New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics

ISSN: 0028-8306 (Print) 1175-8791 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tnzg20

The nature and assessment of heat flow from

hydrothermal areas

G. B. Dawson

To cite this article: G. B. Dawson (1964) The nature and assessment of heat flow from
hydrothermal areas, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 7:1, 155-171, DOI:
10.1080/00288306.1964.10420167

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1964] 155

THE NATURE AND ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW

FROM HYDROTHERMAL AREAS
G. B. DAWSON

Geophysics Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,

Wellington

(R.ereil'ed for Imb/leafion, 4 Oerember 1963)

ABSTRACT

The natural heat discharge from a thermal area may take one of the following
forms: heat flow through the soil, heat loss from water surfaces, fumaroles, overflow
from geysers and springs, and underground seepage of hot water to nearby lakes
or rivers. Details of the equipment and techniques developed at \Vairakei, New
Zealand, for estimating each type of heat discharge are given.

INTRODUCTION

Since 1950 New Zealand scientists and engineers have been investigating
the potential of Wairakei and other parts of the North Island hydrothermal
area for the generation of electric power. This has already resulted in the
establishment at Wairakei of a 150 MW power station which is being
extended at present, and the ultimate output may be 250 MW. An outline
of the nature and objectives of the comprehensive geological, physical, and
chemical work has been given by Grange (1955). The measurement of the
total natural heat flux through the surface of the ground is an essential
part of any geothermal investigation and, if measurements are made before
and during exploitation, can give valuable information concerning the
power potential of the area and the subsurface heat-transfer mechanisms.
Early work on natural heat discharge carried out in New Zealand has
been described by Banwell et at. (1957), Gregg (1958), Benseman (1959b),
and others. Since then, however, considerable improvements in the methods
of observation have been made, and investigations have been carried out
to give a better understanding of the physical principles involved. This
work, which has led to a better evaluation of the overall accuracy of natural
heat flux estimates, forms the subject of this paper.

NATURE OF NATURAL HEAT DISCHARGE

The natural heat discharge from a thermal area may take one of the
following forms: (a) heat flow through soil, (b) heat loss from water sur-
faces, (c) fumaroles, (d) overflow from geysers and springs, and (e) seep-
age to nearby lakes or rivers.
The normal survey procedure is to outline the area of interest by studying
aerial photographs and the ground conditions in the field, as described by
Benseman (1959b). This is followed by a I-metre probe temperature survey

N.Z. J. Geo!. Geot,hYJ. 7 : 155-71

156 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS [FEB.

of the area in which the heat transport is dominantly by conduction. Details

of the equipment and field procedure have been described by Thompson
(1960) and Thompson et at. (1961). In the hotter parts of the area, where
the transport is dominantly by convection, a closer spacing of observations is
required. For this reason, ground temperatures down to 15 cm depth are
measured using a bimetallic-strip dial-type thermometer. The heat flow
through the soil can be determined from such measurements when the rela-
tion between heat flow and ground temperature has been determined. The
other types of heat discharge require separate measurements of individual
features such as fumaroles and geysers. The methods developed for use at
Wairakei are described below.

HEAT FLOW THROUGH SOIL

Direct Measurements

The calorimeter developed by Benseman (1959a) is suitable for measur-

ing heat flows from 10 to 400 caljm2 sec, and the Venturi meter developed
by the author from 300 to 4,000 caljm2 sec. These methods are very slow
and require complex equipment and skilled operators. On this account, they
are chiefly used for calibrating the indirect ground temperature measurement
techniques which are very rapid and require simple equipment.

Calor;meter
Experience with the calorimeter developed by Benseman (1959a) has
shown that it has an accuracy of +10-20% over the range 10-400 caljm2
sec, but that its values are too low for larger heat flows. As stated by
Benseman, "the calorimeter is essentially a box, formed of sheet aluminium
on a light frame, and having an open bottom 25 by 80 cm. The box is
pressed slightly into the ground so as to seal off the portion of ground
below it. Ports in the top allow a fan to draw air through the box at a
measured rate, and the temperature and humidity of the air are measured
as the air enters and leaves the box. From these measurements the flow of
heat into the box can be calculated."

