits with low pectin
should be combined with high pectin ones.
2. Prepare the fruit by washing and chopping. There is no need to
peel or core. Do not use damaged fruit.
3. Cook fruits slowly but thoroughly by boiling with water.
4. After 30 minutes to one hour, depending on the softness of fruit,
pour the content into a jelly bag or a fine cloth and leave it to
drip into a bowl until all juice is strained off. Do not touch or
squeeze while juices are dripping or jelly will be cloudy.
5. Measure the strained juice and add sugar as specified in the recipe.
The amount of sugar will depend upon the pectin content of the
juice.
6. Stir sugar into juice until dissolve. Boil for 10 minutes until setting
point is reached. Remove any scum from surface. Pot and cover.
Failure in jelly making are characterized by bubbles (trapped air),

tough or stiff (overcooked), glass-like particles (too much sugar), and
cloudy (cooking too long). All these problems are preventable.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Guava Jelly
1 cup juice
1 cup sugar
1. Use mature but slightly underripe guavas. Wash and remove blos-
soms end.
2. Cut into small pieces, place on a pan and add enough water to
barely cover fruits. Boil gently for 10 to 15 minutes or until soft.
3. Transfer cooked fruit in jelly bag. Twist the end slightly to
extract the juice but not the pulp.
4. Add 1 cup sugar per cup juice. Stir to dissolve sugar. Bring to a boil
and strain again to remove undercooked sugar, scum and dirt.
5. Cook rapidly to a jellying point without stirring.
6. Skim and pour while hot into warm jelly glasses.
Santol Jelly
1 cup juice
1 cup sugar
1. Use rare-ripe or just ripe santol. Wash and blanch in boiling water
for 5 minutes.
2. Cut pulp into small pieces and combine with the seeds. Place pulp
and seeds in pan and add enough water to cover fruits.
3. Boil gently for 15 to 20 minutes or until soft. Pour cooked pulp into
jelly bag, squeeze out juice and allow to settle.
4. Add 1 cup sugar per cup juice. Stir to dissolved sugar. Bring to a
boil and strain again to remove undissolved sugar, scum and dirt.
5. Cook rapidly to a jellying point without stirring.
6. Skim and pour immediately into sterile jelly glasses.
Jams
Jams are basically a cooked mixture of fruit and sugar to a mod-
erately thick consistency. The high concentrations of sugar used in jam
making prevent the growth of microorganisms and allow the jam to be
kept for many months.
The Steps for Jam Making Include:

1. Choosing fruits with sufficient quantities of pectin acid and sugar.
Some fruits are naturally rich in pectin such as guava, santol, tama-
rind, bignay, sour orange and tart apple. Others may need to be
boosted with added pectin from calamansi, citric or tartaric acid.
Commercial pectin can also be used.
2. Testing for pectin content. Cooked the fruit until soft, take 1 tsp.
juice and put it in a glass. When the mixtures form a jelly-like clot,
the fruit has a good pectin content.
3. Adding the exact amount of sugar specified in the recipe. Too
little sugar produces a poor set; too much of sugar makes a dark
sticky jam, overpowers the fruit flavor and may crystallize.
4. Testing for the doneness of set. The saucer test is done by put-
ting a small amount on a cold saucer or plate. Allow it to be
cool, and then push a finger gently through it. If the surface of
the jam wrinkles, setting point has been needed. The temperature
test is most accurate. Stir the jam and insert a sugar thermometer
in the middle of the pan. When the reading is 105°C (221°F), a set
should be obtained.
5. Skimming the scum. As soon as set has been reached, remove
the pan from the heat and with slotted spoon, skim of any scum.
Leave the jam from the pan for about l5-20 minutes before potting.
Spoon the jam into the warm jar, filling right to the top. Either
cover immediately or leave the jam until cold. Store in a cool,
dark places.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Whole Strawberry Jam
1 kg. (2 1/2 lbs.) small strawberries, washed and hulled
3 tbsp. lemon juices
1 1/4 kg. sugar (3 lbs.)
knob of butter
8 fl oz. bottle of pectin
1. Place strawberries in an aluminum or stainless steel pressing pan
with lemon juice and sugar. Leave to stand for one hour, stirring
occasionally.
2. Heat slowly, stirring when sugar has dissolved, then add butter.
3. Bring to a boil rapidly for 4 minutes, stirring occasionally.
4. Remove the pan from the heat and stir in pectin. Leave to stand for
at least 20 minutes before potting.
5. Pot and cover.
Strawberry Jam
1.6 kg. (3 1/2 lbs.) strawberries, washed and hulled
4.5 ml. (3 tbsp.) lemon juices
1.4 kg. (3 lbs.) sugar
knob of butter
1. Place the strawberries in a preserving pan with the lemon juices
and simmer gently, stirring occasionally for 20-30 minutes until re-
ally soft.
2. Take the pan off the heat, add sugar and stir until dissolved
then add butter. Bring to a boil rapidly for about 20 minutes,
stirring frequently.
3. Test for a set then take the pan off the heat and remove scum with
slotted spoon.
4. Test for set. Leave to stand for 15 minutes. Pot and Cover.
Marmalades
Marmalade is made from citrus fruits. Bitter oranges make the best
marmalade. Sweet oranges give marmalade a rather cloudy appearance
and are best used in combination with other citrus fruits. Fruits like Gua-
va, Santol, Papaya and Pineapple may also be made into marmalade.
A true marmalade is a clear, jelly-like mixture in which are suspended
small pieces or thin slices of fruits.
General Directions for Making Marmalades

1. Prepare the fruit by hand or by a food processor. Chop the
sliced peel of fruits to a preferred thickness.
2. Put the cut fruits in a pot and simmer gently for 1 to 1 1/2 hour
until the peel is really soft and the contents of the fruit are reduced
by half.
3. Add the sugar and stir until dissolved. Boil rapidly for 15-20 min-
utes.
4. Test for a set. Pot and cover.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Orange Marmalade
2 lbs. (900 gram ) oranges
juice of 2 lemons
2.6 liters (4 1/2 pints) water
3 lbs. sugar
1. Peel off enough rind from the oranges and cut into thin strips.
2. Cut up the rest of the fruits and simmer in a covered pan with
the water and lemon juice for about two hours until fruits are
soft.
3. Put the shred rind, covered with water (1 pint) and simmer gently
until soft.
4. Pour the mixture into a jelly bag and leave into a large bowl for 15
minutes.
5. Test for pectin and boil rapidly.
6. Test for a set, then remove the pan off the heat. Leave the marma-
lade to stand for 5 minutes then stir to distribute the peel. Pot and
cover.
Makes 2.3 kg. (5 lbs.)
Papaya-Pineapple Marmalade
2 cups papaya juice
1 cup chopped pineapple
1 tbsp. calamansi juice
2 cups sugar
1. Use rare-ripe papaya. Wash, pare, cut in half and remove seeds.
Cut into small pieces and measure.
2. Place cut papaya in pan. Add 1 tbsp. calamansi juice per pint of cut
pulp and enough water to barely cover fruit.
3. Simmer papaya pulp for 15 minutes or until soft. Strain juice, mea-
sure.
4. Use fresh pineapple. Chop finely and measure.
5. Combine papaya juice, chopped pineapple, calamansi juice and
sugar in the proportion given in the recipe.
6. Cook rapidly with constant stirring until mixture thickens.
7. Remove from heat, stir and skim alternately for 3 minutes and
pour while hot into warm sterile jars. Seal immediately.
Candied Camias
1 kilo camias
2 kilos sugar
1 tbsp. lime in 1 liter of water (lime solution)
Soak camias in lime solution overnight. Wash thoroughly to
remove all traces of lime in the camias. Boil in enough water for 3-5
minutes. Soak in water. Drain. Prepare syrup (1 part sugar to 1 part
water) and boil. Add camias. Boil for about 3 minutes. Soak overnight.
Drain. Add 1 cup of sugar to the syrup. Boil. Add camias and heat for
3 minutes. Soak again overnight. Drain. Add sugar to thicken syrup.
Add camias and boil. Allow to soak overnight. Drain and concentrate
syrup. Add camias. Allow to cool. Drain and arrange in trays to dry
under the sun. Finish drying in an oven at a low temperature. Cool
and wrap in cellophane.
VEGETABLES
Vegetables are edible parts of plants. They are the roots, tubers,
bulbs, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, or pods. In culinary arts, vegetables
are considered those plant materials eaten with the principal parts of
the meal. They may be served cooked or raw in their natural state or
in a completely changed appearance. Vegetables may be combined with
other food items or eaten as is. In the Philippines, vegetables are always
the popular item in people’s diet.
Classification of Vegetables
Plant parts used as vegetables maybe classified as follows:
Leafy Vegetables are often called green vegetables. Examples of these
are kamote tops, kangkong, pechay, saluyot, malunggay, ampalaya leaves, alug-
bati, spinach and other leaves used for food.
Seed Vegetables are sometimes called leguminous vegetables. Exam-
ples of these are paayap, mongo, bataw, and other beans and peas.
Stems and Bulbs consist of asparagus, bamboo shoots, coconut shoot,
onions, and celery.
Roots and Tubers are at times referred to as root crops. Examples
are kamote, cassava, carrots, ubi, singkamas, potato, gabi, ginger, garlic, and
other plants identified with roots.
Fruit Vegetables consist of tomatoes, squash, eggplants, upo, ampalaya,
patola, sayote, cucumbers, and okra.
Flowers consist of katuray, squash blossoms, cauliflower, and kakawati
flowers.
Nutritive Value of Vegetables

Vegetables are naturally rich sources of vitamins and minerals.
They also contain cellulose-fibrous materials that aid in digestion. Pro-
tein, sugar, and starch are most abundantly found in vegetable seeds and
pod, root crops and fruits and flowers. Dark green and yellow vegetables
are especially rich in Vitamin A as well as other minerals.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
Leafy Vegetables Seed Vegetables
Stem Vegetables and Bulbs Roots and Tubers
Fruit Vegetables Flower Vegetables

The following table shows the nutritive value of selected locally
grown vegetables:
Table 2. Proximate Composition of
Some Common Vegetables
In 100 grams Edible Portion
VEGETABLES CHO FAT PROTEIN VIT. A ASCORBIC IRON CALCIUM

gm gm mg (Carotene) mg mg mg
Equivalent mcg)
1. Ampalaya 4.5 0.4 0.9 185 40 0.8 42

2. Squash 8.6 0.5 1.4 880 20 0.7 61
3. Tomato 5.2 0.9 0.3 385 34 1.0 31
4. Kamote
Tops 9.1 0.8 3.3 3,195 28 4.6 137
5. Kangkong 3.5 0.6 3.5 2,575 30 4.6 92
6. Carrots 10.5 0.4 1.5 10,290 8 2.1 69
7. Cabbage 4.8 0.3 1.4 20 42 0.8 74
8. Eggplant 5.8 0.2 1.0 80 85 0.6 35
9. Monggo 64.2 1.0 24.4 80 10 5.7 142
10. Bitsuelas 6.8 0.1 2.0 360 17 1.2 77
11. Sitaw 7.2 0.2 3.1 250 22 0.9 61
12. Petchay 3.2 0.5 2.0 1,450 54 3.7 168
13. Malunggay
Leaves 12.4 1.9 6.1 14,945 231 4.5 346
SOME GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION AND
PURCHASE OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables have high perishability and great variation in quality. It
is therefore important for one to know how to select vegetables at their
best quality. The quality of vegetables depends on:
a) favorable conditions for their growth;
b) the season of their harvest;
c) the variety of the vegetable;
d) degree of maturity;
e) size and uniformity of shape; and
f) presence of defects.
The Essentials of Buying Vegetables

1. Buy vegetables that are in season; they are cheap and plentiful.
They are also most nutritious and better in flavor.
2. Select the vegetables that are free from surface bruises or
blemishes due to decay.
3. Choose leafy vegetables that are fresh, young, and free from decay.
Avoid the wilted ones.
4. Pick out dry seeds or legumes that are not powdery and are free
from holes. Legumes are susceptible to weevil attacks especially
when they had been stored improperly for sometime.
5. Get root crops that are free from dark spots and dirt. They must be
firm, not soft.
6. Buy quality vegetables that will best suit your particular purpose.
7. Consider the cost in relation to the edible portion and the amount
of waste for each type.
8. Buy by weight, if possible or by the count if necessary.
9. Consider the prices of similar vegetables from at least two sources
before buying.
10. Consider equality above all other considerations.
Vegetables Cookery
1. Cook fresh green vegetables uncovered for the first few minutes
and continue cooking until tender and still slightly crispy.
2. Peel and cut vegetables just before cooking; avoid soaking them in
water.
3. Never cook vegetables in an iron container. Enamelware is suitable
and preferable.
4. Use the smallest amount of water possible in boiling leafy vegeta-
bles. If vegetables are to be cooked with meat, add the vegetables
just before the meat gets too tender.
5. To preserve the green color of vegetables, avoid overcooking them;
do not use baking soda; uncover the pan for the first 2 or 3
minutes.
6. Use the same water in which dried legumes are soaked, by simmer-
ing them instead of boiling.
7. Cook starchy vegetables such as potatoes, gabi etc. long enough to
gelatinize. Drain off after boiling.
8. Save the liquid left after cooking vegetables; use it for gravies,
soups, or sauces.
9. See that cooked vegetables are crispy rather than mushy, with fla-
vor and color as natural as possible.
10. For the best method of cooking frozen vegetables, read what is
stated on the package. On the other hand, canned vegetables have
already been cooked. They need only to be heated and
seasoned. To prepare dehydrated vegetables, add water and cook
according to the directions on the package.
SELECTION OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables Desirable Characteristics
Beans Firm, clean, tender, crisp
pods, seeds hardly half grown.
(Toughness, wilting, or discolo-
ration indicate over maturity.)
Cabbage Hard, compact heads, greenish-
white in color, (Puffy,
slightly yellow leaves indicate
overmaturity.)
Carrots Firm, fresh, smooth, well-shaped
roots of a bright yellow to orange
color.
Cucumbers Firm, fresh, well-shaped bodies and
firm, crisp, tender flesh, immature
seeds.
Eggplant Firm, heavy body of a uniform
dark, rich purple color, free of scars
or decay.
Green Leafy
Vegetables
(Camote tops,
Kangkong etc.) Fresh, tender young leaves,
(Discolored and wilted leaves
indicate poor quality.)
Onions Bright, clean, hard, well-shaped
globes with dry skins.
Squash Fresh bright-colored, hard rind.
Tomatoes Well-formed, plump bodies with
a uniform red color.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR
VEGETABLE PRESERVATION
Pickled Vegetables
Materials:
Chinese pechay or any of the following vegetables:
Cabbage
Cucumber (unpeeled)
Radish (peeled)
Singkamas (peeled)
Carrots (peeled)
Procedure:
1. Trim, wash, and drain the vegetables.
2. Cut them into halves, lengthwise.
3. For every kilo of vegetables, sprinkle 4 to 5 tablespoons of salt.
4. Press vegetables with the palm of the hand. Arrange them in a con-
tainer. Place a cheesecloth or plastic on top and put weight so as to
drain the juice from the vegetables. Cover.
5. After a day, wash vegetables in running water and squeeze gently.
If they are too salty, soak them in water.
6. Squeeze and slice them thinly. Serve with ginger sauce.
Ginger Sauce:
2 tbsp. soy sauce
1/2 cup water
2 tbsp. sugar
1 tbsp. finely chopped ginger
1 piece sili labuyu (crushed)
Combine all ingredients and serve with the pickled vegetables.
Tomato Ketchup
Materials:
2 kilos of fully ripe, thick-pulped red tomatoes
1/2 cup sugar
1/2 cup vinegar
1/4 cup native onions
(chopped) 1 tbsp. pickling
spices
1/4 tbsp. chili
sauce 2 tbsp. salt
Crushed sili labuyu in small amount of water.
Procedure:
1. Scald and peel tomatoes.
2. Cut into halves and remove seeds.
3. Strain seeds from juice and add to pulp.
4. Add onions and boil until soft.
5. Remove mixture from fire and pass through a stainless strainer or
through a blender.
6. Add salt, sugar, vinegar, and the spices placed and tied in a piece of
cloth.
7. Cook to a thick consistency.
8. While hot, pour in sterile ketchup bottles.
9. Seal, cool, and label. Store.
Instant Ginger Tea
Materials:
1 kilo ginger (whole)
2 to 3 kilos sugar (a mixture of brown and white)
Procedure:
1. Select round young ginger rhizomes.
2. Clean and remove bruised and spoiled particles. Wash and weigh.
3. Scrape off skin.
4. Cut or slice the ginger thinly and chop.
5. Add water, approximately 1 cup or enough to cover.
6. Grind chopped ginger in an osterizer; beat chopped ginger.
7. Strain and measure. To the extract, add sugar (2-3 kilos).
8. Stir and boil. Reduce fire, if ginger syrup is already thick.
9. Cook and stir continuously until granules are formed and become
dry.
10. Pound granules and sift to obtain a uniform product.
11. Pack in a small plastic bag and seal.
12. To make a beverage or salabat, add 1 tablespoon instant ginger tea
to every cup of hot water.
Garlic Salt
1. Peel garlic and chop finely.
2. Mix salt, 1/5 of the weight of garlic.
3. Spread on nylon screen and dry thoroughly under the sun or in
a dehydrator.
4. Pack in plastic bags and seal.
MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS
Meat is an important food in the diet and is the foremost food of
the people in the world. In nearly every home the daily menu is built
around meat as the central dish. This extensive use of meat is due to its
palatability and high nutritive value. Technically, the term meat is used
to designate only those portions of the various animals used for food
like muscle, fatty tissues and some glands such as the liver, heart, and
spleen. Commercially, the term meat includes all portions of the dressed
carcass as muscle tissues, connective tissues, fat, lymphatic glands,
edible organs, and the bone.
Zoological classes of animals from which meat is obtained are:
1. Mammalia — Examples are: cattle, carabaos, sheep, swine or
pigs, and other similar four-footed animals.
2. Aces — fowls and birds.
3. Pisces — fishes.
4. Reptilia — turtles.
5. Amphibia — frogs.
6. Mollusca — oysters and clams.
7. Crustacea — lobsters and crabs.
Grading of Meat
After the meat has been inspected by an authorized veterinarian
and declared wholesome, hygienic and fit for human consumption, then
it is graded. The basis for grading is quality, conformation, and finish of
its carcass.
1. Quality includes tenderness, juiciness and palatability.
2. Conformation refers to the shape, form or general outline of the
side or the whole carcass. This indicates the relative propor-
tion of lean to bone ratio, as well as the relative percentage
of each of the different wholesale cuts. Good conformation
means a high meat to bone ratio and high percentage of the
tender cuts.
3. Finish refers to the amount, quality, and color of the fat within
and around the muscle.
The Bureau of Standards (Philippines) standardized and prepared
in 1970 the meat grading as Excellent, Superior, Good, and Unclassified.
But grading is an expensive operation, hence it is not widely practiced
in the Philippines. Imported meat cuts that find their way to the modern
supermarket may have grades according to the grading system of their
country of origin.
Structure of Meat
A piece of meat usually consists of lean tissues, fatty tissues,
connective tissues, and bone. The lean tissues or the lean meat consist
mainly of muscular tissues and lesser amounts of connective tissues. The
muscle fiber size has much to do with the grain or texture of the
meat. Fine grain, smooth texture, and a smooth and soft surface
indicate tender meat. Young animals have finer-grained flesh than
mature animals.
The type and quantity of connective tissue in meat also affect ten-
derness. There are two kinds of connective tissue: white (collagen) and
yellow (elastin). Collagen is changed into gelatin and water by moist
heat. Elastin cannot be changed by cooking. To make it tender, it is bro-
ken up by mechanical treatment such as grinding, pounding, or cubing.
Fats in meat occur mainly in the adipose tissues as visible fat. It is
present in intermediate amounts in between the muscle as
intramuscular fat and in minor quantities inside the muscle cell as
intracellular fat. In- tramuscular fat when present in sufficient quantity
and visible, is called marbling. Fats in meat are important because they
contribute to tenderness, juiciness and flavor.
The bone is an essential part of the gross structure of the meat.
The conditioning of the bone is an indication of the age of the animal.
In young animals, the backbone is soft and has reddish tinge. In fully
mature animals, the bones are flinty and white. A high proportion of
bone to meat increases the cost of meat; therefore the carcass with a
high proportion of meat to bone is more desirable. The shape of the
bone is an excellent guide for identifying the various cuts of meat.
Nutritive Value of Meat

