An Open Source and Low-Cost Internet of Things-enabled Service
for Irrigation Management*
Marco Mancini, Paola Nassisi, Antonio Trabucco, Alessandro Meloni, Konstantina Toli, Valentina
Bacciu, Giovanni Aloisio, Donatella Spano, Simone Mereu
Abstract— Agriculture accounts for more than 50% of
freshwater withdrawal in the Mediterranean. Data-enabled
technologies, such as Internet of Things (IoT), can play an
important role in boosting water and energy use efficiency and
improving crop productivity, by increasing the reliability and
accuracy of real-time information. Advances in IoT have seen
the proliferation of standards, open source software/hardware
and low-cost devices as enablers for improving real-time data
collection. Open source and low-cost technologies are
important in rural environments, such as those dedicated to
agriculture activities, in order to promote a wide adoption by
farmers. Designing and deploying open, cost-effective and
standardized smart solutions for irrigation management based
on IoT requires the integration of different components:
devices, communication and data transport, databases and data
analytics, cloud computing and data visualization. This paper
discusses the design, implementation and deployment of an
IoT-based solution that provides a cost-effective service for
irrigation management, integrating open source, low cost and
open standard technologies. The service has been deployed in
Sicily (Catania plain) in order to provide farmers with tools for
reducing water footprints and improving crop productivity in
citrus farming.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the Mediterranean region, agriculture is the sector that
contributes the most to overall water abstractions, accounting
for 50% of total water withdrawals on average, up to more
than 80% in some countries such as Morocco, Greece and
Syria [1]. These figures are associated with an unsustainable
over-exploitation of water resources, further characterized by
water scarcity and degradation limiting the expansion of the
agricultural sector with consequences on food and
environmental security [2]. The efficient use of water for
irrigation is a key component in solving water scarcity issues
at regional scales, but it is also vital for optimizing crop yield
*Research supported by “Climate Change Adaptation Through Non
Conventional Water Resources Management in North Mediterranean”
Programme, designed and implemented by the Global Water Partnership
Mediterranean (GWP-Med), with the financial support of The Coca-Cola
Foundation.
M. Mancini is with the Euro-Mediterranean Centre on Climate Change
(CMCC) Foundation, 73100 Lecce, Italy (corresponding author) (phone:
+39 0832 671083; fax: +39 0832 277603; e-mail: marco.mancini@cmcc.it)
P. Nassisi, A. Trabucco, V. Bacciu, D. Spano, G. Aloisio, S. Mereu are
with Euro-Mediterranean Centre on Climate Change (CMCC) Foundation,
73100 Lecce, Italy (e-mail {paola.nassisi,antonio.trabucco,
valentina.bacciu,simone.mereu,donatella.spano}@cmcc.it,giovanni.aloisio
@unisalento.it)
A. Meloni is with Primo Principio, Porto Conte Ricerche, 07041,
Alghero, Italy (e-mail: alessandro.meloni@primoprincipio.it).
K. Toli is with the Global Water Partnership – Mediterranean (GWP-
Med) Secretariat, Athens, Greece (e-mail: konstantina@gwpmed.org)
and quality, which are the main and direct concerns of
farmers.
The goal of optimal irrigation is to maintain soil
extractable water in the rooting zone within defined values,
that vary between crop types and during the season, in order
to improve both crop yields and fruit quality. The most
diffused irrigation management procedure consists in
manually applying water at a fixed frequency based on
farmers knowledge on a scheduled basis. In reality, the fixed
frequency and amounts may vary depending on farmers
perception of weather conditions and plant water status [3].
Data-enabled technologies can enhance irrigation
management by monitoring soil and weather spatial and
temporal variability with in-situ sensors and providing
accurate and reliable real-time information to farmers that
can define better irrigation scheduling – i.e. when and where
to apply water and in what amount. In particular, those
technologies can enable i) feedback-based irrigation, i.e.
manually applying water based on the weather and soil
information provided by sensors, and ii) automated irrigation,
i.e. automatically opening or closing valves fully confiding in
the information provided by the sensors.