Ventur; Meter
The Venturi meter shown in Fig. 1 has been used satisfactorily at
Wairakei for measuring heat flows over the range 300-4,000 cal/m2 sec.
This instrument is essentially a device for measuring the temperature and
rate of flow of steam discharged from a sample area of steaming soil.
The velocity of the steam is calculated from the pressure drop at the
throat of the Venturi meter leading from the top of the collecting dome.
To avoid excess back-pressure two interchangeable domes are used, the
larger having a diameter of 61 cm and the smaller one-sixth the collecting
area of the larger. When using the large dome the Venturi throat constric-
tion increases the steam velocity from the ground by a factor of about 10\
and the sensitivity of the instrument is increased by using an eight to one
sloping manometer.
1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 157

___ durabestos

copper tube
I condensation trap

- - 2·54em dia

cast fibreglass

·6 C

copper tube to low

pressure side of manometer

all copper tubes

·635cm dia 0")

~
'3175em

~
II ..,~'" ,
IScm 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Scale
, 0 em " ""

s unnel 6lcm dia '" \'I,\J

FIG. i-Venturi meter with large collecting dome.
158 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS [FEI~

This instrument is not normally used for measuring heat flows below
400 caljm2 sec, because stability may only be reached after 12 hours when
small heat Hows are being measured. This is not due so much to the high
thermal capacity of the glass-fibre-reinforced plastic of which it is made,
but to the sheltering of the ground from the atmosphere by the dome.
The dome prevents access of air, which normally diffuses downwards into the
upward-convecting steam (Mr F. E. Studt, pers. comm.). In the absence
of the partial pressure of this air, water vapour condenses in the soil
because the temperature is below the boiling point. Such condensation
continues until sufficient latent heat has been given up to raise the soil
temperature to boiling point, when steam will flow at a constant velocity
through the Venturi throat. However, on cooler ground, although a steady
state is established, the surface temperature never reaches boiling point
because air flows laterally through the soil into the dome. In such cases,
a correction has to be made for the air content of the measured flow by
using the partial pressures of air and steam corresponding to a mixture at
atmospheric pressure. This is based on the throat temperature, which is
measured with a mercury thermometer. The calibration chart shown in
Fig. 2 was computed from standard hydraulic formulae and steam tables
and applies to Wairakei conditions, namely, boiling point of water 98~oc,
air pressure 720 mm of Hg, and mean annual air and "cold ground" tem-
perature 12°c. Results reproducible to an accuracy of +5,% have been
obtained using the large dome for heat flows from 300 to 2,000 cal/m2 sec
and the small dome from 2,000 to 4,000 caljm" sec.
A small percentage of the heat discharged to the atmosphere by the
soil is in the form of radiant heat. As the calorimeter and Venturi meter
are both placed on the soil surface and are well lagged, a large proportion
of the radiant heat is absorbed by the vapour being measured. Both instru-
ments, therefore, give a satisfactory measurement of the total heat lost by
the soil.

Indirect Measurements

All indirect measurements of the heat flow through the soil at Wairakei
nave been based on ground temperature measurement at depths of up to
1 m. Temperatures at 1 m depth are suitable in the dominantly conductive
areas and temperatures at shallower depths in the hotter parts where con-
vection is the dominant heat transfer mechanism.

Dominantly conductive areas

From an analysis of the variation of temperature with depth at numerous
sites in the Wairakei thermal area, Robertson and Dawson (1964) have
shown that the change from dominantly conductive to dominantly convective
heat transport occurs when the mean annual temperature at a depth of
1 m is 25 deg c greater than the mean annual surface temperature. The
survey equipment and field procedure used in carrying out I-metre probe
surveys have been described by Thompson (1960) and Thompson et al.
(1961), the use of a base station to correct for diurnal and seasonal varia-
1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 159

Collector Temp,oC
60 70 80 90 98,5
10 1 I II I
/
I I / I /
5i L I ~ J
/ 1 / / V
/ V II
1 j
VL LV V V

'I II L
2 1
/
s...
....CI1td
~ j
I
I
'0 / / 1 J
../
E
v
.... / ~ / J
~O'5i L I L j
'v 1 / L / I

J:
L1 / II
L LI
vI
(;j

V
'':;
c:
CI1
I

III
L.