Meat is a very valuable food. It is rich source of high quality protein
needed for building and repairing worn-out body tissues. It contains rich
supply of phosphorous, copper, iron and Vitamin B, thiamin, riboflavin,
and niacin. It is relatively low in calories without the fat. The fat in meat
gives the body energy and warmth. The variety meat or the internal
organs that include the brain, sweet breads, liver, spleen, and intestines
are equally as nutritious as the lean meat. Liver is a good source of iron
which is needed to make the blood red.
Table 3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat From Pork, Beef

and Carabeef, 100 gms.
PORK BEEF CARABEEF

Protein (gm) 17.3 22.9 20.6
Moisture (%) 58.6 71.8 77.3
Fat (gm) 23.2 4.2 0.8
Calcium (mg) 29 96 22
Phosphorus (mg) 142 194 161
Iron (mg) 1.3 3.2 2.6
Vitamin A (Retinol) 35 180 85
Thiamine (mg) .45 .10 114
Riboflavin (mg) .27 .20 .26
Niacin (mg) 4.5 6.4 4.3
Classes of Meat
Beef carcasses are classified on the basis of age and sex. The specific
classes are:
stear — a male cow, castrated when young;
heifer — a young female which has not borne a calf;
cow — a female that has not borne a calf;
stag — a male castrated after maturity;
and bull — a mature male not castrated.
Cara beef is carabao meat. Although widely eaten by Filipinos, it is
still sold and passed as beef.
Veal is meat from immature animals of the bovine species. The best
veal carcasses are usually from animals 4 to 8 weeks of age of either sex.
Pork is the meat of swine. Good quality pork comes from young
animals usually 7 to 12 months of age. In young animals there is no
distinction in quality or grade of meat due to sex. However, in older
animals sex differences are pronounced.
Lamb and mutton are sheep carcasses so classified according to the
age of animals. Lamb meat is taken from young animals of one year
or less of age. Mutton is derived from those that have passed the
lamb stage. Carcasses of yearlings are heavier and their flesh darker
than those of lamb. It is the best of the mutton class. The flesh of all
carcasses in the mutton class is darker in color, less tender, and
stronger-smelling than lamb.
Goat’s meat is quite popular in some parts of the Philippines
particu- larly in the Ilocos Region. It is taken mainly as “pulutan” with
basi or tuba by men who drink during their leisure hours or after work
in the farm.
Rabbit’s meat comes from rabbits that should be 3 to 4 months old
before they are slaughtered for food. At this age, a large breed of rabbit
weighs about 1/2 to 2 kg. Older stocks are heavier and make good ma-
terials for roasted meat. Domesticated rabbits are meatier but gourmet
relishes the wild rabbit’s meat. Rabbits are known in the Philippines as
pets and certainly not for eating.
Market Forms of Meat
Meat is available in the market as fresh, chilled, frozen, cured,
canned, or dried.
Fresh Meat has not undergone chilling, freezing, or any processing
treatment. Most market meat in the Philippines is in this form.
Chilled Meat has been cooled to a temperature range of 1 to 3°C
(34° to 36°F) within 24 hours after slaughter.
Chilled Meat has been chilled and then frozen. Most meat in su-
permarkets are pre-packaged frozen meat for self-service. Frozen meat
should have an expiry date stamped on the package.
Cured Meat is preserved meat acted upon by curing agents such as
salt, sodium nitrate (salitre), sugar, and sometimes spices and vinegar
without refrigeration. Sausage, hotdog, langoniza, tocino, ham, bacon,
corned beef and tapa are examples of cured meat.
Canned Meat is cooked and requires only to be reheated. Corned
beef, adobo, liver spread and other meat recipes are examples of this
form.
Dried Meat is also known as dehydrated meat. There is a limited
amount of dried meat available. Tapa is an example of dried meat that is
also cured.
MEAT CUTS
A slaughtered animal is called a carcass. The carcass is cut into
larger pieces called wholesale cuts, which are further reduced into retail
cuts. The retail cuts commonly found in the market are further classified
as tender cuts, less tender cuts, tough cuts, and variety cuts. The specific
cut determines the price of the meat.
Tender Cuts
Tender cuts contain lean meat and little collagen. These are the
least exercised parts of the animal and are the most expensive cuts. Meat
of the upper half of an animal, along the backbone, is tender because
the back muscle simply supports the spine and does not perform much
movement. The most tender muscle in both beef and pork is the psoas
major muscle or the loin. This portion is most appropriate for broiling,
roasting, and frying. The whole loin or kadera of the beef yields the loin
end, short loin, sirloin and the tenderloin. In pork, the loin is known
as lomo, when sliced is called pork chops. Other tender cuts in pork
include the ham and side bacon or belly.
Less Tender Cuts

There are more developed connective tissues in less tender cuts
than the tender cuts. Considerable portions are present in the shoulder
and neck of the animals. It is necessary to apply moist heat methods of
cookery to gelatinize the connective tissues, thus tenderizing the meat.
Braising and stewing are also appropriate cooking methods. Most often,
less tender cuts are ground to break and cut the muscle fibers and con-
nective tissues. In a pork carcass, the shoulder, Boston Butt, picnic and
neck bones are examples of less tender cuts. The round, rump and chuck
are for the beef carcass.
Tough Cuts
The tough cuts are usually those muscles which get more exercise
while the animal is alive. They are usually located in the lower part
of the animal. Muscles that are exercised a lot contain higher quantities
of connective tissues. Really hardworking muscles such as the shoulder
(or chuck) and neck produce tough meat. The tough cuts in beef are
the shank, flank, plate, brisket, and neck. There are no tough cuts in
the pork carcass.
Variety Cuts
Variety cuts are the animal glands and other internal organs. They
include the liver, kidney, tripe, sweetbreads, brain, lung, and tongue.
The tail, blood, and skin are also grouped under the variety meats.
Va- riety meat should be cooked until well-done to minimize the danger
of transmitting the organisms found in them. In the Philippines, the
variety cuts are considered choice parts and are priced accordingly.
LIST OF VARIETY CUTS

Local Name English Name Suggested Recipes
Puso Heart Bachoy, Bopiz, Dinu-
guan, Egado
Atay Liver Liver spread, Bachoy,
Bopiz, Dinuguan,
Adobo, Egado
Bato Kidney Bachoy, Bopiz,
Egado, Dinuguan
Baga Lungs Egado, Bopiz, Dinu-
guan
Lapay Pancreas Dinuguan, Egado,
Bopiz
Empella Small Adobo, Kilawin,
Intestines Dinuguan
Bahay guya Uterus Dinuguan, Bopiz
Dila Tongue Pastel de lengua,
Gisado
Tuwalya/
Libro Tripe Menudo, Goto,
Callos, Kilawin
Balat Skin Sitsaron
Dugo Blood Dinuguan, Bopiz
Kaloogan Esophagus Egado, Bopiz
Tastasin Omentum Bopiz, Dinuguan
Trepella Omentum Goto, Bopiz,
Dinuguan
MEAT CUTS OF BEEF AND CARABEEF
The chuck or paypay contains the square-cut shoulder and the top five
ribs, the arm, the blade bones, and the neckbones.
The brisket or punta y pecho has layers of lean and fat, and pieces of
breast bone.
The ribs or costillas include 6 to 12 ribs and the blade bones.
The plate or tadyang is a fatty cut whose meat is ground for ham-
burgers.
The short loin or solomillo consists of the backbone and sometimes the
last rib. This is the cut that yields the beef steaks, porterhouse, T-bone
and club steak.
The flank or kanto is lean and tough, and contains a high
percentage of fat.
The loin end or tagilirang hulihan lies between the rump and the short
loin and yields sirloin steaks, pin bones, wedge bones, and flat bones.
The rump or tapadera is the rear part behind the upper sirloin.
The round or pierna costa is oval shaped with a small round bone and
a high proportion of lean and fat roast cut.
The sirloin tip or kadera is from the bottom and round and the
lower sirloin.
The foreshank or kenchi or pata is a very bony piece that contains a
high percentage of cartilage and connective tissues.
PORK CUTS
Jowl Tail (Buntot)

(Kalamnan)Boston Butt Loin (Lomo)
(Paypay) Ham (Pigi)
Bacon Side (Liyempo)

Picnic (Kasim)
Spare Ribs (Buto sa Tadyang)

Hindshank (Pata)
Foreshank (Pata)
Jowl or kalamnan is the loose flesh above the lower jaw or

throat with a high percentage of fat.
Boston Butt or paypay is cut from the upper shoulder, has a
compact shape and is easy to slice.
The loin or lomo is a long cut that extends along the backbone of
the animal. This may be cut into smaller loin roasts known locally as
costillas.
The picnic or kasim is cut from the lower portion of the shoulder of
the animal that has more bone in proportion to lean meat.
The bacon side or liyempo is cut from the belly portion of the long
carcass, usually cured and sold in slices or slabs.
The ham or pigi is composed of the butt or shank end. It contains a
higher proportion of lean to bone.
The spare rib or buto sa tadyang is taken from the belly portion of the
animal; it contains a large proportion of bones.
The shanks (foreshank and hindshank) or pata are the pig’s legs, con-
sidered by the Filipinos as a delicacy, they contain a high percentage of
cartilage and connective tissue.
MEAT COOKERY
Meat is cooked to make it more palatable and digestible. To tender-
ize meat, it must be cooked with heat. Dry heat seldom softens meat and
overcooking even with dry heat toughens the flesh. High temperatures
and extended cooking even with moisture are not advisable. Doneness
can be judged by the outside and inside appearances of the meat.
There are six stages of doneness: (Kotchevar, 1975)
1. Very rare. Only a thin portion around the edge of the meat is
fully cooked. Red that almost bloody juices ooze out.
Under finger pressure, the meat feels soft and jelly-like
inside.
2. Rare. The raw, red portion of the meat is small and around
it is pink; there is good brown outer surface. The meat has
a full, plump appearance and gives in to pressure; juices are
red but not bloody.
3. Medium rare. The interior portion is rich pink and exudes
juice of the same color. The meat is still plump and firm;
the amount of gray outer surface has increased.
4. Medium. The interior color of the meat is a modified rose.
Pink juices are apparent but less. The exterior portion is well-
browned. The surface does not appear plump or full. When
pressed, there is definite resistance.
5. Medium well. The pink color has completely disappeared.
Juici- ness is still evident, but the juices are clear or gray, not
pink. There is no plumpness; the meat is firm to touch.
6. Well. The meat is completely gray inside, hard, flinty and
shrunken. Little or no juice appears on its surface which is
brown and dry.
Cooking Techniques
The extent of its tenderness largely dictates how meat should be
cooked. Tender cuts are usually cooked by dry heat and tough cuts
by moist heat. Some tough cuts may be treated mechanically with
tender- izers to make them soft, and then be cooked by dry-heat
methods.
Dry heat methods are:
1. Broiling, pan broiling, or griddle broiling
2. Roasting or baking
3. Barbecuing
4. Sautéing, pan frying, or grilling
5. Deep-frying
6. Ovenizing
Moist heat methods are:
1. Braising (pot-roasting, fricassing, casseroling, and stewing)
2. Simmering
3. Steaming
4. Blanching
Principles of Cooking Meat

1. Meat should be immediately removed from wrapping paper
because paper absorbs the juice of meat. Soaking meat in a
pan of cold water for a long period of time draws out the meat
juices.
2. Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for
meat. Such temperature produces a tender and flavorful
product, minimizes meat shrinkage and retains much of its
nutritive value.
3. Tough cuts of meat must be cooked with moisture or in water
at low temperature for a longer period of time.
4. Pressure-cooking meat results in decreased cooking time.
However, the process reduces the color and flavor of food
produced by ordinary cooking. Nevertheless, these qualities
can be attained by the use of other food materials such as
spices, sauces, and vegetables.
5. When defrosting or thawing frozen meat, one should not re-
move its wrapping to prevent the growth of bacteria.
Meat that has been defrosted should be cooked immediately.
It should never be refrozen.
6. Pork should always be thoroughly cooked because it may
contain harmful pathogenic organisms or small worm harm-
ful to the human body.
7. Meat is done when the heat necessary to bring about desired
changes in color, texture, and flavor has penetrated to the
center of the piece.
8. Ground meat will cook in a much shorter time because its
connective tissues have been broken making it more tender.
9. When broiling meat, one must keep the fire very hot and turn
the meat every two or three minutes to keep it at proper tem-
perature.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR MEAT PRESERVATION

Langgonisa or Native Sausage
1 kilo meat (3 parts lean,1 part pork fat)
2 1/2 tbsp. fine salt
2 tbsp. sugar
2 tbsp. vinegar
2 tbsp. wine (Anisado) optional
1 1/2 tbsp. soy sauce
1 1/2 tsp. chopped garlic
1 tsp. peppercorn, pounded
1/2 tsp. saltpeter
3 meters casing
1. Use either lean pork or beef. A good combination for sausage
is 3 parts lean meat (3/4 kilo) and one part pork fat (1/4
kilo).
2. Chop lean meat and pork fat or grind together using a course
blade.
3. Thoroughly mix curing ingredients with ground meat and
pork fat.
4. Stuff into pig casing and into links 4-5 inches long.
5. Hang in a cool dry place for 1 to 2 days before cooking.
Chorizo De Recado
1 kilo pork (2 parts lean, 1 part fat)
2 1/2 tbsp. pimenton
1 1/2 tbsp. fine salt
2 tbsp. wine (Anisado)
1/4 ground black
pepper 3/4 tsp.
saltpeter
1/4 tsp. thyme
1/2 tsp. chopped
garlic 1/8 tsp.
nutmeg
1. Chop or grind lean meat and pork. Mix well with the curing
ingredients.
2. Stuff into casing and tie into 4 inches long.
3. Allow to cure at room temperature for 1 day or in a refrigera-
tor for 3 days.
4. Dry slightly under the sun for 2-3 hours.
Home Made Bacon