As a data enabler technology, Internet of Things (IoT) is
going to play an increasingly central role in farming.
However, there are still some challenges that needs to be
addressed in order to promote a wide adoption of IoT
technologies for irrigation management practices in real-life
scenarios. Indeed, while there is a plethora of open source
IoT platforms [4], to the best of our knowledge, there are no
open and low-cost IoT-based solutions that focus on real-time
services for irrigation. There have been different approaches
based on IoT to help farmers apply the correct amounts of
water at the proper time but they are limited to collection and
visualization of real-time data coming from sensors [5][6],
experimental frameworks for smart water management [7],
batch analysis of crop performance to provide
recommendations on agriculture practices [8] and evaluation
of open IoT solutions for precision agriculture in testbed-like
scenarios [9].
The main aim of the paper is to present and discuss the
design, implementation and deployment of an IoT-based
solution in real-life scenarios, based on low-cost devices,
low-power wireless technologies and open source platforms
in order to foster innovation in irrigation management
practices through real-time computation of crop water
demand based on soil and weather information.
 II. A PROTOTYPE IOT-BASED SERVICE FOR IRRIGATION
MANAGEMENT
An important step in designing an IoT-based service is
the deployment of the wireless communication network
between the devices that gather real-time data from the
environment (e.g. weather, soil and water applied for
irrigation) and the backend IT system (usually cloud-based)
that provides data storage, analysis and visualization.
An emerging open standard for wireless communication,
such as LoRaWAN [10] appears very appropriate for
agricultural use cases: i) rural environments are often
characterized by a good line of sight over long distances; ii)
the temporal variability of the measured physical variables is
relatively low and partially predictable, thus a low frequency
monitoring, in the order of few messages per hour, is more
than adequate; iii) battery powered devices in rural
environments are preferred and sometimes are the only
possible choice, if power sources are missing, thus requiring
a network deployment that is adequate for low power
consumption.
LoRaWAN has been developed to create low-power and
wide-area networks (LPWANs) and designed for sensors and
applications that need to send small amounts of data over
long distances a few times per hour, offering a mix of long
range, low power consumption and secure data transmission.
A network based on the LoRa wireless technology can
provide coverage that is greater in range compared with other
wireless networks. Other communication networks such as
WiFi or cellular technology are great for applications that
need high data throughput and have a power source.
Moreover, LoRAWAN is a low-cost and open source
technology requiring minimal infrastructure and based on
open specification [11].
The architecture of the prototype service with its main
components and the LoRaWAN topology, compliant with
the LoRa alliance specification, is shown in Fig. 1, where it
consists of several elements described in the following.
End-Node. End-Nodes are elements such as remote
sensors and actuators. Contrary to other wireless networks,
such as cellular, that require energy consumption for
Figure 1. Architecture of the prototype service.
synchronization, the end-nodes in a LoRaWAN network are
asynchronous and communicate when they have data ready
to send, increasing the battery lifetime. LoRaWAN utilizes
different device classes (A, B and C) according to the
application requirements, with a trade-off between network
downlink communication latency and battery lifetime. Class
A devices (e.g. battery powered sensors) are the most energy
efficient ones, with downlink communication available
shortly after the end-device has sent an uplink transmission.
Class B devices (e.g. battery powered actuators), in addition
to the Class A random receive windows, open extra receive
windows at scheduled times, when it receives a time-
synchronized beacon from the gateway, allowing the server
to know when the end-device is listening. End-devices of
Class C (e.g. main powered actuators) have no latency for
downlink communication; they can almost continuously
listen, except when transmitting.
Gateway. Gateways are access points for end nodes, that
aggregate the received data and forward it to the network
server via some standard IP connection (cellular, WiFi,
Ethernet or satellite); they also emit radio frequency (RF)
packets (i.e. downlink communications) that are sent by the
network server. In a LoRaWAN network, end-nodes are not
associated with a specific gateway; several gateways can be
co-located in an area and can transparently share a single
connection to the network server, thus data transmitted by a
node is typically received by multiple gateways. Gateways
can use multichannel and multi-modem transceivers so that
simultaneous messages on multiple channels can be
received, increasing the LoRaWAN network capacity.