~
i5
L.
CI1
~ o· II
E
oc:
td

E O ' 05
II) I

I
I

I I

0·0 I
o. I 0 :2 0 : 4 0: 6 0·8 i i , 5 2 2 ' 5
Heat k calJm 2 sec relative to Irc
FIG. 2-Calibration chart for Venturi meter (720 mm Hg
steam-air mixtures, 61 em diam. collector, 0·635 em
diam. throat).
160 N.z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS [FEB.

tions by Dawson and Fisher (1964), and the application of the method to
the Wairakei area by Fisher (1964). The heat flux in the dominantly con-
ductive region at Wairakei is so small (less than 1 cal/m2 sec) that it can
be measured neither accurately nor rapidly by the direct measurement
methods described above. On this account, the thermal conductivity of the
near-surface material must be known before the 1 m temperature data can
be used to assess the heat flow. Dawson and Fisher (1964) have shown
how this can be done at the Wairakei base station, where the near-surface
material is typical of that throughout the adjacent thermal areas.

Dominantly convective areas

In the hotter parts of the Wairakei area, where the heat transport mechan-
ism is dominantly convection, the heat flow ranges from about 0'5 to
2,000 caIjm" sec. Temperature measurements at a depth of 15 cm are suit-
able over the range 0'5 to 100 caIjm2 sec, but for higher heat flows the
soil temperature at 15 em approaches the boiling point of water (98!Oc)
and increases very slowly with increasing heat flow. In such cases a dial-type
thermometer is pushed gradually into the soil until a temperature of 97°c
is reached and the depth (d!!7) measured.
The relation between the heat flow (H) and the temperature at a depth
of 15 cm (T 15) is given by

H 1'24 T15 4 X lO-n cal/m2 sec.

This relation was determined from the temperature and heat flow observa-
tions shown in Fig. 3: The corresponding relation for T]oo shown in this
figure was obtained from that between T]oo and T 15 established by Robert-
son and Dawson (1964).

100
-
- --- ----
80

60
i\~ ---

40: ---- ----

U
f- o Calorimeter measurement
20
H=I·24 T,; x 10-'cal/m 2 sec

10LI-L__ ~-L ______J -______~__- L__L-~______L-____~L-__L--J~

0'5 0·6 08 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
Hcal/ m' sec

FIG. 3-ReJation between heat flow (H) and temperatures at 15 and 100 em
depths (T" and Two).
1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 161

100,r-------------------------------------------------------,
00
"-
"'--- 0
,
60
"'---, 0

40 , 0
" "-0
" "-
20 "-
"-
0 "-
0 0"-

10 ooo <::>
5 8 o o x
ro
0'"
"0
x
o x
o "'X

o
x
Calorimeter measurement
Venturi meter measurement
*X
x
~
X

X XX
x>CXx X
- - - deduced from TIS calibration XX

11 X ,), x
10 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600 8001000 2000 4000
H call m 2 sec

FIG. 4-Relation between heat flow (H) and depth at which temperature is
97°c (d",).

The relation between d U7 and H is shown in Fig. 4, where the dashed

section was determined from the relation between Hand T 15 and that
established by Robertson and Dawson (964) between dur and T 15 •
In the New Zealand thermal areas the growth and type of vegetation
are characteristic of the ground temperature. This effect has proved of
value for rapid preliminary surveys, particularly as the changes are visible
on aerial photographs. High ground temperatures appear to restrict the root
growth of plants and, as the largest plants seem to have the deepest root
systems, these are the first affected. Another reason for the decrease of
vegetation is that the hot water vapour travelling up through the soil
leaches out the minerals that are essential to plant growth. This is con-
firmed by the fact that old thermal areas, although no longer hot, are bare
of vegetation. The vegetation can therefore only serve as a guide in esti-
mating the heat flow but is valuable for the efficient selection of sites at
which actual ground temperatures are to be measured. The relation between
ground conditions, soil temperature, and heat flow at Wairakei is given in
Table l. Similar tables have been published by Benseman (1959b) and
Thompson et al. (1961) but these were based on less comprehensive sets
of observations.
Geology-12
162 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS LFEB.

TABLE i-Relation between Ground Conditions, Soil Temperature, and Heat Flow

Soil Temperature
Heat Flow
Grade Ground Conditions ("c) Depth (cm) (cal/m'sec)

Super Bare ground, audible small

steam vents 97 O-it 3000
A Bare ground, visible steam 97 i!-3 1000
B Bare ground, thermal clay
crust 97 3-7 500
C Dead wood, algae, soft thermal
clay 97 7-13 200
D Moss 97 13-24* 100
E Moss, lichens 80-85 15* 60
F Low stunted manuka 60-80 15 30
G Manuka, broom 40-60 i5 10
H Small pines, manuka, broom 25-40 15 1

*97°c at 24 em corresponds to 85°c at 15 cm.