1 kilo pork (liempo or pork sides)
3 tbsp. fine salt
2 tbsp. sugar
1 tbsp. saltpeter
1. Cut and trim pork into rectangular pieces.
2. Mix curing ingredients and rub well on the surface of the
meat.
3. Pack meat with the skin side down in a covered dish. Store
in the refrigerator and cure for 2 weeks. In the absence of a
refrigerator, cure at room temperature for 5 days.
4. Wash, dry and smoke at 125ºF for 2-3 hours or until bacon is
tanned. In the absence of a smoke house, apply either liquid
or powdered smoke to give the desired smoke flavor of
bacon.
Homemade Ham
1 kilo pork
loin 1/3 cup
sugar
1 tsp. saltpeter or prague powder
3 tbsp. salt
1. Combine salt, sugar, and saltpeter. (These form the curing
mixtures.)
2. Spread mixture all over meat.
3. Refrigerate for 3-6 days turning once or twice.
4. Bake or stew in:
1/2 cup sugar
1 cup pineapple juice
1 cup water
3-4 pcs. cloves peppercorn as
desired a leaf of laurel
5. Boil and/or bake till done.
6. Baste all over. Slice and serve.
Instant Corned Beef

1 kilo beef (punta y pecho)
1 1/2 cup water
1 1/2 tbsp. fine
salt 1 tsp. prague
salt 1 tbsp. sugar
1. Cut the beef into 1 1/2 inches cubes.
2. Combine and add the rest of the ingredients.
3. Pressure cook for 40 minutes.
4. Cool and shred beef with a fork.
5. Combine with broth left from cooking. Cool and refrigerate.
Tocino
1 kilo pork (pork chop or liyempo)
2 tbsp. salt
4 tbsp. sugar
1/4 tsp. salitre
a dash of pepper
food color as desired (1/4 tsp.)
1. Mix sugar, salt, salitre, and color.
2. Rub both sides of the pork.
3. Place the salted pork in a container and cover.
4. Keep at room temperature for 5 days or keep in the refrigera-
tor for 3 days.
5. Wash a little before cooking.
POULTRY
Nature of Poultry
Poultry, which consists of domestic birds specially bred for the ta-
ble, includes chicken, duck, goose, pigeon, and turkey. Poultry is now
available in many convenient forms and sizes the year round. The pro-
duction of poultry may be adapted to most areas of the world. At pres-
ent, it is a main source of meat in the people’s diet throughout the world.
In the Philippines, a total of 3.9 kg. poultry meat is consumed per person
in a year and 97% of this consists of chicken, while the rest consists of
turkey, pigeon, and duck. Comparable in nutritive value to other
meat forms, it is economical. It has a rapid growth rate and a rapid
generation time, that is, a poultry farm can produce meat in 8 weeks and
eggs in 24 weeks. Furthermore, poultry meat is low in calories in
relation to other nutrients present in it. Hence, it is good food for those
on weight control diets, convalescents, and old people who are not
physically active.
CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY
Chicken Turkey
Duck
Pigeon Goose
Classification of Poultry
Chicken
Throughout the year, chickens are available, fresh or frozen. When
sold oven-ready they are plucked, drawn, and trussed.
1. A Pullet is a baby chicken, four to six weeks old and weighs at
most 1 lb. It is suitable for roasting and grilling.
2. Double Poussin (Broiler). This chicken is six to ten weeks old
and weighs about 2 lbs.
3. A Spring Chicken (Fryer) is about six weeks old, with an aver-
age weight of 2 1/2 lbs.
4. A Roasting Chicken (Roaster) is the most popular size for a
family. It is eight weeks old and weighs 3.4 lbs.
5. A Broiler Fowl is an older bird usually a laying hen, about
8 months old, weighing 6 lbs. Meaty but also fat, it is
suitable for stews or casseroles.
6. A Capon is a surgically unsexed male chicken (usually un-
der 8 months of age) that is tender-meated with soft, pliable,
smooth-textured skin.
7. A Stag is a male chicken (usually under 10 months of age)
with coarse skin, a toughened and darkened flesh, and consid-
erably hardened breast-bone cartilage. It shows a condition of
fleshing and a degree of maturity intermediate between a
cock and a roaster.
8. A cock or roaster is a mature male chicken with coarse skin,
toughened and darkened meat, and hardened breastbone tip.
Ducks
Most ducks are marketed as ducklings or young ducks. A duck
weighing the same as a chicken cannot be served to many people. A 6
lb. duck is only enough for 4 people. A duck is a fatty bird that is best
roasted.
A broiler duckling or fryer duckling is a young duck usually under 8
weeks of age, of either sex, with tender meat, a soft bill, and a soft wind-
pipe.
A roaster duckling is a young duck, usually under 16 weeks of age,
of either sex, that is tender-meated and has a bill that is not completely
hardened and a windpipe that is easily dented.
A mature duck or old duck is usually over 6 months of either sex, with
toughened flesh, and hardened bill and windpipe.
Turkeys
Turkeys are not readily available in the market although they may
be classified into:
A fryer-roaster is a young immature turkey (16 weeks of age, 4.8 lbs.)
of either sex that has tender meat with soft pliable, smooth-textured
skin and flexible breastbone cartilage.
A young hen is a young female turkey (5-7 months weighing 8-4
lbs.) that is tender-meated with soft pliable, smooth textured skin, and
breastbone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-roaster
turkey.
A young tom is a young male (5-7 months weighing 12 lbs. and
over) that is also tender-meated with soft pliable, smooth-textured skin,
and breastbone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-
roaster turkey.
A yearling hen is a fully matured female turkey (under 15 months
of age) that is reasonably tender-meated and with reasonably smooth-
textured skin.
A yearling tom is a fully matured male, under 15 months of age that
is reasonably tender-meated and with reasonably smooth-textured skin.
A mature or old turkey is an old turkey male or female usually more
than 15 months old with coarse skin and toughened skin.
Pigeons
A squab is a young immature pigeon of either sex, and is extra
tender-meated.
A pigeon is a mature one of either sex, with coarse skin and rough-
ened flesh.
Goose
It is a fatty with creamy-white flesh, which is light brown when
cooked.
It has a slightly gamey flavor. It is marketed young and usually
weighs 6-12 lbs., but again it serves less per pound than chicken.
Gosling is a young goose not more than six months old.
COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEATS
The nutritive value of poultry is similar to that of other meat-
producing animals. The proteins supplied by poultry are complete and
contain amino acids essential in building body tissues. In addition,
poultry is a very good source of B-Vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin, and
niacin. A concentration of niacin is especially high in the flesh of young
chickens. Dark chicken meat is richer in riboflavin and thiamine, poorer
in niacin and more abundant in fat and connective tissues than white
meat. It has a high myoglobin content which is practically absent in
white meat. The dark meat belongs to those which are more active.
Hence, wild birds, which are very mobile, have only dark meat. Filipinos
prefer dark meat over the white meat. Chicken fat is yellow mainly
because of the presence of carotenoids, xanthophyll, and carotene.
The fat content of goose, duck, squab, or turkey is higher than that
of a chicken. The fat of poultry is deposited in the muscle tissue, in thick
layers under the skin and in the abdominal cavity. The fat of all types of
poultry is of a softer consistency than that of other meats. It also has a
lower melting point.
Table 4. Proximate Composition of the Dark Meat of Chicken,
Turkey, Duck and Pigeon per 100 gm. Edible Portion
FNRI-Food Composition Table Recommended
for use in the Philippines. (1997)
CHICKEN TURKEY DUCK PIGEON

Moisture (gm) 76.3 76.6 73.1 64.6
Protein (gm) 22.6 20.3 19.8 14.6
Fat (gm) 0.1 2.1 6.0 20.1
Carbohydrates (gm) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ash (gm) 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.7
Calories 108 106 139 244
Calcium (mg) 4 8 11 10
Phosphorus (mg) 86 141 164 218
Iron (mg) 1.0 1.0 2.8 0.6
Sodium (mg) 56 119 71 86
Potassium (mg) 365 357 365 286
Thiamine (mg) 0.11 0.09 0.18 0.15
Riboflavin (mg) 0.07 0.28 0.38 0.41
Niacin (mg) 5.2 4.7 4.1 2.9
How to Bone the Chicken
Chicken are easy to bone if one follows these simple instructions.
It is not too difficult once you have tried it, but care should be taken not
to pierce the skin except for the initial slits. Here are the step-by-step
procedure:
1. Place the bird breast down on the board

and make an incision in the entire length
of the spine, through both skin and flesh.
Push the skin and flesh back as you
cut.
2. Work the skin off the neck down, so you

can get the neck bone to extend way
beyond it.
3. Start with the ball and socket joint of the

shoulder, cutting it free and boning the
shoulder blade. Pull the wing bone through
from the inside, bringing the skin with it.
4. Strike for the ball and socket joint of

the leg and pull the bone through.
5. Continue to work the meat free,

from one side of the body, then from
the other, until the center front of
the breastbone is reached. Get the
whole skeleton out with its contents
all in one piece.
Principles of Selection
In the Philippines, poultry is marketed in these forms: live, whole,

dressed, drawn, and pieced ready-to-cook. It is important to know the
characteristics of each form to insure proper selection when purchasing
poultry.
Live Poultry. When selecting live poultry, choose those that are
alert, healthy, well-feathered, and well-formed. They should have a good
fat covering and free from broken bones, bruises, and blisters.
Sluggish looking birds should not be purchased.
Whole Poultry. Similar qualities to those of live poultry should be

considered here except that this poultry is not alive. Most poultry in this
form are those that are hunted as game birds.
Dressed Poultry. Most of the chickens available in most markets are

in this form. These are slaughtered poultry with head, feet, and viscera
intact, and blood and feathers removed. The good dressed poultry have
moderate fat covering, free from pin feathers, no missing skin or parts.
Those with slimy, off odors, and discoloration should be avoided.
Drawn Poultry. These are dressed poultry with the visceral organs,
feet, and head removed. Drawn poultry are usually available in super-
markets, either chilled or frozen. Freezing is done in local poultry pro-
cessing plants which insure quality control. There are a number of good
brands of frozen drawn poultry in the local supermarkets. Frozen poul-
try with freezer burns should not be purchased.
Ready to Cook Poultry Parts. Several pieces of a single poultry parts are
usually available and packed in one carton, wrapped, and are chilled or
frozen. Wings, drumsticks, thighs, backs, breasts, legs, halves, quarters
and internal organs, such as livers with hearts, and gizzards are sepa-
rately packaged and sold in most supermarkets. Consumer acceptance
of these ready-to-cook poultry parts is indicated by the brisk sales in the
frozen compartments of supermarkets. Wet markets also sell these poul-
try parts minus the fancy packaging of supermarkets. Likewise, even
chicken heads, feet, and intestines are sold in the wet market because
some people have preference for them.
POULTRY CUTS
Drumstick
Leg with Thigh
Thigh
Quarter Half
Wing
breast
Leg with Thigh and

Meat from back
Principles in the Preparation of Poultry
In the Philippine countryside, poultry is still slaughtered at home.
This practice is becoming rare in the urban area where commercial
preparation of ready-to-cook poultry is taken care of by the poultry
farms business. The steps in dressing the poultry are basically the same
except that commercial preparation makes use of automated devices
and ma- chineries.
Steps in Dressing Poultry

1. Slaughtering and bleeding. Proper handling prior to slaughter is essen-
tial to prevent bruising and injury to the bird. Live birds are not fed
8 to 24 hours prior to slaughter to allow easier removal of entrails.
Water may be given to the live animals. This practice improves
flavor and tenderness of the meat. Slaughtering is done by slitting
the large or jugular vein in the animal’s throat. Bleeding may take
about 1 to 3 minutes to effect proper draining of its blood. In
the case of large scale slaughtering, the live birds are shackled and
elec- trically steamed.
2. Scalding. The bled birds are scalded by dipping in hot water at about
60°C (140°F) for 30 to 75 seconds. Scalding is done to facilitate re-
moval of feathers. In commercial dressing of poultry, big tanks with
good temporary control are used for scalding.
3. Defeathering. Feathers are removed by rubbing. The birds are now
called dressed poultry. Defeathering in commercial basis is done in
machines with rubberized “picking fingers.”
4. Evisceration. Slitting the abdominal part and pulling out the
entrails in one piece is called evisceration. When this is
accomplished, the poultry is called drawned poultry. The head
and feet are cut off cleaned and the oil glands are removed. If pin
feathers are present, they may be removed by singeing over on an
open flame. Internal organs are removed and cleaned.
Commercially, evisceration is done in cool rooms where the car-
casses are also inspected by an authorized veterinarian and then chilled
quick-frozen and vacuum-packed prior to marketing.
Principles of Poultry Cookery
1. Poultry meat lacks color. Therefore to add color to the meat and
intensify its flavor, poultry should be browned as part of cooking.
2. Mature birds have more extractives than young ones. Thus, they
are excellent for various kinds of soup and broth. Fryers and broil-
ers are suitable for frying.
3. Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for poultry
because it produces a tender and flavorful product and allows little
shrinkage of meat and more retention of nutritive value.
4. Frozen poultry should be thawed without removing the wrapping
to prevent the growth of bacteria. It should be cooked immediately.
5. When cooking poultry, the age and fat distribution of the birds
should be considered. Young birds are more palatable when
cooked by dry heat; older birds are best cooked by moist heat.
6. Chickens and turkeys should be stuffed immediately before roast-
ing so that the danger of bacterial action is minimized. The cavity
should not be filled completely with stuffing which will tend to
swell and fill up the air spaces and prevent the stuffing from being
thoroughly cooked.
7. In roasting, chicken cuts are laid with the breast-side down to pro-
duce a tender and juicy product. The breast-side up position tends
to dry it out.
8. Cooked poultry should always be eaten as soon as possible after
being removed from the heat.
9. Poultry leftovers, a common source of Salmonella bacteria, must
be refrigerated immediately. Left-over stuffing from chicken
relleno should be removed and refrigerated separately.
10. Basting improves the desirability of the lean meat of poultry in
terms of improved flavor, palatability and appearance.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Poultry Ham
(Chicken, Turkey, Duck)
Procedure
1. Select birds that are healthy and plump, preferably those that be-
long to the meat breed.
2. Handle them carefully to avoid bruising them.
3. Bleed thoroughly and scald in water at 533°C or simmering tem-
perature.
4. Remove the feathers, the pin feathers, and the legs. Cut the neck
close to the body leaving portions of loose skin uncut. In eviscera-
tion (removal of internal organs), leave no trace of blood or adher-
ing tissue inside.
5. Wash and soak in cold water (with little ice) for about 15 minutes
to remove body heat.
6. Prepare curing ingredients as follows:
Curing pickles must be prepared a day before processing. For the
pumping pickle, prepare a stock of saturated salt that can be dissolved
by stirring in a certain amount of boiling water. Cool in a refrigerator or
ice box, place the container with cold water. Strain in the brine to
remove the excess salt. Boil plain water for dilution purposes and
cool. Then measure and mix all the required ingredients as follows:
Pumping Pickle
Ingredients
2 1/2 cups saturated salt solution
2 1/2 cups cold boiled water
2 1/2 tbsp.
sugar 1/2 tsp.
salitre
2 1/2 tbsp. Phosphate blend for ham (optional)
1 drop of oil anise
1 drop of oil
cloves 2 drops
maplein
The diluted brine should give a salinity of 50°S which can be tested
if a salometer is available. Dissolve the ingredients in small amount of
brine before finally mixing with the rest of the liquid. Stir thoroughly
and strain before using. Unused pickle may be set aside in a refrigerator
for future use.
Cover Pickle
Ingredients
6 cups saturated salt solution
4 cups boiled water
1/8 tsp. salitre
5 tbsp. sugar
The cover pickle is slightly more saltier than the pumping pickle.
Spices are omitted.
Dry-Cure Mixture
Instead of using cover pickle, prepare the following ingredients
which will be rubbed on the surface of every kilo of trimmed poultry.
2 tbsp. salt
4 tbsp. spoons sugar
1/16 tsp. salitre
anisado wine
7. Injection of the pumping pickle, immersion or application of dry
cure mixture.
Introduce the pumping pickle into the clean portions of the
chicken carcass using a large syringe or needle. The amount of
pickle to be pumped should be 10% of the dressed weight of the
bird or 100cc. of the pickle per kilo of the material. After injection,
massage the carcass lightly to spread out the pumped pickle, then
place in palayok or any sufficiently large non-corrosive container
(wooden, plastic, aluminum or enameled) and pour enough cover
pickle. To keep the whole carcass submerged in the pickle, place the
clean pieces of banana leaves or wax paper and wooden weight on
top. Finally cover the container tightly with muslin cloth. Store to
room temperature for 2 days or refrigerate for 5 days. Once each
day during curing period, stir the pickle to promote even absorp-
tion of the ingredients.
If the immersion process is not desired, the day cure mixture
may be used for surface treatment. Mix the salt, sugar, and salitre
thoroughly as prescribed. For duck ham, drench the trimmed car-
cass in anisado wine and place in a shallow container. This will
eliminate the peculiar duck odor. Run each piece with the dry cure
mixture. Place the treated poultry in a porcelain, plastic, or earthen
ware, and cover very well. Keep at room temperature for 8
hours and in the refrigerator for 3-5 days.
8. Smoking and drying.
At the end of the curing period, pull out the chicken from the
pickle, wash with plain water, and tie the legs with abaca twine. Al-
low to drain for a while and hang in an improvised smokehouse,
such as in an elevated bottomless gasoline drum. Place guava
leaves over charcoal embers to produce a good amount of
smoke. Con- tinue smoking for 2-3 hours and dry further for 2-3
days at 110°F to 120°F (optional) to a brown finish.
9. Cooking the finished chicken or poultry ham.
For every piece of ham, mix the following with the final cook-
ing:
1/2 bottle beer or 1/2 cup pineapple juice
1/2 cup sugar
2 pieces laurel leaves
2 pieces clavo de comer
2 strands oregano
Keep the ham immersed. Cook until well-done. Drain, then
spread brown sugar on the surface of the ham and caramelize with
either a blow torch or hot sianse, or in an oven of 450°C. Serve hot
or cold.
Steamed Chicken in Salt
(Manok na Pinaupo)
Ingredients
1 ready-to-cook chicken
2 cups coarse salt enough to cover the bottom of one kaldero.
Allow the chicken to sit on the salt in the kaldero. Cook over low
heat.
Asadong Manok
(Tangy Chicken
Stew)
3 lbs. chicken, cut up 2 medium tomatoes, chopped
1/4 cup vinegar 1 tbsp. pabrika
2 tsp. salt 1 small bay leaf
1/8 gloves garlic, minced 1 cup water
1 medium onion, sliced
Combine chicken pieces with vinegar, salt, pepper, and garlic. Let
stand for at least 30 minutes. Heat oil in skillet over medium heat and
sauté onions and tomatoes until tomatoes are mushy.
Drain the chicken pieces; save the marinade. Add the chicken
pieces to tomato mixture. Sauté until the chicken colors slightly. Add
marinade, paprika, bay leaf, and water. Simmer in 30 minutes or until
the chicken is tender. Correct the seasoning.
Chicken Liver Sauce