Network Server. The Network Server manages the
networks by filtering duplicate/redundant uplink frames
received by the gateway(s), scheduling downlink data
transmissions and performing adaptive data rates.
Application Server. Application Servers are responsible
for the management of a LoRaWAN infrastructure end-
devices, as well as the handling of join-request during the
Over-the-Air Activation (OTAA) protocol and the handling
and encryption of application payloads. Application Servers
can be enhanced/integrated with IoT backend (cloud-based)
systems that can perform data analysis and visualization. charge regulation, USB expansion and communication ports.
The board contains a custom Linux distro that allows process
According to the LoRaWAN architecture portrayed synchronization, input/output management and remote
above, we will describe, in the following paragraphs, the controlling (via a 3G module), allowing operations such as
components of the prototype service developed for irrigation firmware updates and reboots when needed.
management, by integrating low-cost and open source
solutions available in the IoT ecosystem.
A. End Nodes
Rapid advances in electronic technologies and efforts
similar to open source software initiatives to enable free and
open sharing of hardware design have resulted in a variety of
new and inexpensive sensing, monitoring, and control
capabilities which offer opportunities for implementation in
agricultural and natural-resource research applications [12].
Open solutions such as Arduino [13], Raspberry[14], Pycom
[15] have contributed to the innovation, improvement and
rapid and wide adoption of low cost-devices for monitoring
applications.
In our prototype service for irrigation management, we
have considered two station types: i) Weather Station for
Figure 2. Data logger of Weather and Field Stations.
meteorological variables monitoring and ii) Field Station for
soil moisture and applied water monitoring. The sensors LoRaWAN Module. The LoRaWAN module is based
connected to each station type are listed in Table I. on Pycom LoPy 1.0 [18]. It can be programmed in
MicroPython and it is responsible for sending data to the
TABLE I. WEATHER AND FIELD STATION SENSORS
LoRaWAN gateways. It has been programmed in order to
Weather Station use the OTAA protocol: the module performs a join
Sensor Range Resolution procedure with the network server, during which a dynamic
Air Temperature and Humidity
-40 to 123 °C; 0.01 °C; 0.05 device address is assigned, and security keys are negotiated.
0 to 100% %
B. Gateway
Rain Gauge NA 0.254 mm
As a prototype for the LoRaWAN Gateway, the Lite
Air pressure 10 to 1200 mbar 0.024 mbar
Gateway by IMST GmbH [19] has been used to develop and
Global Radiation 0 to 1800 W m-2 1 W m-2 test the private LoRaWAN network. The gateway platform
consists of a concentrator iC880A [20], a Raspberry PI, a
Wind Speed 0 to 45 m s-1 1 m s-1
pre-configured SD-card and an aluminum housing. A LoRa
Wind Direction NA 22.5° packet forwarder program [21], running on the Raspberry Pi,
Field Station
ensures forwarding of RF packets received by the
concentrator to a server through an IP/UDP link and emits
Soil Water Potential -200 to 0 cbar 1 cbar RF packets (downlink communications) that are sent by the
Flow Meter NA 1 m3 server.
C. Network Server
The weather and field stations share the same data logger For our prototype service, we have considered the
for reading and communicating sensor values. The data lorawan-server [22] open source solution that includes all
functions required to run a private LoRaWAN network and
logger is based on three open and low-cost microcontrollers
provides the integration with external applications using
(see Fig. 2), each one providing a specific purpose, which
backend handlers and connectors. Moreover, the lorawan-
are described in the following. server automatically parses Cayenne payload formats, that
Sensor Board. The sensor board, based on the ATMEGA were chosen as the encoding for the messages sent by
328p microcontroller (Arduino-like), is physically connected weather and field stations. The lorawan-server provides
to the sensors and can be programmed in C/C++ language to connectors that define transport of data fields to/from
read values from sensor measurements. The Cayenne Low external IoT platforms. Each connector is linked with one
Power Payload (LPP) library [16] has been used to encode handler and specifies the communication protocol, target
the sensors values, which will be sent with the LoRaWAN endpoint (i.e. server address and message topics) and
module. encoding of the data fields (i.e. json, raw data and web form).