HEAT Loss FROM WATER SURFACES

Evaporation from Calm Water Surfaces

The following semi-empirical formula for the rate of evaporation from

hot water surfaces is given in the International Critical Tables (Washburn,
1929):

M = (0'031 + O'013SW) (P, - Pel) (760/Pl)

where M rate of evaporation in kg/m" hr

W air velocity in m/sec
ps saturated pressure of water vapour at temperature of hot
water surface in mm of Hg
Pd pressure of water vapour in atmosphere in mm of Hg
and Pi atmospheric pressure in mm of Hg.

This formula is stated to be applicable to small areas and for temperatures

up to 70°e. In the calculation of heat loss by means of this formula, only
latent heat has been taken into account, direct conductive and convective
loss to the air being assumed to be relatively small.
The following experiment was carried out to test the validity of this
formula in thermal pools whose temperatures range from ambient (12°c)
to boiling point (98!OC). Steam from a geothermal bore was passed, under
controlled conditions, through a system of 2'S4-cm diameter pipes on the
floor of a pool of area 6'5 m2 and depth 1 m. The changes in the level
of the surface of the pool were measured by a manometer connected to the
pool by a polythene tube. The heat loss by evaporation was determined for
various surface temperatures by measuring the rate of fall of the water level
1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 163

IOO''';;-BOiling pOint 98'h C

80

60

- - theoretical curve
- - - experimental curve

~ Mean annual air temperature 12' C

01 1
o 2 4 6
H kcal/ m 2 sec

FIG. S-Heat loss (H) by evaporation from a calm water surface at temperature T.

in the pool. Base runs at the ambient temperature were also carried out to
obtain the corrections for the loss of water by seepage and by evaporation at
the ambient temperature. The results of this experiment are shown in Fig. 5,
together with theoretical curves based on the above-given formula for wind
speeds of zero and 1 m/sec. The wind speed was estimated at between
1 and 2 m/sec during the experiment, although the experimental curve
corresponds to a wind speed of 0-3 m/sec. Similar results were obtained by
Banwell et at. (1957) from measurements made during 1950 at an open-
air swimming pool in Rotorua. Their observations covered the surface
temperature range from about 60° to 8ei°c and were in good agreement with
the theoretical curve for zero wind speed although they estimated the speed
at 2 m/sec. The author considers that the low wind speeds during his
experiment are typical of the average conditions for most of the hot pools
in the Wairakei area, which are in sheltered hollows. For this reason the
experimental curve, shown dashed in Fig. 5, has been adopted_ This is
based on more experimental data than the corresponding curves published
by BanweU et al. (1957), Gregg (1958), and Thompson et al. (1961).

Radiation from Water Surfaces

The heat loss from a water surface by radiation can be calculated from
the Stefan-Boltzmann law, which states that the energy radiated in unit
time by a black body is given by E = C (T4 - T04), where T is the
absolute temperature of the body, To the absolute temperature of the
164 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS [FEB.

surroundings, and C a constant value of 1'36 X 10-12 caljsec cm 2 deg K4.

For a water surface this value of C must be multiplied by 0'955 because the
emissivity of water is only 95'5% that of a black body (Perry, 1950).

Conduction and Diffusion from Calm Water Surfaces

Heat is also lost to the atmosphere from a calm water surface by con-
duction of heat through the air and by molecular diffusion. This has been
shown by Sutton (1953) to be R times the heat lost by evaporation,

where R = FH/FE = Bowen ratio

= 6'1 X 10-'1 X P (T~ - Tn)/(e~ - en).
Here,
FH flux of energy from the surface as sensible heat
FE heat lost by evaporation
P atmospheric pressure in mm of Hg
Ts temperature of water surface in °c
Ta temperature of air in °c
e~ vapour pressure of water at temperature T e in mm of Hg
and en vapour pressure of water at temperature T" in mm of Hg.

Total Heat Loss from Calm Water Surfa'Ces

The total heat loss (FS) from a calm water surface is therefore given
by the expression (Sutton, 1953) :

FS = FE (1 + R) + FB
where FB = net upward flux of long-wave radiation.
This formula has been used in conjunction with the experimental curve
for evaporation shown in Fig. 5 to derive the curve shown in Fig. 6, which
refers to the total heat (H) lost by a hot water surface of temperature
T in the Wairakei area, where the mean annual air temperature is 12°c.