1 lb. chicken livers, halved 1 tsp. salt
2 tbsp. bacon fat pinch of pepper
1 medium onion, thinly sliced 1 tbsp. chopped parsley
Wash and dry chicken livers. In hot bacon fat, sauté chicken livers
and onions for 2 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and cook for 5-8 minutes
more over medium heat. Sprinkle with parsley and serve.
Galantina
(Stuffed Rolled Chicken)
5 lbs. chicken capon 1/3 cup pistachio nuts
1/2 tsp. salt 2 carrots, cut in two pieces each
1/4 lb. fresh pork fat cut 1 stalk celery, cut in 3 pieces
in long strips
22 oz. chorizo cut in
4 long strips
each
Filling
1/4 lb. lean cooked ham, 1/4 cup dry white
wine cut into thin strips 1/4 cup heavy cream
1/4 lb. chicken livers cut into pcs. 1 tbsp. salt
1/4 lb. salt, pork, cubed 1/4 tsp. pepper
1 lb. ground pork 2 tbsp. chopped green onions
2 eggs
Bone the chicken. Carefully remove the meat from the skin to leave
a shell. Sprinkle the shell with 1/2 tsp. salt. Wrap in waxed paper and keep
in a refrigerator until ready to use. Place all chicken bones in a pot, cover
with water and simmer covered for two hours to make a rich broth. Let
chicken broth cool; then refrigerate. Grind or finely chop chicken meat;
combine with all filling ingredients; place mixture in a covered
container, and refrigerate for 1 to 2 days for a full blending of flavors.
When ready to use, test seasoning days by dropping a tablespoon of
meat mixture in a small pan of simmering water. Cook for 2 to 3
minutes and adjust seasoning if necessary. Generously butter a large
piece of clean linen or several layers of cheesecloth. Lay the chicken
shell on it, outside skin down. Spread marinated meat mixture over
shell; arrange alternate rows of fresh pork fat and chorizo strips on top.
Sprinkle with pistachio nuts. Bring the edges of the skin together to form
a tight sausage-like roll. Sew up the seams carefully; tightly wrap
galantina in the buttered cloth; tie at both ends. Place it in a casserole
large enough to hold it. Add the carrots, celery, parsley and enough
broth to cover the roll. Cover and bring to a boil. Reduce heat;
simmer for 1 hour. Let cool in the broth. Remove the cloth from the
roll and re-roll in plastic wrap. Chill in the refrigerator. When ready
to use unwrap roll and slice.
FISH
The Nature of Fish
Fish is scientifically known as Istiophorus Orientalis. This group of
flesh foods may be classified into two major categories: fish (vertebrate)
and shellfish (invertebrate). Fish is covered with scales while the
shellfish is encased in some type of shell. Shellfish is of two groups, the
mollusks and the crustaceans. The mollusks are soft in structure and are
either partially or wholly enclosed in a hard shell that is largely of
mineral composition. Examples of mollusks are oysters, clams, abalone,
scallops, and mussels. The crustaceans are covered with crust-like shells
and have segmented bodies. Common examples are lobster, crab,
shrimp, and crayfish.
The kinds of scaly fish available for food vary widely in different
localities. They include both saltwater and freshwater varieties and
differ in flavor and quality depending partly on the water in which
they are grown. Most fish are caught in the open seas and their
availability is not dependent on man’s productive efforts, unlike
agricultural or farming crops, but rather on his ability to detect and
catch large schools of fishes. However, in the Philippines, we have
learned to culture some marine fish and bangus. This is the foremost
example. The act of culturing fish in inland water is called aquaculture,
while that of culturing in saltwater bodies such as coves and shores is
mariculture. Mariculture, presently applied to tahong and oysters, is
relatively in its infancy in the Philippines.
Fish has always been an important item in the Philippine diet and
one of the cheapest sources of protein; and thus can take the place of
chicken, pork, carabeef, or beef. Like these meats, the protein of fish
contains all the essential amino acid; hence it has a high biological value.
Deteriorative Changes After Death

Most fish caught from the sea die even while still in the net in
the water. Those caught or harvested from inland waters also die
shortly after they are taken from water. An exception are those fish
with accessory breathing organs like hito and dalag which stay alive
after catch.
The deteriorative changes after death of fish are important to its
acceptability as food. Immediately after death, the fleshy portion or
muscle of fish is soft, gel-like, and sticky. The rigor mortis sets in and is
characterized by rigidity of the muscle. When rigor has passed,
spoilage starts. This is caused mainly by fish enzymes and bacteria.
The bacteria come
from the slime of the fish skin as well as from the gills and intestinal
tract. The flesh of a healthy fish is actually sterile. The enzymes
which are found mainly in the intestinal organs of the fish start
digesting the neighboring flesh. A substance which is found in living fish
flesh called trime-thylamine oxide is converted to trimethylamine which imparts
the characteristic odor of stale fish. Oxidative deterioration or rancidity
of fish fat follows.
Nutritive Value of Fish and Shellfish

Protein. Fish is one of the most valuable sources of high grade pro-
tein. Most fish contain 18-20% protein with most of the essential amino
acids in the right proportion. Apahap, lapu-lapu, labahita, tulingan, talakitok,
bia, and kanduli have generally high protein content. Protein is needed
for growth and repair of body tissues.
Fat. The fat content of fish varies. Most fish varieties are low in fat,
(less than one percent) thus being moderately low in calories. Fat is not
always uniformly distributed throughout the flesh of a fatty fish but it is
found on the belly, head and liver — where the bulk of it is stored.
Vitamins. Fish liver oils are topically rich sources of Vitamin A. Of-
ten, parts of a fish not normally eaten like the liver and gut, contain
much greater quantities of oil-soluble vitamins than the flesh. Fish roe,
when present, is also a good source of vitamins. An average serving
of fish meat supplies 1/20 to 1/5 of the daily allowance for B, 1/25 to
1/5 of B2, and 1/10 to 1/2 of niacin. These water-soluble concentrates
contain an appreciable amount of Vitamin B2 — a growth promoting
compound.
Minerals. The edible portions of fish are satisfactory sources of
mag- nesium, phosphorous, iron, copper, and iodine. Shellfish is rich in
minerals such as calcium, which is good for our bones. Inclusion of
fish in the daily diet provides an abundant mineral intake.
Carbohydrates. All shellfish has some carbohydrates in the form of
glycogen. Its sweet taste is due to the glucose formed by enzyme action
from glycogen.
The nutritive component of fish is shown in the illustration: Fish is
high in vitamins, minerals, and protein but low in fat and carbohydrates.
Fig. 11 — Nutritive Value of Fish

Distinguishing Characteristics of Fresh and Stale Fish
Criteria Fresh Stale
Eyes Bright, full, bulging Dull, wrinkled, sunken
Gills Bright red, covered with Dull brown or gray, slime
clear slime, odor fresh cloudy, odor offensive
Odor Fresh seaweedy odor State, sour, putrid
Body Firm Soft
Color Bright, shiny Faded
Flesh Firm, elastic, finger Soft and flabby finger
impression does not impression remains
remain
Slime Clear Opaque
Belly Intact Often ruptured, viscera
walls protruding
Muscle White, light Pinkish, tainted with blood
tissue especially around backbone
Vent Pink, not protruding Brown, protruding
Scales Complete, adhere Loosely attached
tightly, sink
Test Sinks in a basin of Floats in a basin of water
water
Taste Sweet Biting, itchy
MARKET FORMS OF FISH
1. Live Fish or whole, round Live fishes are transported and
marketed alive. Whole, round
fishes are caught and taken from
the water.
2. Dressed Dressed fish is whole fish with

scales, entrails, fins and head re-
moved.
3. Butterfly Fillet Butterfly fillets are the two sides

of the fish cut lengthwise away
from the backbone and held
together by the uncut flesh and
skin of the belly.
4. Fillet Fillet is the boneless side of the

fish cut lengthwise from the
backbone.
5. Steaks Steaks are cross section slices cut

from a large, dressed fish; the
cross section of backbone gener-
ally included.
6. Sticks Sticks are uniform stock cuts from

large blocks of frozen fillets.
FISH COOKERY
Fish tastes much better when cooked. Fish is cooked to destroy
any bacteria present as well as to improve its taste and tenderness. In
cooking, moderate temperature is used, long enough for the fish delicacy
flavor to develop, for proteins to coagulate and for very small amount of
connective tissue present to break down. The flesh of fish is sufficiently
cooked when it falls easily into clumps of chalky-white flakes when test-
ed with a fork.
When no additional water is used to cook fish, it is important that
no overcooking be done, otherwise the fish would be very dry. This
method is known as dry cookery. Broiling, baking, frying and
toasting are examples of such method. As a rule, fat fishes are more
desirable for dry heat cooking.
When moist cookery is employed (fish is cooked in water, it is best
to allow the water to boil before plunging or adding the fish). Prolonged
boiling tends to break the flesh of the fish until it falls apart. Ten to 15
minutes cooking is generally enough time for the fish to be done. Indi-
cation of doneness is evident when the flesh becomes opaque and the
muscles are easily flaked.
Principles of Cooking Fish

1. If fish is not to be cooked at once, it should be dressed and
wrapped completely and placed in the freezer, in a closed
container or package.
2. Fish requires less cooking time for it has no connective tissues. It is
fully cooked when it can be easily flaked and the eyeballs come out.
3. Fat fish is best cooked by dry heat, broiled or baked.
4. Cooking should be done in the shortest possible time to avoid loss
of moisture, flavor, and nutritive value.
5. Because fish has a mild flavor, it is frequently served with sauce
and some garnishes. Garnishes and sauces add to the appearance
and flavor of the fish. Sliced cucumber, tomatoes, green pepper,
hard- cooked eggs, pickles, etc. are good garnishes. Butter, tomato,
chili, mayonnaise and catsup are examples of sauces.
6. Fish should be served soon after it has been prepared, otherwise
it will become dry, hard and lose some of its flavor. Something
colorful, crisp, or tart-like celery, raw vegetables, coleslaw or
tossed green salad should be served with fish.
7. Fish may be fried at moderate heat until golden brown. Fry only a
single layer at a time and drain it on absorbent paper.
8. When baking fish, baste the fish occasionally to prevent it from
drying out.
New Fish and Fishery Products

Fish Quekiam is prepared by mixing the fish meat with shrimp
meat, egg, spices, and vegetables; and is served with sweet sour sauce to
enhance its flavor.
Fish Croquettes are mixture of fish meat, chicken, and vegetables
chopped into fine pieces. It is formed into balls, rolled in breadcrumbs
and deep-fried in oil until brownish color is obtained.
Tuna Ham is a convenient item simply prepared from the meaty por-
tion of fish. It undergoes curing in a mixture of flavoring and preserving
agents such as salt, sugar, and nitrates for one week, finally smoked to
obtain a distinctive flavor and aroma.
Boneless Bangus is a result of deboning bangus, after which it may be
closed, frozen, smoked, or fried. It may also be left open and pickled
in preparation for making it into daing.
Fishburger is derived from a wide variety of fish such as lapu-lapu,
tuna, and parrot fish. It is easily prepared by mixing the chopped fish
meat with the ingredients such as salt, pepper, milk, onions, eggs, and
hamburger seasoning. Then, it is molded into patties and fried in oil
until brownish color is obtained.
Spicy dilis is prepared from dried dilis, completely coated with mix-
ture of well-blended ingredients such as egg, sugar, salt, sili, and corn-
starch. It is fried in deep fat or oil.
Fish Sausage, similarly prepared as to meat sausage, consists
mainly of the white meaty portion of fish like labahita, sharks, or
marlin. It is prepared by grinding the fish meat and thoroughly blending
it with other ingredients and cooked in simmering water for one
hour.
By-Product Technology
Fishery by products is largely derived from fish left unsold; these
include products that cannot be sold as fresh fish or rejects from drying
and smoking plants. Such by-products comprise the following:
Fish sauce-bagoong — residue left after the extraction of patis.
Fish meal — a dried product, ground to small particles and used as
an additive in animal feeds.
Fish sauce — locally called “patis” is drawn off from the liquefaction
of salt mixture.
Fish silage — for animal feed ingredients; a product of acid hydrolysis.
FISHERY PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS

SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FISH
PRESERVATION
Smoked Fish
(Tinapa)
Raw Materials: tamban, salt, sugar, salitre, pepper, bay leaves
Utensils: kitchen knife, smoking trays, tin cans
Procedure:
1. Cut the fish along the back just above the backbone so that it
will open, leaving the belly solid.
2. Remove all internal organs and wash off blood.
3. Make another cut under the backbone.
4. Wash well and soak for 30 minutes in salt solution of 1/2 cup salt
and 4 cups water.
5. Cook the fish in boiling solution of 1/2 cup water, 2 tablespoons
salt, 1 tablespoon sugar, 1/4 teaspoon salitre, crushed black
pepper and crushed bay leaves.
6. Arrange the fish in smoking trays and drain for 10 minutes.
7. Partially dry the fish in a cool, shady place for about 3 hours before
smoking.
8. Smoke the fish in tin cans using saw dust for 1-2 hours until golden
brown.
Dried Fish
(Tuyo)
Raw Materials: Any fish (bangus, dalag, hito, tunsoy, dilis), salt
Utensils: Wire screen or bamboo rack
Procedure:
1. Wash the fish well in clean water.
2. Remove the internal organs through a cut made across the belly.
3. Soak the fish for 30 minutes in a solution of 1 part salt to 9
parts water to remove blood.
4. Put the fish in a solution of 2 tablespoons salt to 1 cup water
for 12-24 hours.
5. Place the slated fish in a single layer on wire screens, rattan,
or bamboo racks to dry.
Fish Paste
(Bagoong)
Raw Materials: Dilis, sapsap, and ayungin can be made into bagoong.
Utensils: wooden, steel barrels or vats instead, or earthenware pots.
Procedure:
1. Wash the fish in clean fresh water.
2. To every 3 cups of fish, add 1 cup of salt and mix well.
3. Place the fish and salt mixture in earthenware pots.
4. Cover the containers tightly to keep away flies and other insects.
5. Let it stand for 2 weeks to 1 year to develop its characteristic
aroma and flavor.
Fish Sauce
(Patis)
Raw Materials: Fresh Dilis, Galunggong, Tamban, and Tunsoy, or can be
made into Patis or Fish Sauce.
1. Wash fish several times in water and drain thoroughly.
2. Mix coarse salt with drained fish in the proportion of 1 to
3 1/2 parts to 2 to 7 parts by weight.
3. Place salted fish in a clean jar with cover to protect from flies
and insects.
4. Allow to ferment in a warm place for at least 2 weeks (for small
fishes) or longer (for large fishes) to develop the
characteristic flavor and aroma of Bagoong.
5. After 2-3 months of fermentation, big fishes like Galunggong
and Hasa-Hasa may be ground and mixed with its own sauce.
6. Continue Bagoong fermentation. After 4-6 months, liquid will
form on top of the mixture.
7. Drain the liquid (Patis) and strain, or filter until light in color.
Pack in clean bottles.
SHELLFISH
Fish and shellfish are very perishable and deteriorate rapidly af-
ter removal from water. Fish with shells as distinguished from fish with
bones forms two groups based on differences in the character of the
shells. Oysters, clams, scallops live in hinged shells. They have unseg-
mented bodies and the whole portion is eaten except in the case of the
scallops which only the muscles are used. Lobsters, crabs, and shrimps
have various appendages and shell-like crusts that conform to the shape
of their bodies. Fifteen percent of the total fish consumption in the Phil-
ippines consists of shellfish. It also includes squid, cuttlefish, and sea
cucumber.
The production of fish in saltwater bodies such as in coves and
shores is called mariculture. Mariculture is presently applied to tahong and
oysters; and is relatively in its infancy in the Philippines.
Types of Shellfish: Crustaceans and Mollusks