Management Board. The management board, based on
AriettaG25 [17], an ARM9 CPU Microchip AT91SAMG25,
provides the communication bus, power supply and battery
 Figure 3. Rule Chain to compute the reference evapotranspiration.

Figure 4. Rule Chain to compute the crop evapotranspiration and the suggested water for irrigation.
from a Rule Node is sent to the next connected Rule Nodes.
ThingsBoard provides different types of Rule Nodes (filter,
D. Application Server
enrichment, transformation, action and external nodes) and
The lorawan-server provides both the possibility of allows to build custom JavaScript functions to parse, filter
developing internal applications (running on the same and transform messages (see Fig. 5 for a custom JavaScript
server) and the integration of external IoT function to compute the reference evapotranspiration).
middleware/platforms through MQTT protocol
configurations (see [23] for a complete list of supported Storage/Database is used to store entities (devices,
platforms). assets, customers, dashboards, etc.) and telemetry data
(attributes, time series sensor readings, statistics, events).
For our prototype, we have considered the ThingsBoard ThingsBoard supports three database options at the moment:
IoT platform [24], an open source solution allowing rapid
● SQL - Stores all entities and telemetry in SQL
development, management and scaling of IoT projects and
database (PostgreSQL [27] for production and
that can be easily integrated within the LoRaWAN
HSQLDB [28] for local development purposes);
deployment.
● NoSQL - Stores all entities and telemetry in NoSQL
In particular, ThingsBoard allows provisioning and database (Cassandra [29] is the only NoSQL
managing devices, assets and customers and defining database supported by ThingsBoard);
relations between them; collecting, storing and visualizing
data from devices and assets; analyzing incoming telemetry ● Hybrid - Stores all entities in SQL database and all
in real-time and triggering alarms using customizable rule telemetry in NoSQL database.
chains; controlling devices using remote procedure calls For our prototype service, the entities are stored in
(RPC); designing dynamic and responsive dashboards for PostgreSQL database and the time series, related to the
presenting device telemetry to end-users. telemetry data coming from all stations, are stored
ThingsBoard architecture consists of different considering the PostgreSQL extension TimescaleDB [30] (by
creating an hypertable for the ThingsBoard table ts_kv).
components (see Fig. 1), that are described in the following.
TimescaleDB is an open-source time-series database
Transport provides MQTT, HTTP and CoAP based optimized for fast ingest and complex queries. TimescaleDB
APIs that are available for receiving telemetry data from provides faster operations on time series such as 2000x faster
devices/gateways. Each transport component communicates deletes with respect to PostgreSQL [31] that are critical for
with the main ThingsBoard Core Service using Kafka [25]. implementing data retention policies; also, the comparison
In our prototype service, the MQTT transport has been
selected by appropriately configuring the lorawan-server
connector.
Rule Engine is a framework for building event-based
workflows (i.e. Rule Chains), that allows filtering, enriching
and transforming incoming messages generated by IoT
devices. In our prototype service, the Rule Engine has been
used to develop custom Rule Chains to compute in real-time
the reference and crop evapotranspiration [26] (see Fig. 3
and 4) and the suggested water for irrigation (see Fig. 4). A
Rule Chain is composed of different Rule Nodes connected Figure 5. JavaScript function to compute the reference evapotranspiration.
with each other with relations, so the outbound message
 Figure 6. Real-time dashboard.
with Cassandra shows faster operations on the time series -
for complex analysis queries TimescaleDB is 3100x-5800x
faster with respect to Cassandra [32].
Web UI allows the configuration of customizable IoT
dashboards. Each IoT dashboard may contain multiple
widgets that visualize data from multiple devices.
ThingsBoard provides the developer with a rich library
composed of a number of predefined widgets divided into
macro categories: time series, latest values, control, alarm
and static widgets. For each category, different kinds of
graphical solutions are available, such as charts or tables,
maps, simple HTML cards, GPIO (General Purpose
Input/Output) controls, analog and digital gauges and so on.