Heat Loss from Vigorously Boilin!; Surfaces

Robson and Willmore (1955) have shown that in West Indian soufrieres
the heat discharged from a strongly boiling pool may be more than ten
times the corresponding calm pool discharge. Experiments were therefore
carried out at Wairakei to determine the relation between the heat lost
by evaporation and the height of ebullition. The pool and associated equip-
ment used for the calm water surface experiments was suitable for this
purpose. The results are shown in graphical form in Fig. 7, in which the
1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 165

100, =Boiling point 98'hoC - I

80

60

I-

~ Mean annual air temperature 12 C

O~I ______- L_ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ____ ~

o 2 3 4 5
H k call m2 sec

FIG. (i-Total heat loss (H) from a calm water surface at

temperature T.

20 1 0

15

IO~
0
/- 00
0

~
y
y,...
~ 5~ 8
0

00

I I
5 10 15 20 25
~ H kcall m sec
'

FIG. 7-Relation between the additional heat (t>H) lost by

evaporation and the height of ebullition (h).
166 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS [FEB.

additional heat lost by evaporation (b..H) from a vigorously boiling pool

is plotted against the height of ebullition (h). Although there is consider-
able scatter in the observations the relation b..H = 1'7h (where b..H is in
kcal/m2 sec and h in cm) is sufficiently good for practical purposes.
A unique opportunity of testing this formula for large values of h
occurred when practical difficulties necessitated the abandonment of bore 204,
which became a fumarole emitting an estimated 0'35 X 10 6 kg of dry steam
per hour (Mr C. J. Banwell, pers. comm.). Subsequently the steam became
wetter, and the crater became flooded and developed into an extremely
turbulent boiling pool with very little overflow. The ebullition in the centre
of the pool was continuous, with an estimated height and diameter of 4 and
6 m respectively. The above-given formula suggests that this is equivalent
to about 0-11 X 10 6 kg of steam per hour. Considering the inaccuracy of the
data and the fact that the heat flow probably decreased with time, the
agreement is reasonably good. The ebullition formula might therefore be
used to give an indication of the energy necessary to maintain a geyser.
The total heat loss from vigorously boiling surfaces is therefore obtained
by adding the ebullition contribution to that obtained from Fig. 6 for a
temperature of 98!Oc, the boiling point of water at Wairakei.

FUMAROLES

The contribution to the heat flow by small fumaroles is normally in-

cluded in the estimate of the heat flow through the soil. The heat outputs
from fumaroles that emit steam under pressure in well defined jets, how-
ever, must be measured individually. The simplest method involves measure-
ments of the velocity, temperature, and cross section of the steam column
issuing from the vent. Full details of the pitot probe with thermocouple
attachment that was developed for use at Wairakei are given in Fig. 8 and
a schematic diagram of the equipment in use in Fig. 9. The normal pro-
cedure is to lay the base pole on the ground parallel to the direction of the
steam jet as shown in Fig. 9; make temperature and pressure observations