Crustaceans
Crustaceans are shellfish with hard shells over the back and along
the claws but have softer shells covering the lower part of the body and
legs. Examples of these are crabs, lobsters, and shrimps.
Crabs. There are various types of crabs commonly found in the
Philippines: the alimango or green crab, the alimasag or blue crab, and the
talangka.
The talangka or kapi is unique due to its small size, about one-
fourth the size of a regular crab. A fresh water crab obtained from the
rivers has a shell that covers the lower part of its body and is soft
enough to be edible. The carapace or hard shell covers its back which
contains the fat or aligi that may be separated from the meat and
preserved, called taba ng talangka. It is eaten as sauce, a delicacy
prepared laboriously by experts. The bigger crabs, alimango and
alimasag, also contain aligi which is normally with its meat.
Lobster is popular shellfish in New England Fisheries. The claw
meat is preferred and brings a higher price than the tail meat. Lobsters
are expensive and marketed mainly for export.
Shrimps are more commonly eaten than lobster. Like crabs, some
shrimps are also small and would normally be eaten whole with their
shells. Suahe is a saltwater shrimp while ulang and tagunton are freshwater
shrimps.
Mollusks
Mollusks have soft unsegmented bodies and are protected by cal-
careous shells in one or more pieces or enclosed in hard shells, which
are largely mineral in composition. Examples of these are oysters, clams,
scallops, and sea mussels.
There are two types of mollusks: the univalves, with only one shell
and the bivalves, with two shells. The shells of mollusks are usually hard
all over so that they are not in any case edible. Examples of univalves is
kuhol while examples of bivalves are clams (halaan), kabibi, tulya, oysters
(talaba), and mussels (tahong).
The composition of the edible portion of mollusks is quite differ-
ent from fin fishes and crustaceans, even if the former’s shells are not
normally eaten. Their flesh are generally leatherly in texture. They are
comparatively high in glycogen content. For instance, in the case of oys-
ters, the ph does not rise after death but decreases down to as low as 4.8
due to the formation of lactic acid from glycogen. The ph serves as an
index of freshness of oysters.
Tahong is a salt water mussel cultured mostly in Bacoor, Cavite. Its
meat is considered more delicious than that of oysters.
Oysters grown in artificial beds are usually of better quality than
those grown in natural beds. Oyster eggs are now being planted in many
waters. When the eggs are hatched, the tiny oysters, which are not any
larger than the point of a needle, move about the water and finally attach
themselves to some body such as stone, stick, or shell. They grow slowly
and at the age of one year they have usually reached about the size of
a silver quarter. Oysters are harvested by picking and scooping the
shells from the bottom of the sea.
Clams are of two types: the hard-shell clams and the soft-shell
clams. The former have tightly shut shells but the latter may have
partially open shells because of the long siphon extending from the
interior. Clams are dug by hand.
Scallops are highly prized because of their buttery texture and deli-
cate flavor. Scallops have two shells and are capable of swimming freely
through water.
Table 5. Classification of Philippine Shellfish
1. Mollusks
English Name Tagalog Name Scientific Name
a. Oyster Talaba Ostrea Sp.
b. Clam Halaan Cyraeidae
1. Clam Tulya Cyrenidae
2. Clam Kabibi Sotetellina
Cumingiana
c. Mussels
1. Saltwater mussel Tahong Mytilus Smaragdinus
Cheamitz
2. Freshwater snail Susong Pilipit Thiara Asperata Lim
2. Crustaceans
English Name Tagalog Name Scientific Name
a. Crabs
1. Small crab Talangka Potamon Grapsoides
2. Crab Alimasag Neptunus Pelagacius
3. Crab Alimango Scylla Serrata
b. Shrimps
1. Small shrimp Alamang Acetas Indicus
2. Freshwater shrimp Ulang Palaenonidae
3. White shrimp Suwahe Metapenaeus Sp.
4. Tiger prawn Sugpo Penaeus Monodom
Fab
c. Other family
a. Squid Pusit Loligo Pealli
b. Octopus Pugita Octopus Spp.
Types of Shellfish
Lobster
Blue Crab
Dungeness Crab
Oyster Clam
Shrimp
Scallop Mussel
Table 6. Proximate Composition of Local Clams,
Snails, Mussels, and Oysters in Grams
per 100 gms. Edible Portion
Proximate Kabibi Halaan Kuhol Tahong Oyster

Components Clams Snail Mussel Talaba
Moisture 84.8 89.2 77.6 40.8 85.5
Protein 9.0 5.8 12.2 21.9 5.9
Fat 1.6 0.6 0.4 14.5 5.2
Carbohydrates 3.0 2.6 6.6 18.5 5.2
Ash 1.6 1.8 3.2 4.3 1.7
Table 7. A Proximate Composition of Local Types

of Fresh Crabs in Grams per 100 gm. Edible
Portion The Philippine Food Composition Table,
1997-FNRI
Proximate Alimango Alimasag Alimango Talangka

Components Meat Meat Aligi E.P.
Moisture 74.6 75.5 58.1 68.1
Protein 19.8 29.9 26.0 13.8
Fat 4.0 0.5 5.6 3.8
Carbohydrates 0.0 2.2 8.5 8.1
Ash 1.6 1.9 1.8 6.2
Market Forms of Shellfish
Shellfish are sold in the shell, shucked or removed from the shell,
or cooked. All forms are quickly perishable and care is needed in
selecting them.
Live Shellfish
Ideally, crabs, clams, mussels, snails, oysters, and shrimps should
be marketed live. A live crab is indicated to be fat if its claws do not have
sharp teeth and if it is heavy in weight. The female crab has a
rounded apron and usually contains aligi; the male crab has a narrow
and more pointed apron. Filipino consumers generally prefer the female
variety. Because of the proximity of most markets to the sources of
shellfish, live species can be sold to consumers.
Whole Shellfish
Whole shellfish are served in the form in which they are caught but
are no longer alive. The head and thorax are intact. Filipinos are fond of
eating the heads and extremities of crabs and shrimps.
Shucked Shellfish
Oysters, clams, mollusks and scallops when removed from the shell
are known as shucked shellfish. Fresh shucked shellfish have a translu-
cent appearance but become opaque when no longer fresh.
Headless Shellfish
Shrimps, lobsters, and prawns are marketed for export in headless
form; the head and thorax removed. Foreign consumers do not favor
the consumption of these parts of the shellfish. Furthermore, the head is
removed mainly because it is the main source of bacterial spoilage.
Cooked Form
Most cooked shellfish are canned for export. The meat of shrimps,
crabs, and lobsters are usually popular items for canned products. At
present, only a small volume of canned and cooked shellfish is available
locally; most of it is imported.
Principles of Cookery
1. Shellfish requires a little cooking time; overcooking causes the
flesh to become tough and fibrous.
2. Unwholesome parts of most shellfish such as the beard of mussels,
crabs’ gills, or lobsters’ intestinal tubes must be removed before
cooking.
3. Color change in crustaceans is an indication that cooking is done.
Shrimps and crabs, for example, change from dark blue green to an
attractive orange or bright red.
4. Crabs are usually boiled in small amount of brine for 10 to 20 min-
utes until color change occurs. Over cooking would make the food
watery.
5. Clams, oysters, and mussels may be roasted, baked, or broiled
in their shells to retain their delicacy flavor.
6. Shellfish are all very lean. Therefore, dry heat, high heat and
long cooking time will make them tough and rubbery. Ideally,
they should be either steamed or simmered within the
temperature range of 190°-210°F. All shellfish cook very
quickly.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR SHELLFISH
Tulya Crunches
1 cup flour A.P.
1 cup cornstarch
1 1/2 tsp. salt
1 tsp. white pepper
1 tsp. baking powder
1/2 cup diluted or tulya pure (1/4 cup tulya meat in
1/4 cup) water
1 egg
oil for deep frying
Procedure:
1. Boil clams in just enough water to open the shells.
2. Scoop the meat from the shells and measure. With an electric
blenderizer, blend it properly; if no blenderizer is available,
chop the clam meat and squeeze its juice in 1/4 cup water.
3. Sift all dry ingredients and sprinkle the clam juice.
4. Knead the mixture until it blisters and is strengthened with
the use of rolling pin.
5. Cut it thinly and shape it lengthwise to look like noodles.
6. Pre-heat oil and fry well. Serve.
Shrimp Kroepeck
350 grams cooked shrimp
12 cups rice (wagwag)
15 teaspoonfuls salt
12 teaspoonfuls apog or lime
Procedure:
1. Soak the rice overnight in water.
2. Drain well and grind finely together with the blanched whole
shrimp and an equal amount of water until a fine and thin paste is
obtained.
3. Mix one teaspoon lime (apog) and 1/2 cup water. Add this lime solu-
tion to the paste and stir well to produce a homogeneous mixture.
4. Transfer a thin layer into a pie plate and cook by steaming for 2
minutes until the mixture is clear or transparent.
5. Cut into appropriate pieces (1 x 2 inches square), transfer to the
trays and dry in the sun for six hours until crisp. The use of
artificial heat for drying the kroepeck is recommended.
6. Fry in hot oil for serving.
Quekiam
1/2 kilo flaked fish (labahita)
1/2 kilo chopped shrimps
2 eggs
1/2 cup chopped turnips or carrots
3 tbsp. minced onions
13 pieces minced garlic
1 tbsp. pepper
1/4 cup A.P. flour
1 tsp. quekiam powder
1/2 cup soy sauce
3 tbsp. salt
Que kiam wrappers or lumpia wrapper
Procedure:
1. Mix all ingredients thoroughly.
2. Shape into rolls and wrap in que kiam wrapper or lumpia wrapper.
3. Steam and cook. Fry before serving. Serve with sweet and sour
sauce or ketchup.
CEREALS
The word cereal is derived from the name of the Roman
goddess of grain, Ceres. Cereals are the edible seeds of grass or the
edible grains derived from cultivated plants of the grass family. The term
cereal also applies to breakfast foods and a large group of foods made
from the grains. At present time, cereal grains in some form are
produced in every area of the world. Each area grows its own preferred
cereal, generally the grain best adapted to its soil and climatic condition.
Lacking of cereals, the world can hardly feed its masses. In many
countries, 80 to 90 percent of the food calories consumed are supplied
by one single kind of cereal grain.
Kinds of Cereal
Rice, corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat are some of the
most important cereal grains. The form in which they are used varies
with their kind. Some cereals are ground into flour for making baked
products; others are converted into breakfast cereals; and still others
are milled and eaten as a staple food.
Rice
In the Philippines, rice is a staple food eaten three times a day. It
is an important food crop. Rice provides a low-cost and palatable staple
food to over one half of the world’s population. Over 90 percent of
the world rice crop is produced and consumed in Asia, but the United
States has also its major areas of rice cultivation. Rice to be edible should
have the bran removed to yield white or polished grains. Milling makes
possible the removal of inedible grain husks but oftentimes results in
broken rice kernels. Each rice variety has its own characteristic, cooking
properties and cooking time. In countries where milled rice is eaten as
a staple food, preferences depend mainly on flavor and tenderness.
Some people like their rice soft, some not too soft and others hard. The
popular varieties of rice in the Philippines include wagwag, milagrosa,
elon-elon, binirhen, intan, C4-636, and IR 20.
Corn
Corn is the second staple crop in the Philippines. Classified as
white or yellow, local varieties include Batangas, yellow flint, College
yellow flint, Cebu or Bicol white flint, sweet corn, pop corn and lagkitan
or waxy maize. Corn occurs in the diet in many different forms — most
frequently
in the form of cornmeal, grits, or hominy. Cornmeal is produced by
grinding the kernels of corn to a fine or coarse mixture. The coarse
mixture is known as grits. Hominy is normally made from white
corn, pulverized into rather large particles. Other corn products are
ready-to- eat breakfast cereals, cornstarch, corn oil, and animal feeds.
Wheat
Wheat is used mainly for the manufacture of flour. It is the most
important grain for making bread. For commercial purposes, wheats
are divided into five major groups: hard red spring wheat, hard red
winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, durum wheat, and white (winter
and spring) wheat. Wheat is traditionally grown in temperate climate.
Attempts to grow in the Philippines have failed but the search for the
right variety adopted to our country continues. Wheat is important and
milled locally by Philippine flour mills.
Rye
Rye is used mainly for the commercial manufacture of bread. Bread
products made with rye flour are moist and less elastic in texture. Forty
percent of the total world supply of rye comes from the U.S.S.R. Rye
is also used for making whisky and for feeding livestock.
Oats
Oats as food for human beings are used mainly in the form of
breakfast foods. Most of the oats crop grown in the United States are
used for fodder. Oatmeal is prepared by dehulling the oat grains into
grains which are rolled into flakes. Rolled oats or oatmeals are used as
breakfast hot cereal or ingredients in baked products.
Barley
Barley is used in soups and baby foods but its most important use
is in the production of malt. Malt is used for the manufacture of alco-
holic beverages. Malt syrups are used for malted milk concentrates and
enzyme supplements of breakfast foods.
Buckwheat
Buckwheat is used for the manufacture of pancake flour. Some
buckwheat groats are sold for use as breakfast cereal. It has a character-
istic flavor which limits consumers acceptability.
Physical Structure of Cereal Grain
All cereal grains have similar structure consisting of three parts:
the bran, the germ or embryo, and endosperm.
The BRAN is the outer covering, which is about 5% of the
kernel, contains cellulose, minerals, or ash, vitamins and some proteins.
The aleurone layer, which is a group of singled layer cells just beneath
the brain, is rich in protein, ash and thiamin.
The ENDOSPERM makes up 85% of the kernel. It is the large
central portion of the kernel and contains most of the starch and protein
of the kernel (75% starch, 10% protein) and traces of fats, ash, and fiber.
The GERM or EMBRYO is a small structure at the lower end
of the grain. It makes up 3% of the kernel and is concentrated with oil,
protein ash, and vitamins.
barley corn
oats
wheat
rice
Nutritive Value
All cereals are excellent sources of energy. The energy value is
mainly contributed by starch and fat. Cereals are also significant sources
of proteins although these proteins are usually incomplete. The nutritive
value of cereal protein is great and is improved when cereal is mixed
with animal protein food such as milk. Good amount of Vitamin B is
also found in cereals, which is sometimes reduced by milling processes.
Whole grain products have a great variety of nutrients but are valuable
chiefly for their iron, phosphorus, and thiamin. A comparative summary
of the important nutrients is shown in the table.
Table 8. Approximate Composition of Whole

Cereal Grain in Percentage
Grain Water(%) Protein (%) Fats (%) Cho (%) Ash (%)
Rice 12 7.5 1.7 77.7 1.1
Corn 11 10.0 4.3 73.4 1.3
Wheat 8.7 11.7 2.0 75.8 1.8
Reference: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 549
Pointers In Buying Cereals

In buying cereals, it is assumed that the consumer knows the
family preference, new or old harvest, long or short grained, waxy type
or not. The family budget has to be considered too. Cereal grains that are
whiter with a higher percentage of whole kernels are more
expensive.
Tips on buying cereals:
1. Check how clean the cereal is.
2. Look closely for the proportion of broken kernels or
3. Smell a handful to detect off-odors especially from insect in-
festation.
4. Note the presence of seeds, stones, or rice weevils.
5. Buy by weight. Get your cereal supply from reliable sources.
Storing Packaged Cereals

A cool dry place in your cupboard is right for unopened cereal
packages of all kinds. Once opened and tightly reclosed, all types of
cereal except whole grain cereals (and jars of wheat grain), should be
refrigerated.
Open packages carefully, following label instructions so that they
can be reclosed. Fold and close the inner wrapping as well as the box
in which ready-to-eat kind of cereal will store longer. To keep it fresher,
transfer it to a jar or canister with an airtight closure that helps defeat
humidity.
Avoid keeping cereals in an open containers uncooked; or keep-
ing ready-to-eat cereals longer than 3 months in the kitchen cupboard.
Uncooked whole grain cereals can be stored in the refrigerator up to
6 months after opening. Cooked cereals, refrigerated and covered, will
keep up to 4 days. To sum it up, the main aims of proper storage and
packaging of cereals are:
• to retain crispness as in ready-to-eat cereals;
• to avoid off-flavors absorbed from surrounding foreign odors;
• to prevent the entrance of rodents, insect infestation, and mold
growth; and
• to avoid moisture absorption.
Principles of Cooking Cereals