The platform also allows the developer to customize a
widget in order to make it more suitable for its purpose; a
very simple page allows specifying the logical behavior
(HTML/JavaScript) and the graphical aspect (CSS) of the
widget.
In our prototype service, a dashboard composed of
library and custom widgets allows farmers to access and
visualize real-time raw and derived (rule-chain based) data.
The web user interface has been designed with the aim of
providing the farmer with a comprehensive and immediate
view of the weather, soil and water parameters, in order to
reduce water consumption, increase crop productivity, and
allow real-time verification and understanding of soil
moisture dynamics in response to irrigation events and
weather conditions.
For the irrigation management service, the user interface
consists of three views: an interactive map, a real time
dashboard and a historical dashboard.
The interactive map (based on the open source map
service OpenStreetMap [33]) shows the geographical
distribution of the irrigated fields through the use of
markers; the user can select one field to view its status in
detail (i.e. changing the dashboard state to the real-time
section).
In the real-time dashboard (see Fig. 6), the farmer can
visualize and monitor raw and derived data (i.e. computed
by the rule chains) related to weather, soil moisture and
applied water for irrigation. In the left section of the
dashboard, the following information is reported in real-
time:
● the total applied water from the beginning of the
irrigation season;
● suggested water volumes for irrigation;
● hourly cumulative applied water in the last week;
● surface and deep soil water potential values in the
last week.
The right side of the view shows the current status of raw and
derived meteorological variables, i.e. air temperature and
humidity, wind intensity and direction, solar radiation,
pressure and the reference evapotranspiration (ET0). The
chart at the bottom correlates, in the last week, the hourly
amount of precipitation with the crop evapotranspiration
(ETc) to give an insight to the farmers how these two physical
phenomena concur to change the amount of water in the soil.
Finally, the third view (the historical dashboard) shows
the trend over time, average or cumulative, according to the
type of variable, of all weather, soil and applied water
metrics.
The dashboard has also been configured to fit the mobile
viewing of the visualization widgets, allowing farmers to
have easy access to the irrigation management information
via iPad/tablets and/or smartphones.
III. A PILOT APPLICATION: CITRUS FARMING IN SICILY
The prototype service described in the previous section,
has been deployed in the plain around Catania (Sicily, Italy),
that is famous for its citrus production, in particular orange.
Ten farms have been selected based on multiple criteria,
such as irrigation systems, orange varieties, root stocks,
plant spacing, water management practices used. A total of
eleven end-nodes have been deployed in the Catania plain,
consisting of ten field stations and one weather station,
alongside with two gateways covering all the end-nodes
(within 10km max range). The lorawan-server and the
application backend system have been deployed on
Scaleway [34] public cloud, and the irrigation management
service can be accessed by the farmers connecting to the
web application https://citrus.cmccos.it.
The service will be tested in the next three years starting
from April 2019 (beginning of the irrigation season). During
this time frame, the service will be monitored to assess the
performance and to improve the accuracy of real-time
information provided, based on the farmers’ feedback in
using the system.
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS
The paper has discussed the design and implementation
of an IoT-based service for irrigation management by
integrating low-cost, open source hardware/software and
open standard. A complete end-to-end solution for citrus
farming has been developed considering low-cost weather
and field stations, the deployment of a private LoRaWAN
network and an application backend, based on ThingsBoard
platform, for the visualization and analysis of real-time
information.
Future works will focus on the improvement of irrigation
management along two main directions: i) integration of
open source solutions for big data analytics and AI/machine
learning (such as Spark [35], Tensorflow [36]), providing
even more accurate farm specific management rules by
merging weather and soil moisture real-time information as
well as remote sensing of plant water status; ii) integration
of weather and climate seasonal forecast (i.e. Copernicus
Climate Change Service [37]), to plan water applications
accounting for future climate events and to identify in
advance agronomic practices that can cope with droughts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank all the farmers and agricultural
entrepreneurs for their kind hospitality and collaboration in
the project including the time they dedicated for station
installations and valuable discussions.
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