DETAILS OF PITOT HEAD

tubes::C-~T
b-,,'11 III
l" copper

~IIII ~ .
~~~r~~~~~ ~ lit !
thermocouple cable - - - - \

,-,--,--": , -
~ flexible polythene tubes .

T::~l-':r::r"'!> £ L L.'cc~;:;~:::~~_,~;~~_ :ti~~~c-'~"'~"'_~~~~~~(itot

\ 12 ft long 2" dia wooden pole
,J{,
__
.
Installed In

I"
static tubes

1" groove
\
t dynamiC
\ tube

head

graduated in IOcm intervals

FIG. 8-Pitot probe with thermocouple attachment.

1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 167

~
?---\
(~)
~ )
~ /~I
r
~, I

))
v" \

, , ,
"

"">::~~~':::~\
.\\ ,\

" "-:::::;i~~~

FIG. 9-Vse of Pitot probe for measuring the heat output from a fumarole,
168 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS [FEB
at 10 cm intervals along lines across the fumarole vent spaced 20 cm apart,
utilising the graduations on the poles for measurement purposes; determine
the inclinations of the steam flow (direction of maximum manometer read-
ing) and base pole with a Brunton pocket transit; determine the heat
How (H) for each observation point from the calibration curves shown in
Fig. 10 and compute the mean value for the fumarole vent; and compute
the total heat flow as shown by the example given in Fig. II.
The calibration curves shown in Fig. 10 have been drawn for Wairakei
conditions, namely, boiling point of water 98-pC, air pressure 720 mm of
Hg, and mean annual air and "cold ground" temperature 12°c. The curve
for 98-pc is given by the relation, H = 0'66 X (manometer differential
height in cm)l kcal/cm 2 sec. As the corresponding curve for a temperature of
120°c is almost the same, and most large fumaroles have boiling point
temperatures or a slight degree of superheat, this equation can be used in
most cases at Wairakei.
The pitot probe was compared with a BSS pitot under field conditions
and the difference was -+-5%. Thus the accuracy of this method of deter-
mining the heat flow from fumaroles is controlled dominantly by the
density of observations made over the fumarole vent.

OVERFLOW FROM GEYSERS AND SPRINGS

The measurement of the heat content of streams into which geysers

and springs discharge is preferred to individual measurements, partly
because springs often discharge a large percentage of their heat by sub-
surface flow. The heat entering a stream due to these causes can be obtained
by measuring the stream flow and temperature at points up stream and
down stream from the thermal area. The flow-gauging devices commonly
used are flumes, V-notch weirs, traversing pitot tubes, and, for rough esti-
mates, floats timed over a m«asured distance along a stream of measured
cross section. The following formulae apply to such devices:

Heat flow in kcal/sec

V-notch 0'0146 T IN" tan (0/2)

Pitot tube 2,000 TAgh
Float 750 TAV

where T = temperature of water in deg C above ambient

h height of water in manometer or V-notch in cm
o angle of V-notch
A cross section of stream in cm"
g acceleration due to gravity in cm/sec 2
and V velocity of stream in cm/sec.
1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 169

Pitot Head Temp. uc

10 60 70 80 90 98·5 120
~.,,v
I I .i/4
1 I / LU
5, / / I II fl
/ V V / J
i / / V j
V / / L I

/
1
VI
Lj
s...

I
<1J
~
~
'01·0
E
u .L 1. 1.
.....
..c:
1/ / / .L J
·~0·5 / / ~ ../
I / 1 j
/ / /
! !/ J
~
.';:::;
c:

VI I
<1J
s... V
~
is

:v;
s...
<1J
.....
<1J
E O·
I

oc: V
(Ij

I:

V
0·05

0·0 --.l --.l I

0·1 0·2 o·4 0·6 0·8 I I· 5 2 2·5 3
Heat k eal/em 2 see relative to Irc

FIG. lO-Calibration chart for Pitot probe (720 mm Hg

steam-air mixtures).

Geology-13
170 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS [FEB.

c: FUMAROLE F714 KARAPITI BLOCK 27/5/60

.."Q
HEAT FLOW DISTRIBlHION (contours in k caljcm2 sec)

:11 ,E]
o~
.~·iii
,,-0
"-I

I I 7
'- 1200

~""""'I 1190

4i
:Q
..0

g
130

E 1 120
u

110

100

90

80

70, 50 70 190 210 230cm

--,
Total area of vent 19,700 cm 2
Mean heat flow 0·81 k cal/cm 2 sec
Fumarole jet cross section 19,700 sin 27" em 21
-c 8900 cm 2
Total heat flow ~ 0·81;· 8900 k cal/sec
c 7,200 k cal/sec

FIG. II-Heat from a typical fumarole.

SEEPAGE TO NEARBY LAKES OR RIVERS

Additional heat, often not easily observed, may leave a thermal area by
underground seepage of hot water to nearby lakes, rivers, and streams.
There are several methods of assessing this flow, which can in some cases
represent a very large part of the total heat leaving the area. The simplest
method is that given above for geysers and springs. Most techniques are
variations of this method. For example, if seepage is taking place into a
river into which geothermal bores are already discharging and the natural
1964] DAWSON - ASSESSMENT OF HEAT FLOW 171

heat seepage has been largely obscured, then a study of 1 m isotherms near
the river will show where seepage is entering the river. If the temperature
pattern in the river near stich areas is then mapped vertically as well as
horizontally, and the velocity of the river is known, then the heat entering
the river can be determined.
Ellis and Wilson (1955) used at Wairakei a method based on the
increase in concentration of natural chloride in the Waikato River. This
method is particularly suitable when the volume of seepage is small in pro-
portion to the river flow and the natural heat loss has not been obscured by
bore-water discharge.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank Messrs C. ]. Banwell, G. E. K Thompson, D. J.

Dickinson, and other colleagues at Wairakei for advice and assistance; Dr E. I.
Robertson of the Geophysics Division, Wellington, for helpful criticism and assistance
with the manuscript; and the Auckland Industrial Development Laboratory, D.S.I.R.,
for the construction of the Venturi meter.

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