1. Enough water should be used in cooking cereals to form a starch
gel. The various cereal grains vary in the amount of water required.
2. A high temperature should be used in cooking cereals to improve
their palatability.
3. Sufficient cooking of cereals is necessary to eliminate the raw
starch flavor.
4. Pastes made with cereal starches, such as corn and wheat, are
cloudy in appearance, whereas those from root starches, such as
potato and tapioca, are more clear.
5. Finely ground cereals tend to lump when they are cooked. To pre-
vent these lumps from forming, the cereal should be combined
with enough cold liquid to form a paste before it is added to the
remainder of the boiling liquid.
6. The use of excess water for cooking cereals should be avoided be-
cause nutrients may be discarded with the excess cooking water.
7. The water in which cereals are to be cooked should be boiling rap-
idly before cereals are added. This way, complete gelatinization is
obtained.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR CEREAL COOKERY
Botse
1 1/3 sweet potato,
mashed 4 tbsp. sugar
1/4 cup water
1/2 cup rice flour
(galapong) 1 egg, beaten
1/3 cup sugar,
brown 1 cup oil
1. Mix sweet potato and 4 tablespoons sugar.
2. Shape into round, flat, cookie sizes and set aside.
3. Combine water, remaining sugar, rice flour, and egg to form batter.
4. Dip the cookies in the batter.
5. Fry in hot oil until golden brown on both sides.
Tahada
1 3/4 cups toasted ground
pinipig 3/4 cup grated young
coconut 3/4 cup sugar
1/2 cup evaporated milk
1. Toast pinipig and then grind in mortar and pestle.
2. In a bowl, mix 3/4 cups pinipig with grated young coconut and
sugar.
3. Moisten mixture with evaporated milk added gradually in small
amounts.
4. Roll mixture into 1/2 inch thickness between 2 pieces of banana
leaves or wrapper. Cut into serving portions and dust with remain-
ing toasted ground pinipig.
FLOUR
FIour is a finely ground meal or powdery product obtained from
milling cereal grains, root crops, starchy vegetables, and other foods. It
is used principally in making bread, pastry, cakes, cookies, and macaroni
products.
Properties and Characteristics of Flour
Whitish Color. Normally milled flour has a yellow pigment imparted
by the carotenoid pigment, xanthophyll, and carotene. Flour color is im-
portant because it affects the brilliancy of the finished bread. Although
that whiteness in flour means quality, this is not always true. It has been
shown that some baked products can usually be produced from a long
extraction-unbleached flour.
Strength. The strength of flour is determined by the ratio between
the rates of carbon dioxide production and the loss in the fermentation
dough. It is the ability of the flour to produce a large loaf brought about
by the presence of protein of sufficient quantity and quality to retain the
gas and diostatic activity to produce sugar for uniform gas production.
The ability of flour to produce products of large volume of well “pile”
loaves is related to flour strength. “Piling” refers to an even smooth grain
and fine texture. A large volume with a coarse uneven grain indicates
that the flour is not of high quality.
Tolerance of bread flour means its ability to withstand any process-
ing abuse brought about by mixing fermentation, make-up and all other
baking processes and still produce satisfactory results. Tolerance is
often correlated with the quality of loaf of the glutten.
High Absorption is the ability of a flour to carry the maximum amount
of moisture in the dough and still produce quality of loaf bread.
Uniformity. Uniform quality of every flour shipment is a baker’s
dream. It will be too cumbersome for the baker to keep changing his
formulation and process every time a new shipment arrives.
Market Forms of Wheat Flour
Whole Wheat Flour — also called graham or entire wheat flour.
This contains the components of wheat kernel in its original proportion.
It is more nutritious than the refined white flour.
Bread Flour or hard or strong flour — made chiefly from hard wheats
other than durum wheat. It has slightly higher percentage of gluten than
other flours. Off-white in color and granular in texture; it does not lump.
It is most suitable for baking yeast-leavened breads.
All-Purpose Flour — refers to family or general-purpose flour, which is
used for all cooking purposes. It has lower protein content which makes
it desirable for the quick-breads type of flour mixture. All-purpose is
lower in strength and lighter in weight and color than bread flour. It is
made from the blend of wheats with protein content varying from 10-
11%.
Cake Flour — is known as soft flour and made from soft wheat. It is
highly refined, bleached, and finely ground. It feels soft and very silky to
touch. It is excellent for delicate fine-textured cakes.
Pastry Flour — designates flour which contains enrichment ingredi-
ents. Specified levels of nutrients as required by law are added to white
flour. Iron, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine must be added within the
prescribed amount for flour to qualify as “enriched.” This flour type
is a convenient item for those who often prepare products that use
baking powder.
Instantized or Quick-Mixing Flour — is an instant flour or all-purpose
flour processed by moistening and then readied to form agglomerates
that do not lump or pack. Such flour flows freely, requires no sifting
before use, and blends easily with liquid.
Durum or Macaroni Flour — designates flour milled from durum
wheat. It has high protein content and is used for macaroni products.
Non-Wheat or Composite Flours

Flours made from grinding or milling grain kernel other than
wheat, root crops, and legumes, are collectively referred to as non-wheat
flours. One or more of these flours may partially replace wheat flour for
cooking purposes and the resulting flour mixture is called composite flour.
Market Forms of Non-Wheat Flours

Rye Flour is obtained by sifting rye meal of the non-wheat flours.
It approaches the quality of wheat flour but for bread making it is still
inferior to the latter for lack of the gluten forming protein.
Buck Wheat Flour is a finely ground product obtained from sifting
buck wheat meal. It is used in making and sifting yellow or white corn.
Corn Flour is obtained by milling and sifting yellow or white corn.
Potato Flour is made by cooking white potatoes which are then dried
and ground. This makes good quality doughnuts and fairly acceptable
cookies.
Rice Flour has two kinds: full-fat and low-fat soy flour. The former
is made from shelled soybean, while the latter is prepared from defatted
soybeans. Soybean flour has a strong beany flavor. Although it has high
protein content than most legumes, it does not have the gluten potential
of wheat flour.
Waxy Rice Flour or Sweet Rice Flour is produced from waxy rice or
malagkit.
Other Flours. Coconut, cottonseed, safflower, peanut, sweet potato,
purple yam or “ubi,” monggo bean and other root crops, seed oil or
legumes can all be converted to non-wheat flour.
Composition and Nutritive Contribution of Wheat Flour

A wheat grain has about 84% endosperm, 14.5 bran, and 1.5%
germ. When wheat is milled into whole flour, about 75% of the grain is
recovered. The rest goes along with the bran and germ; and the mixture
of which is called shorts and is used for animal feeding.
Table 9. Amount of Nutrients Per 100-Gram Flour
Flour Energy CHO Protein Calcium Iron Thiamine Ribof-

(Call) (Gm) (Gm) (Gm) (Gm) (Gm) lavin
(Gm)
Whole
Wheat 333 71 13.3 713 3.3 0.55 0.12
All-pur-
pose and
enriched 364 76 10.5 16 0.8 0.06 0.05
Self-rising
enriched 52 76 9.3 265 2.9 0.44 0.26
Cake flour,
unenriched 364 79 7.9 17 0.5 0.03 0.03
Bread flour,
enriched 365 74 11.8 16 2.9 0.44 0.26
Reference: USDA Agriculture Research Science, 1963.

When the whole wheat kernel is milled without separating the
bran and germ layers, the resulting flour is called whole wheat or graham
flour. It has the composition of the original wheat kernel and has higher
protein, vitamin and mineral content than refined white flour. Milling
removes much of the nutrients.
Self-rising flour has an added leavener in the form of sodium bi-
carbonate and acid salt, calcium phosphate, which explains its higher
calcium content.
Energy Value. On the average, 100 gm. wheat flour yields 360 calo-
ries, 40 only from protein and the bigger portion comes from starch. The
amount of carbohydrate in 100 gms. of flour ranges from 71-79 gms.
Moisture Content. Most flour contains 12-14% water.
Protein Content. Protein content in flour varies from 7-14% depending
on the type of wheat used; of this, 80-85% is in the form of gluten
and gliadin, the water insoluble fractions that make-up gluten. The
water-soluble proteins albumim and globulin constitute 1%-7% of the
total protein respectively.
FLOUR MIXTURES
Flour mixtures are combination of liquid and flour with various
ingredients. They are classified as batters and doughs based on the pro-
portion of flour to liquids.
Batters
Batters are flour mixtures which contain enough liquid to be
beaten or stirred. Batters vary in stiffness and can be subdivided into
pour batters and drop batters.
Doughs
A dough has less liquid in proportion to flour and has a consistency
that can be handled or kneaded. The soft dough and stiff dough are two
kinds commonly used in baking.
Flour Mixture Ingredients
Milk Leavening Agent

*Improves crumb *Increase volume
and flavor *Contributes to
*Browns crust crumb, textures,
*Adds nutrients flavor
Salt
Sugar *Adds flavor
*Sweetens *Firms dough
*Increases volume *Improves volume
*Adds moistness texture, crumb
*Improve color
*Prolongs shelf life
Fat
Eggs *Tenderizes
*Add structure *Increases volume
*Help leavening *Contributes
*Improve color/flavor structure, flakiness
*Add nutrients *Adds flavor, color
*Increases resis-
tance to staling
Liquid
*Hydrates flour
*Gelatinizes starch
*Serve as a solvent for dry
ingredients
FLOUR MIXTURES
Classes Liquid Consistency Example of Product
Pour 1 part 1 part Pours in a Popovers, Griddle
batters steady stream Cakes, Waffers cream
puffs
Drop 1 part 2 parts Breaks into Muffins-Fritters, Drop
batters drop when cookies, Drop biscuits,
poured Cakes
Soft 1 part 3 parts Sticky to touch Rolled biscuits, Yeast
Dough rolls and bread
Stiff 1 part 4 parts Firm to touch Popovers,
Dough Noodles, Rolls, Cookies
Reference: Philippine Home Economics Baking Basics, 1976 Wheat Associates, U.S.A
The kind of flour for each type of mixture and mixing

techniques is important in producing good baked products. Soft wheat
flour or cake flour is used in pour batters because of the low protein
content and the possibility of less gluten development in either.
Pour batters do not need much mixing. Drop batters, on the other
hand, use all-purpose flour. Mixing is not very thorough for these mix-
tures, doughs need strong flours that provide good framework which
can withstand kneading, rolling, and shaping into many types of bread.
A good amount of gluten is necessary for these doughs such as that con-
tained in bread flour and all-purpose flour.
Leavening Agents
A leavening agent is a gas added or produced during the mixing
and/or heating of a batter or dough, making the mixture rise, and there-
fore the product light and porous. Leavening action may be produced by
physical, chemical or biological means. The common leavening agents
are air, steam, and carbon dioxide.
Kinds of Leavening Agents

Air acts as a leavening agent in processes such as beating eggs,
folding, and rolling dough.
Yeast (dry yeast, liquid yeast) is composed chiefly of moist living
cells pressed into cakes with a small amount of starch as binder.
Gas is formed by chemical action of agents like baking powder, bak-
ing soda, baking cream, and ammonium carbonate.
Uses of Leavening Agents in Baked Products

1. Baked products are so light that they can be easily chewed.
2. Baked products made with leavening agents have open or more
porous grain. When these foods are taken into the body, diges-
tive juices come readily in contact with the food; thus digestion is
greatly facilitated.
3. Baked products made with leavening agents are more palatable
and appetizing.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR
FLOUR AND FLOUR
MIXTURE
Butter Cake
2 cups flour
2 eggs
1/3 cup shortening or
butter 1 1/4 cups sugar
1/2 tsp. vanilla
1/4 tsp. salt
1/3 cup evaporated milk with 1/3 cup water
1. Sift the sugar, flour, B.P. at least two times.

2. Cream butter and add sugar gradually.
3. Stir in unbeaten eggs thoroughly and mix.
4. Alternately add flour and milk with water until well blended.
5. Pour into a greased pan (or a pan lined with cut-rite) and bake for
30 minutes at 350°F.
Chiffon Cake
2 1/4 cups cake
flour 1 1/2 cups
sugar
1/2 tsp. salt
1/2 cup oil
6 egg yolks, unbeaten
3/4 cup cold water or pineapple
juice 1/2 tsp. vanilla
6 egg whites
1/2 tsp. cream of tartar
1. Sift together into mixing bowl: flour, B.P., salt and 1/2 cup sugar.
2. Make a well in flour and add the oil, egg yolks, cold water or
juice and vanilla.
3. Beat until smooth and well blended.
4. Beat egg whites and cream of tartar in a separate bowl until stiff
peaks are formed.
5. Add remaining sugar gradually, beating continuously.
6. Pour egg yolk mixture over beaten egg whites gently folding with
rubber scraper until just blended.
7. Pour into ungreased tube pan and bake for about 50 minutes.
8. When cake is done, invert and let hang until cake is cold.
Variations:
1. For orange chiffon cake, use grated orange rind instead of vanilla
and orange juice instead of water.
2. For mocca chiffon, use cold coffee instead of water.
3. For chocolate, use cold chocolate instead of water.
Siopao
Fillings:
1/2 kilo pork, cut into cubes
1 cup water
2 tbsp. cornstarch dissolved in 1/4 C water
1/2 cup sugar
1/2 cup soy
sauce 1 small
laurel leaf
1/4 tsp. each of salt and pepper
1 tablespoon anise
1. Simmer pork in water until tender.
2. Add all ingredients except cornstarch.
3. When meat is tender stir cornstarch mixture.
4. Continue simmering until cornstarch is cooked and mixture is
thick.
5. Set aside to cool, then place in the refrigerator to chill.
Dough
2 tsp. yeast
1 1/2 cups lukewarm
water 2 tbsp. sugar
5 cups A.P. flour
2/3 cup sugar
1 tbsp. baking powder
3 tbsp. oil on pork
lard
1. Soften yeast in water and sugar until it appears bubbly.
2. Mix together softened yeast, flour, and oil; stir well until blended.
3. Knead dough until smooth. Let rise for 2 hours.
4. Divide dough into 24 pieces.
5. Form into balls, flatten, apply filling, and seal.
6. Let rise for 30 minutes.
7. Steam for 20-30 minutes. Serve hot.
Make 24 servings.
Pan De Sal
2 tsp. active dry yeast 1 1/2 tsp. salt
2 cups lukewarm water 1/4 cup shortening
1/3 cup sugar 6 cups A.P. or bread flour
1. Soften the yeast in lukewarm water.
2. In a bowl, mix together the sugar, salt, and shortening.
3. Add the softened yeast and half of the flour.
4. Blend well and add the remaining flour.
5. Mix until the dough leaves the sides of the bowl.
6. On a slightly floured surface, knead dough until smooth.
7. Form dough into a ball and put it in a slightly greased bowl. Let
it rise in a warm place for 2 hours until it doubles in bulk.
8. Punch down. Roll into 1 1/2 inches diameter strips.
9. Cover with bread crumbs and let strips stand to rise for 1 1/2 hours.
10. Cut into 1 1/2 inches pieces and arrange on a slightly greased bak-
ing sheet, cut side up.
11. Sprinkle with more breadcrumbs. Let rise for 30 minutes and bake
in a pre-heated oven at 4000F until done.
ONE BOWL CAKE METHOD
1 2
sugar + fat + egg + flavoring

3 4
STARCH AND ALIMENTARY PASTES
Nature of Starch
Starch is a white granular, organic chemical that occurs in all green
plants. Next to cellulose, it is the most abundant substance in the veg-
etable world. Its natural function is to provide a reserved food supply for
the plant, so as to sustain the root or tuber through winter dormancy or
to nurture the new plant during germination.
The starch stored in plants is the basic kind, but only a few yield it
in commercial quantities. Sources are corn, tapioca, potato, sago, wheat,
rice, arrowroot, and sorghum. In corn and wheat, starch is stored in the
seed; in tapioca and potato, it is stored in the root or tuber; and in sago,
it is stored in the stem pith. Extraction is usually carried out by cleaning
the plant material and then grinding, soaking, washing, and filtering the
material to recover the starch.
Table 10. Amount of Starch Present in Common Food Sources

(Percent or gm. per 100 gm. food)
Cereals % Noodles %
Rice, raw 80 Bihon or rice noodles 32
Rice, cooked 30 Miki or wheat noodles 55
Corn grits 78 Miswa or wheat noodles 73
Corn yellow 39 Sotanghon or mungo beans 85
Oatmeal 71-85 Spaghetti 76
Root Crops Legumes

Cassava or Kamoteng kahoy 34 Cowpeas dried or paayap 67
Gao yum or tuge 25 Mungbeans or mungo 65
Potato or patatas 20 Lima beans or patani 23
Taro or gabi 25 Soybeans or Sitaw 32
Purple yum or ubi 25
Functions of Starch
The numerous functions of starch in food preparation are summa-
rized as follows:
1. thickening sauce and gravies, for example, lechon sauce or
fresh lumpia sauce.
2. gelling gumdrops or pudding, e.g. bread pudding, kutsinta.
3. structural framework for baked goods, e.g. pastries and cakes.
4. stabilizing beverages, salad dressings, e.g. chocolate drinks.
5. moisture retaining as in filling and candies.
6. coating or dusting bread and candies, e.g. candies and bis-
cuits.
7. coloring dextrines, e.g. polvoron, kare-kare sauce.
Other uses of starch (processed starch) include the following:
1. Starchy cereals make important feed for poultry and stock
animals.
2. Starch is also used in the paper industry. All types of papers,
except tissue and newsprint, employ starch either as a fiber
binder or surface finish. It is also used in the fabrication of
corrugated paper board.
3. In the textile industry, it is a sizing material for strengthening
the wrap threads during weaving and as thickening agent for
dye printing solutions.
4. Starch products are employed as stiffening agent in laundry,
binders in building, and adjuncts with malt in the brewing
industry.
5. The pharmaceutical industry uses starch as a diluting
material in the manufacture of tablets.
Principles of Starch Cookery

When starch granules are mixed with water at room temperature,
they do not dissolve but scatter or disperse. A non-vicious suspension is
formed and after standing for sometime without stirring, the granules
settle to the bottom.
Dry heat
Dry heat is applied to starch, makes starch more soluble and re-
duces its thickening power when made into a cooked paste. Some starch
molecules are broken down to dextrines in the process called dextriniza-
tion. Color and flavor changes also occur when starchy foods are sub-
jected to high temperature with dry heat.
Effect of Moist Heat
When starches are heated with water, the granules swell and the
dispersion in viscosity intensifies until a peak thickness is reached. The
term gelatinization is used to describe these changes which appear to be
a series of steps that starch undergoes in the presence of moist heat; the
granules absorb water and as heating continues, they swell and thicken.
Within the temperature range of gelatinization, being the characteristic
of food starch, the sol becomes viscous and loses opacity.
Gelation
When a gelatized starchy paste is cooked, it may or may not gel
depending upon various factors. Gelation is the setting of the sol into a
solidified mass. As loose molecules pull together, the gel network
shrinks and water is pushed out of the gel, leaving a spongy mass. This
process is called “weeping.”
1. It must be remembered that the gelation time varies with the spe-
cies of starch.
2. To prevent lumping, other ingredients in the recipe should be
mixed with starch; to separate the granules, water should be added
gradually with stirring, making a smooth paste.
3. Starches must be cooked 5 minutes more after reaching maximum
gelatinization.
4. There must be enough water for the quantity of starch molecules in
suspension.
5. Scorching may be avoided by thorough dispersion of the starch
particles, control of temperature, adequate stirring, and scraping
the sides occasionally.
Alimentary Pastes
Alimentary pastes or pastas in Italian refer to a family of macaroni
in various sizes and shapes. The most popular ones are spaghetti, maca-
roni, vermicelli, egg noodles, and lasagna.
The primary ingredient utilized in making pasta is a coarsely
ground flour from durum wheat called semolina. Macaroni products
originated in the orient many years ago and were brought to Italy by
Venetian trad- ers and explorers of the middle ages. The Italians
adopted pasta as their national dish, and from Italy the popularity of
pasta spread throughout Europe.
Nutritive Value
An 8-ounce (21 lbs.) package of pasta offers 838 calories (about 4
1/2 cups) sufficient for 4 to 6 people depending on how you intend to
serve it. The same amount of enriched pasta cooked before saucing or
other preparation, yields:
protein 28.4 gms. sodium 6.5 mgms.
fat 2.7 gms. potassium 447 mgms.
carbohydates 170.7 gms. thiamin 1.03 mgms.
calcium 61 gms. riboflavin .57 mgms.
phosphorous 368 gms. niacin 8 mgms.
Types of Pastas and Noodles

Different types of pastas are sold in the market in various sizes and
shapes. Pastas are all made from semolina which is mixed with water to
form a stiff dough. The dough is then forced through appropriate perfo-
rated discs to give the shape desired. The pieces are dried in hot air and
packaged. Other ingredients like monoglyserides, seasoning, vegetables,
eggs, milk, etc., provide variety in flavor.
Noodles made from rice, soft wheat, soybeans, cassava, and other
legumes and root crops do not hold their shapes as well as macaroni.
However, with proper cooking procedures, they give palatable products
with texture, color and flavor distinctively their own. To this group be-
long our locally manufactured noodles which are:
Miki — flat yellowish noodles made from wheat flour, lye, salt, wa-
ter, and fat mixed and formed into a dough.
Sotanghon — long, thin round translucent noodles sometimes called
“nylon” or silk, made from mung beans and cassava starch.
White bihon — thin noodles from rice and corn which are soaked,
ground, drained, and further pulverized in a stone roller.
Fresh bihon — moist, thick, and doesn’t keep long; is used in
pancit palabok or luglog.
Pancit Canton — made from egg noodles, flour, duck’s egg, salt, and
soda.
Proper Cooking of Noodles

For preparing pastas, it is best to follow the methods suggested by
the manufacturers usually found on the package.
If instructions are not available, use 6 cups of water per 8 ounce
pack. Add 1 teaspoon oil to the water. Gently lower pasta into boiling
water, lower heat, and simmer. Cook up to “al dente” stage or the time
when noodles are firm enough when bitten but not too soft to be mushy.
For homemade pasta, lessen cooking time. After “al dente” is reached,
pour into a colander, drain and wash with tap water. Oil may then be
added to avoid sticking.
Principles of cooking pastas are the same as in cooking cereals and
starchy pastas. There should be enough water to gelatinize the starch
completely. Noodles swell twice to their original volume. The time tem-
perature of cooking is carefully regulated to avoid uncooked starch gran-
ules.
Dried bihon is washed to make the pieces limp. After the strands
are drained well, these are separated and added to other ingredients.
The amount of liquids necessary depends on the size of the bihon.
Sotanghon is washed and soaked in water, drained well, cut with
kitchen shears and added to other ingredients. It needs more liquid com-
pared to bihon or miki.
Miswa is added to boiling broth directly, removed immediately
from the heat, stirred gently to distribute the miswa and kept covered
for 5 minutes. It needs to be served immediately.
Fresh miki is added to sauted meat and vegetables with just enough
stock to complete the cooking of the noodles. It has high moisture con-
tent so that the amount of liquid (soup stock or broth) needed is less
than that for dried bihon. The mixture should be stirred to retain the
shape of the noodles and should be served immediately. For dried miki,
more liquid is necessary.
Canton needs less liquids and shorter time for boiling since it has
been pre-cooked.
Selection and Care of Noodles
In buying noodles, make certain they are in packages, either card-
board boxes or plastic bags, which are intact with no breaks or open
flaps. If the product is needed within a few weeks, store it in its original
package in a cool dark pantry shelf. For good and fresh flavor beyond
that period, store pasta in a tightly closed metal or glass container. Some
of the fancy shapes add to kitchen decor when stored in cork or screw-
tapped glasses, bottles or jars. Cooked pastas can be keep tightly
covered in the refrigerator up to 4 days. For best second-time-around
use, cool the leftover pasta, store it in cold water tightly covered in the
refrigerator; or rinse, then toss it with a little oil before storing to
prevent sticking.
TYPES OF NOODLES
Vermicelli (Sotanghon)
Regular Elbow
Linguine Shell Pasta
Spaghetti
Farfalle (Bowtie/Butterfly
Fetuccine Miki
Pasta/ Spinach Bow)
Pancit Canton
Fusilli Salad Spiral
Lasagne Lasagne Bits

SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR STARCH
AND ALIMENTARY PASTES
Macaroni Jumbo Salad
1 small package macaroni (cooked and drained)
1 cup Tuna chunks
1 cup pineapple tidbits
(drained) 1/4 cup pickle relish
(drained)
1 tsp. onion (finely chopped)
1 piece sweet red pepper (diced)
1. Combine all ingredients and toss together until well-blended.
2. Serve on lettuce leaves.
Lumpia Wrapper
1 cup cornstarch
1 cup water
1 egg
1 tbsp. cooking oil
a pinch of salt
Mix all ingredients until well-blended. Heat carajay after greasing
it evenly. Pour 1/4 C batter and spread evenly when the batter begins to
loosen, the wrapper is done. (Make 15-18 wrappers)
Mike (Local Noodles)
1 1/4 cup A.P.
Flour 1/2 cup
water
1 tbsp. salt
1 tbsp. lye
yellow food color
Procedure:
1. Combine water, salt, lye, and a few drops of yellow food color in
mixing bowl.
2. Add flour and stir.
3. Turn out dough into a floured board and knead until smooth.
4. Divide dough into 2 equal parts.
5. Roll it out 1/8 inch thick.
6. Fold dough and with a sharp knife cut into strips.
7. Sprinkle cornstarch to avoid sticking.
8. Drop mike in boiling water for 3 minutes. Drain and toss it with
1 tablespoon oil.
FATS AND OIL
The terms fat and oil do not refer to different substances; they indi-
cate different physical states of the same group of substances. Fat that is
liquid at normal room temperature is called oil; however, that, which is
solid or semi-solid is referred to as fat. All oils solidify when sufficiently
cooked and all fats liquefy at elevated temperatures. Solid fats may con-
tain a relatively large portion of liquid oil but may still be classified as
fats because they remain solid at room temperature. The temperature at
which fat changes to oil is called the melting point of the fat; the melting
point varies for different fats (Peckbam, 1969).
Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are
built up by linking together the number of individual fatty acids chemi-
cally combined with glycerin. A fat is formed by the union of one
mol- ecule of glycerol and molecules of fatty acids. In the process,
molecules of water are freed. Chemically, fats may be generally defined
as triglycerides — glycerides containing three fatty acid radicals. When
the three fatty acids are of the same kind, the fat is a simple triglyceride.
If the fatty acids are different, the fat is called mixed glyceride. Natural
fats in foods are made up mostly of triglycerides.
Nutritive Value
Fats are concentrated source of energy furnishing two and one
fourth times as much energy as carbohydrates and proteins. Fats give
palatability to meals and a certain amount is desirable in a well-round-
ed diet. Some fats contain vitamins. Vitamin A is present in butter in
varying amounts. Fats are also known as carriers of fat soluble vitamins
namely, Vitamins A, D, E, K.
Classification of Fats and Oils

From the standpoint of physical appearance, fats are classified into
two.
Visible fats are purified fats. Easily seen because they are greasy.
Examples are cooking oil, salad dressings, butter, lard, margarine,
and animal fats like pork fat, and suet.
Invisible fats come from food products that contain fat. They are
hid- den and are not easily recognized as oily or greasy. They are
found in egg-yolks, milk, olives, avocado and well-marbled lean
meats.
According to sources, fats and oils are classified into two:
Animal fat exists in bacon, butter, fish oils, poultry fat, suet, and tal-
low
.
Vegetable oil is found in coconut, cottonseed, peanut, sunflower, soy-
beans, and safflower.
Forms of Fats and Oils

Butter, according to federal requirements, must contain 80% pure
fat, the remainder being water, salt and perhaps some milk. It has been
regarded as good source of Vit. A, although it has been shown that
the content of its vitamin varies widely with the feed given to the cow.
Butter from the fatty substances skimmed from full cream milk, churned
then pressed to squeeze out water.
Margarine includes all substances, mixtures and compounds, which
have a consistency similar to that of butter and which contain any edible
oils or fats other than milk fat if made in imitation of butter.
Generally speaking, margarine is the most acceptable alternate for
butter as spread on for seasoning and making cakes and sauces.
However, it does not du- plicate the exact flavor of butter, even though
the fats have been churned with milk to attain that end.
Lard is the rendered fat of the hog; it is one of the oldest of
house fats but it has remained one of the least standardized of them
all.
Nuts fat is also introduced into the diet through rich fatty food as
nuts. These are used as component part of prepared dish, such as nut
loaf, nut bread or fruit nut conserved as garnishes for salads and
desserts and as accompaniment to the meal.
Peanut butter is the most popular of the various nut butters. It is
rich in fat, has high content of protein, and is a good source of
thiamine and niacin, as well as a significant amount of riboflavin and
some Vitamin A.
Coconut oil is the most important source of lauric acid oil which is a
product of the coconut milk. This is used commonly in a wide variety
of native vegetables dishes and desserts. It is usually prepared in
Filipino homes as part of kitchen preparation by mixing some water to
grated mature coconut.
Sesame oil is the product of the seeds of a sesame plant which is
grown principally in India and warmer regions of China.
Rice bran oil consists of the outer layers of the brown or de-husked
rice grain, which is a valuable by-product of rice. It contains 10-20% oil
and 10-13% protein.
Cottonseed oil is derived as a by-product of the cotton fiber.
Obtained from its seed, this oil is used for cooking.
Soybean oil comes from the legumes of the soybean plant. It is ob-
tained by solvent extraction or mechanical expression.
Peanut oil is derived from the seed of a peanut plant. The plant is
grown to yield whole nuts. The oil is just a by-product coming from low-
grade nuts. It is used for cooking and salad dressing.
Olive oil comes from the olive fruits of an olive tree and is used for
salads and for cooking. The distinctive flavor it imparts to food is what
makes it important in frying.
Beef fat, also known as oleo oil, is used in food preparation at home.
Balm oil and palm kernel oil are extracted from the husk and seed
of an oil palm. The plant is sometimes called African palm. The oil is
very similar to coconut oil in almost every respect but it is more
unsaturated.
Corn oil is the by-product of cornstarch and grain alcohol indus-
tries, which derive its products from the kernel of a corn plant. It is also
known as maize oil that is expressed from the germ of a seed separated
from the remainder of the kernel by wet milling process.
Uses in Cookery
Fats and oils have numerous uses in cookery. They add flavor
and nutritive value to a food, prevent particles of food from sticking to
one another or to pans, serve as a cooking medium to fry foods and
enhance flour mixture by imparting a shortened quality to batters and
doughs, thus tenderizing them. In cakes, fats hold air incorporated
during the beating of the mixture. They also serve as chief ingredient in
the preparation of foods which form emulsions. Some fats are suitable
for all purposes, but some because of their physical properties may
have limited uses.
Frying. In pan-frying, the fat serves as lubricant and heat transfer
medium. Pan fried food develops a brown crust and absorbs some of the
flavor of the fat. Deep-fat fried foods are golden brown and crisp.
Smoke point. A suitable fat for frying food is one that has fairly high
smoke point, a smoke point of about 4.20°3c1F is considered good for
oil and shortening which do not contain emulsifiers.
Shortening. The shortening effect of fat in flour mixture is brought
about by the formation of fat layers which serve to separate the starch
and gluten particles, thus reducing their tendency to adhere to one an-
other. Lard and vegetable shortening, because they hold in most of the
air that is incorporated during mixing, seem to be preferred for cake
products. Lard, being softer and somewhat superior in shortening value,
is frequently used in making pies, biscuits, and shortcakes.
Salad dressing may be a simple oil and vinegar mixture, French,
cooked, or mayonnaise.
Oils used in salad dressing. The fat used in making salad dressing
may be a vegetable oil — such as corn, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, olive
oil or combination of these. The important factor in the selection of an
oil for salad is a bland or mild flavor.
Mayonnaise. A semi-solid emulsion of vegetable oil, egg-yolk or
whole egg, acid, and seasoning. The emulsifying agent in this mixture
is the egg yolk protein. The vinegar used in making mayonnaise consti-
tutes most of the liquid in the emulsion. The oil used is corn or cotton-
seed oil.
French dressing is a mixture of vinegar and vegetable oil with salt
and spices added. In the commercially prepared condiments, egg, tomato
sauce and other materials are used to aid in emulsification.
Cooked salad dressing is a mixture of egg, vinegar, starch, fat or
salad oil, and seasoning. It may be varied by using fruit juices in place of
vinegar, milk, or water.
Processing of Fats and Oils

Fats commonly used in food preparation do not occur free in na-
ture. They are separated from other materials or tissues and refined.
Many oils come from seeds or fruits. Lard comes from pork tissue;
and butter comes from cream. The processes by which these fats are
removed may differ from one product to another. Fats are consumed
by people who eats meats, eggs, whole milk, and avocados.
Rendering is the process of extracting fats and oils from animal tis-
sue. The most commonly used method is steam rendering which con-
sists of heating finely chopped fatty tissues in cookers at steam pressure
of 40 to 60 pounds. Oil from plants are extracted either by pressing
or by extraction through a solvent. Protein which may be present in oil
is coagulated by cooking in steam.
Refining. Crude oils and fats extracted from animals and plants also
contain free fatty acids and other miscellaneous materials which give
them undesirable qualities. These free fatty acids are removed by the
addition of alkali to form a water and oil emulsion which is then heated,
broken, and separated. This is repeated several times until a refined fat
of only 0.01 to 0.05 free fatty acid is obtained.
Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated
fats to convert them to solid fat. This is done under controlled
condition of temperature at 100-200°C (212-392°F) for less than 15
atmosphere of pressure and in the presence of a nickel catalyst. The
hydrogenated oil, now called fat, is then deodorized by treating it with
steam under a high vacuum and at high temperature. The fats produced
are neutral in flavor and they have high smoking temperature, which
makes them useful for frying and shortening.
Winterizing. Some vegetable oils are cooled to 7°C (44.6°F) and
then filtered to remove crystals that has been formed at this reduced
temperature. The product, an oil, can remain clear even at refrigerated
temperature because the fatty acids with the highest melting points
have been removed.
SUGGESTED RECIPES USING FATS AND OILS
Sitsaron
1/2 kilo pork
skin 1 1/2 cups
oil
Wash pork skin and cut into 1 inch squares. Fry in deep fat until
skin is tender. Soak in the same oil overnight. Fry again until the edges of
the skins blister. Soak in same oil overnight. Fry the third time until skin
puffs or double in size.
Mayonnaise
1 egg yolk
1 1/2 tsp. sugar
1 1/2 tbsp. of calamansi juice or vinegar
1/2 tsp. mustard
1/4 tsp. white pepper
1 cup oil
Combine all ingredients except oil in a bowl. Beat thoroughly. Add
oil one tablespoon at a time, beating well after each addition. After all
the oil is added, beat until mayonnaise is thick enough to hold its shape
when spooned out.
SAJI MA
Dough:
1 1/2 cups A.P.
flour 1 tsp. baking
powder 2 whole
eggs
oil for frying
Syrup:
1 cup sugar
1 cup water
1 chopped peanuts or cashew
1. Sift flour with baking powder.
2. Mix flour mixture with eggs and blend well.
3. Roll out into 1/8 inch thickness.
4. Cut into strips. Deep fry until golden brown.
5. Drain and dip into prepared syrup. Roll in chopped peanuts.
SUGAR
Sugar consists of sweet, crystalline, soluble organic compounds
that belongs to the important food component collectively called carbo-
hydrates. They are the simplest of the digestible carbohydrates.
Classification of Sugar
Sugar is chemically classified into two forms.
1. Monosaccharides or simple sugar includes glucose, fructose, and galac-
tose.
a. Glucose is the basic unit upon which the higher carbohy-
drates are built. It is found in fruits and plant saps, and is the
main transport form of carbohydrates in the bloodstream of
animals.
b. Fructose is the sugar that gives flavor to many fruits because
it occurs most abundantly in these foods. It is also found in
quantities in honey. It is produced from certain tubers which
contain insulin, a starch-like carbohydrate. Fructose is also
called levulose or fruit sugar.
c. Galactose does not occur free in nature. It is not found in
quantities in any food but milk.
2. Disaccharides means two or more kinds of sugar. It includes
sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
a. Sucrose is commonly called table sugar, and is commercial-
ly prepared from sugarcane or sugar beets. Sucrose consists
of glucose and fructose, and therefore breaks into these two
monosaccharide upon hydrolysis. Sucrose occurs naturally in
many plants and crystallizes easily so it can be separated by
this process from plant juices or tree sap.
b. Maltose is made up of two molecules of glucose with one mol-
ecule of water eliminated. This sugar is found mainly in malt
extract. It is present in small amount in baking to provide
nutritive substances which promote the growth of yeast in
the dough.
c. Lactose, referred to as milk sugar, is composed of one mol-
ecule of glucose and one of galactose. It does not seem to
occur in other sources; and milk seems to contain no other
sugar but lactose. This sugar is not crystallized or used
commercially.
Properties and Characteristics of Sugar
All sugars are sources of calories; these supply enough energy but
they are not good sources of a significant amount of protein, vitamins,
and minerals. As the simplest carbohydrates, they are easily digested
and utilized.
Certain physical and chemical characteristics of sugars are perti-
nent to food processing. These processes include crystallization, saturation,
fermentation, caramelization, and hygroscopicity.
Crystallization
A crystal is composed of closely packed molecules arranged in a
pattern. Crystallization occurs only if the solution is supersaturated. The
higher the degree of saturation in a solution, the more rapid the rate of
crystallization. The rate of crystallization is influenced by the nature of
the crystallizing substance, concentration of the solution, temperature,
stirring action and impurities that may be found in it. Generally, small
crystals are produced at high temperatures. Stirring increases the for-
mation of many small crystals and brings the supersaturated solution
in contact with each crystal. Impurities impede growth of crystals. For
instance, fat in a candy mixture interferes with the crystallization of su-
crose by coating the sugar crystals.
Saturation
Fairly large amounts of sugar dissolve easily in water. The higher
the temperature of the water, the greater the amount of sugar dissolves
in it. A saturated solution contains a maximum amount of a solute, which
dissolves at room temperature. When heated alone, granulated sugar
will melt and form a clear mass without any crystals. If permitted to
cool, it will form a hard cake. If heating of sugar continues until it turns
dark brown, the resulting product is known as caramelized sugar. Cara-
melized sugar has a very distinctive flavor and is locally used in native
delicacies such as custard or leche flan and yema.
Fermentation
Any solution, which contains at least 12 to 25 percent sugar, can
undergo fermentation by yeast. Fermentation is a biochemical process
that involves the action of microorganisms. It is the anaerobic oxidation
of carbohydrates by microbial enzymes. Fermentation is completed in
10 to 14 days when all the sugar has been oxidized to alcohol. Wine or
ethyl alcohol is the first product in anaerobic oxidation of a sugary
solution.
Caramelization
Granulated Sugar is also known as table sugar or refined sugar,
processed from sugar cane or sugar beets syrup. This form comes in
white crystals since the more refined the sugar is, the lighter its
color.
Hygroscopicity
The property of sugar to absorb moisture from the atmosphere
is called hygroscopicity. Fructose containing substances (e.g. molasses,
honey, and brown sugar) are the most hygroscopic. Hygroscopicity of
sugar is necessary in order that soft candies may remain moist to main-
tain their plasticity. However, hygroscopicity can present problems such
as caking, softening, watering, and molding of candies.
Functions of Sugar In Food Production

1. Sugar is an important ingredient in the preparation of candy. Can-
dies are classified according to their sugar content and
crystallinity. Examples of crystalline candies are fondant and
fudge; and non- crystalline or amorphous candies are hard candies,
brittles, cara- mels, butterscotch, gum drops, and lollipops.
2. The most obvious role of sugar is being a sweetening agent but it is
universally used to add flavor to foods.
3. In jellies, jams, and canned fruits, sugar is used as a preserving
agent. Sugar has a dehydrating effect on microorganisms that cause
spoilage.
4. Sugar is the main ingredient in products like icings, candies, fruit
preserves, and jellies.
5. As dietetic food, sugar is important because it is readily digested
and absorbed for quick energy. Special sugars are used for infant
feeding.
Forms of Sugar
Sugar is available in a variety of forms. A description of each
form will help make clear their importance.
Granulated Sugar is also known as table sugar or refined sugar,
processed from sugar cane or sugar beets syrup. This form comes in
white crystals since the more refined the sugar is, the lighter its
color.
Brown Sugar is light, medium, or dark brown. Dark brown sugar
consists of coarse sticky crystals locally known as muscovado. When the
sugar cane extract is in its early stages, it is allowed to dry up in
small halved coconut shells forming a solid brown mass locally known
as pa- nutsa. Brown sugar is a partially purified product. Its natural
liquor (molasses) is not removed from the brown sugar and imparts
their characteristic flavor.
Powdered Sugar or Confectioner’s Sugar is obtained from granulated sug-
ar by pulverization. It is the finest, smoothest, and whitest form of sugar
to which cornstarch is added to prevent caking. It is used for frostings,
candies, and dusting for baked products.
Syrups are liquids containing large amounts of sugar. They have
unusual flavors which make them useful in adding flavor to other foods.
Syrups are classified according to source. Thus, we have corn, honey,
molasses, and maple syrup.
Stages in Sugar Cookery

A. Thread is reached at a temperature of 230-235°F or 118-113°C.
The mixture will spin a 2-inch thread when dropped from a fork
or spoon.
B. Softball is attained at 235-240°F or 113-116°C. The mixture dipped
in cold water will form a softball, but lose its shape when removed
from the cold water. There is no exact concentration at which a
softball becomes firm. In making the cold water test, it is best to
use a shallow bowl rather than a cup. It is easier to see how the
syrup acts in the cold water and also easier to pick up the ball.
C. Firmball is reached at 246-258°F or 119-121°C. The mixture will
form a firmball in cold water.
D. Hardball is reached at a temperature of 121-129°C or 258-265°F.
The mixture will form a hard ball in cold water.
E. Soft crack is reached at 132-142°C or 270-290°F. The mixture will
crack or break when crushed between the fingers.
F. Hard crack is reached at 149-154°C to 388-310°F. This stage is
characterized by a brittle mixture which will not stick to the
teeth.
G. Caramel is reached at about 177°C or 350°F. By this stage, the mix-
ture will have passed the hard crack and will begin to brown.
Principles of Sugar Cookery
1. Sugar is used in the preparation of candy. Candies made from sug-
ar solution and cooked to high temperature are hard and brittle.
When sugar is melted slowly and other ingredients like cream or
butter are added to it, caramel or non-crystalline candies are ob-
tained. Examples of these are butterscotch and taffy.
2. When candy syrup of sugar with water starts to boil, it should not
be stirred.
3. It is best to use a heavy saucepan and a wooden spoon for stirring.
4. Milk cream of chocolate, contained in syrup, easily coagulates or
settles down; therefore constant mixing and stirring of the syrup is
needed.
5. In caramelizing sugar, the solution should be stirred only when
liquid has formed to prevent crystallization.
6. Fairly large amount of sugar dissolves easily in water; the higher
the temperature of the water, the greater the amount of sugar dis-
solves in it.
7. Sugar is used for sweetening in making preserves, jams, jellies, and
candies.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR SUGAR COOKERY
Peanut Brittle
Ingredients:
1 cup sugar
1/4 tsp. salt
3/4 cup peanuts
2 tbsp. shortening
1 tsp. baking soda
Caramelize sugar. When done, remove from fire and add baking
soda, shortening and nuts. Stir and mix. Pour on a greased chopping
board and cut into desired sizes. Cool and wrap.
Molido
Ingredients:
1 kilo sugar
1 grated coconut
1/4 kilo cooked camote
1 tsp. lemon extract
Mash camote and mix with sugar and coconut. Cook in carajay
till done. Flavor with lemon extract. Stir continuously until mixture is
thick and does not stick to the pan. Roll in greased board and cut into
desired sizes. Cool and wrap.
Candied Tamarind
Select about 100 ripe fruits; peel whole and arrange well in a deep
enamel basin. Prepare syrup as follows:
1 part sugar
1 part water
Pour syrup while hot to cover tamarind. Allow to soak for one day.
Drain off the syrup and cover with freshly prepared syrup using:
2 parts sugar
1 part water
Soak for 2 to 3 days. Repeat changing the syrup until the tamarind
becomes sweet enough. Carefully arrange the sweetened tamarind in
bamboo racks and dry under the sun. Cover this with a wire screen
to keep off flies. Finish the drying in an oven at a low temperature.
Cool and wrap in cellophane.
HERBS AND SPICES
Since time immemorial, herbs and spices have been used in food.
The main purpose of herbs and spices is to heighten or improve the
flavor of meat, fish, vegetables, rice, and fruits. Herbs are sold fresh
or dried. Dried herbs have a stronger flavor than fresh, and should be
used sparingly. Fresh herbs should be picked just before using it. Most
herbs can be grown successfully outdoors in your own garden.
Spices are the dried parts of aromatic plants and may be fruit, bark,
seed, root or flower bud. Most spices come from hot countries and are
sold dried, either whole or ground. For the strongest flavor, grind the
spices immediately before use.
The following list of herbs and spices are the common ones (with
local names), generally used in food preparation and preservation:
Selected Herbs (English and Common Names)

1. Bay Leaf (Laurel) — taken from the berries of the Bay Tree, has a
strong spicy flavor and can be used fresh or dried. Always remove
from the dish before serving.
2. Chives (Sibuyas na Mura) — members of the Onion Family with an
edible narrow green leaves. Best used raw to flavor salads and
used as a garnish for soup and savory dishes; usually snipped into
short lengths before use.
3. Coriander (Cilantro) — mainly grown for its seeds; good for soups
and salads.
4. Curry Plant — green, spikey leaves of a shrub; used fresh or dried.
5. Lemon Grass (Tanglad) — a thick grass-like leaves which smell and
taste strongly of lemon.
6. Mint (Yerba Buena or Dahong Maria) — has different flavors and
scents such as peppermint, spearmint, applemint; used as flavoring
and garnish in wine and fruit cups.
7. Parsley — flat, curly leaves which makes an attractive garnish; fla-
vor is in its stalk.
8. Rosemary — strong, pungent herb with spikey leaves. Excellent for
use with barbecued meats.
9. Sage — a large-leaved herb with a strong, slightly bitter taste. Use
in stuffings, casseroles, salads and others.
10. Thyme — has a strong aromatic flavor. Use by rubbing before
roasting meat, stuffing and in dishes cooked with wine.
Common Spices (English and Local Names)

1. Chilli Pepper (Siling Labuyo) — a very hot spice; a fruit pod of the
Capucum plant.
2. Cinnamon (Kanela) — grown in stalks or bark; has a sweet,
pungent flavor used for baking or flavoring.
3. Cloves (Clavo de Comer) — look like small nails when whole; are also
sold ground. Have a distinctive pungent flavor; used mainly to fla-
vor ham.
4. Coriander (Colantro or Cilantro) — also known as Chinese parsley.
Seeds with a mild and sweet orangy flavor. Sold whole or
ground, used as ingredient in Curry Powder.
5. Ginger (Luya) — root with hot sweetish taste. Available fresh or
dried. Root ginger needs to be cooked to release true flavor.
6. Mustard — made from black, brown and white seeds of a mustard
plant. Mustard is used as a condiment like salt and pepper.
7. Paprika — a sweet mild spice which ground to red powder. Good
for adding color to dishes.
8. Pepper (Paminta) — the berry of a climbing vine can be found in
several forms: black, green or white. Sometimes lightly crushed or
used as whole. Has a strong, pungent, and hot flavor. Best when
freshly ground to season dishes.
9. Saffron (Casubha) — most expensive of the spices. Dried stigmas of
the saffron crocus flower; has a slightly bitter taste and aromatic.
10. Sesame Seeds (Linga) — small seeds with a rich, sweet slightly burnt
flavor which is enhanced by toasting or frying.
11. Tamarind (Sampalok) — a large pod that grows on a tree. Seeded,
peeled and pressed into a dark-brown pulp. Sour flavor.
12. Turmeric (Luyang Dilaw) — dried root of a plant from the Ginger
family. Looks like fresh ginger, but bright orange inside the peel.
Most commonly sold ground.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Homemade Curry Powder
2 level tbsp. Cumin Seeds
1 1/2 level tsp. mustard seeds
1 level tbsp. black peppercorn
8 level tbsp. Coriander seeds
1 level tbsp. ground peppercorn
1 level tsp. hot chilli powder
4 level tbsp. ground turmeric
Combine all the ingredients in a blender or coffee grinder and
blend to a fine powder. Store in an outright container for 3 months.
Drying and Storing Herbs

1. Dry homegrown herbs in a slow oven or microwave oven, dry
in the sun by hanging them in a cool airy place, covered with
muslin to keep the dust off.
2. When dry, strip the leaves carefully from the stems and leave them
whole. This will preserve more flavor than crumbling them.
3. Dried herbs keep best in straight jars away from the light. Choose
wood, earthenware or dark-colored glass.
4. In a cool place, dried herbs keep their flavor for 6-8 months.
SELECTED HERBS
(English and Common Names)
Bay Leaf (Laurel)

Chives (Sibuyas na Mura) Coriander (Cilantro)
Curry Plant
Lemon Grass (Tanglad) Mint (Yerba Buena
or Dahong Maria)
Parsley Rosemay
Sage Thyme

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MODULE 2

SELECTION, PREPARATION AND

Fruits may be classified on the basis of consistency and structure:

2. Dry fruits — Fruits that developed when the ovary opens at

Changes During Ripening

Knowledge of the ripening process of fruits is essential because

Ripeness and the manner of ripening may influence the vitamin

3. Phenolic Compounds or Tannins

1. Twist crown 2. Cut pineapple 3. Trim each end, 4. Cut the

1. Halve the 2. Twist the 3. Remove the 4. Peel off the

Table 1. Proximate Composition of Selected

Fruit Moisture Cho Protein Fat Ascorbic Carotene Iron

1. Bananas 68 29.6 1.4 0.2 25 360 0.8

Guides in Buying Fruits

Some Principles in Cooking Fruits

General Directions for Jelly Making

Failure in jelly making are characterized by bubbles (trapped air),

The Steps for Jam Making Include:

General Directions for Making Marmalades

Nutritive Value of Vegetables

Leafy Vegetables Seed Vegetables

Stem Vegetables and Bulbs Roots and Tubers

Fruit Vegetables Flower Vegetables

VEGETABLES CHO FAT PROTEIN VIT. A ASCORBIC IRON CALCIUM

1. Ampalaya 4.5 0.4 0.9 185 40 0.8 42

The Essentials of Buying Vegetables

Nutritive Value of Meat

Table 3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat From Pork, Beef

PORK BEEF CARABEEF

Less Tender Cuts

LIST OF VARIETY CUTS

Jowl Tail (Buntot)

Bacon Side (Liyempo)

Spare Ribs (Buto sa Tadyang)

Jowl or kalamnan is the loose flesh above the lower jaw or

Principles of Cooking Meat

SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR MEAT PRESERVATION

Home Made Bacon

Instant Corned Beef

CHICKEN TURKEY DUCK PIGEON

1. Place the bird breast down on the board

2. Work the skin off the neck down, so you

3. Start with the ball and socket joint of the

4. Strike for the ball and socket joint of

5. Continue to work the meat free,

In the Philippines, poultry is marketed in these forms: live, whole,

Whole Poultry. Similar qualities to those of live poultry should be

Dressed Poultry. Most of the chickens available in most markets are

Leg with Thigh

Leg with Thigh and

Steps in Dressing Poultry

Chicken Liver Sauce

Deteriorative Changes After Death

Nutritive Value of Fish and Shellﬁsh

Fig. 11 — Nutritive Value of Fish

2. Dressed Dressed fish is whole fish with

3. Butterfly Fillet Butterfly fillets are the two sides

4. Fillet Fillet is the boneless side of the

5. Steaks Steaks are cross section slices cut

6. Sticks Sticks are uniform stock cuts from

Principles of Cooking Fish

New Fish and Fishery Products

Fish silage — for animal feed ingredients; a product of acid hydrolysis.