Lee Mckelvey Martin Crozier Cambridge International AS &A Level Further Mathematics Coursebook & CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS ‘University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 88S, United Kingdom ‘One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314-301, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi ~ 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part ofthe University of Cambridge, It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, lesrning and research at the highest international levels of excellence, woweambridge.org Information on tis title: www.cambridge.org/9781108403375 ‘© Cambridge University Press 2018 ‘This publication isin copyright. 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First published 2018 2019 18 17 1615 1413 121) 19987654321 Printed in the United Kingdom by Latimer Trend A catalogue record for this publication is avaiable from the British Library ISBN 978-1-108-40337-5 Paperback (Cambridge University Press has no esponsibility for the persistence or accuracy (of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, land does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate, Information regarding prices, travel timetables, and other factual information given inthis work is correct atthe time of fist printing but ‘Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the aceuracy of such information thereafter. @IGCSE isa registered rademark Past exam paper questions throughout are reproduced by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education. Cambridge Assessment International Edueation bears no responsibilty for the example answers to questions taken from its past question papers which are contained in this publication. ‘The questions example answers, marks awarded andlor comments that appear inthis book were written by the author(s). fn examination, the way marks would be awarded 10 answer like these may be different. NOTICE TO TEACHERS IN THE UK Itis illegal to reproduce any part of ths work in material form (including ‘photocopying and electronic storage) except under the following circumstances: {i) where you are abiding by a licence granted to your school ot institution by the Copyright Licensing Agency; (i) where no such licence exists, or where you wish to exceed the terms ofa licence, and you have gained the written permission of Cambridge University Press, (ii) where you are allowed to reproduce without permission under the provisions ‘of Chapter 3 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, which covers. for ‘example, the reproduction of short passages within certain types of educational {anthology and reproduction forthe purposes of setting examination questions.Contents Introduction How to use this book Acknowledgements Further Pure Mathematics 1 1 Roots of polynomial equations LI Quadratics 1.2. Cubies 13 Quartics 14 Substitutions End-of-chapter review exercise | 2 Rational functions 2.1 Vertical asymptotes 2.2 Oblique asymptotes 2.3 Inequalities 24 Relationships between curves End-of-chapter review exercise 2 3 Summation of series 3.1 The summation formulae Er, 3/2, E73 3.2 Converging series End-of-chapter review exercise 3 4 Matrices 1 4.1. Matrix operations 4.2 The inverse matrix 4.3 Determinants 44 Matrix transformations End-of-chapter review exercise 4 wou ee 10 15 16 24 ERB 45 BT 37 58 59 65 nD 16 92‘Cambridge International AS & A Level Further TEU 5 Polar coordinates 5.1 The polar system 5.2. Applications of polar coordinates End-of-chapter review exercise 5 6 Vectors 6.1 The vector product rule 6.2 Vector equation of a line 6.3 Planes End-of-chapter review exercise 6 7 Proof by induction 7.1 The inductive process 7.2. Proof by induction for divisibility End-of-chapter review exercise 7 Cross-topic review exercise 1 Further Probability & Statistics 8 Continuous random variables 8.1 The probability density function 8.2. The cumulative distribution funetion 8.3 Calculating E(g(¥)) for a continuous random variable 8.4. Finding the probability density function and cumulative distribution function of ¥= g(¥) End-of-chapter review exercise 8 9 Inferential statistics 9.1 t-distribution 9.2. Hypothesis tests concerning the difference in means 93. Paired t-tests 9.4 Confidence intervals for the mean of a small sample 9.5. Confidence intervals for the difference in means End-of-chapter review exercise 9 10 Chi- 10.1 Forming hypotheses quared tests 10.2 Goodness of fit for discrete distributions 3 103, 47 118 119 123 128 138 139 140 146 151 152 154 155 161 174 178 188 189 190 197 203 207 210 219 220 221 22710.3 Goodness of fit for continuous distributions 10.4 Testing association through contingency tables End-of-chapter review exercise 10 11 Non-parametric tests 11.1 Non-parametric tests 11.2 Single-sample sign test 11.3 Single-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test 11.4 Paired-sample sign test, 115 Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test, 11.6 Wilcoxon rank-sum test End-of-chapter review exercise 11 12 Probability generating functions 12.1 The probability generating function 12.2 Mean (E(X)) and variance (Var(¥)) using the probability generating function 12.3 The sum of independent random variables 12.4 Three or more random variables End-of-chapter review exercise 12 Cross-topic review exercise 2 Further Mechanics 13 Project 13.1 Motion in the vertical plane s 13.2 The Cartesian equation of the trajectory End-of-chapter review exercise 13 14 Equilibrium of a rigid body 14.1 The moment of a force 14.2 Centres of mass of rods and laminas 14.3 Centres of mass of solids 144 Objects in equilibrium End-of-chapter review exercise 14 231 237 248 249 250 251 254 260 263 266 2n7 279 280, 287 292 298 304 305 308 309 314 320 321 322 326 336 341 352rn NCE PVN a auc} 15 Circular motion 15.1 Horizontal circles 15.2 The 3-dimensional case 15.3 Vertical circles End-of-chapter review exercise 15 16 Hooke’s law 16.1 Hooke’s law 16.2 Elastic potential energy 16.3 The work-energy principle End-of-chapter review exercise 16 17 Linear motion under a variable force 17.1 Acceleration with respect to time 17.2 Acceleration with respect to displacement End-of-chapter review exercise 17 18 Momentum 18.1 Impulse and the conservation of momentum 18.2 Oblique collisions and other examples End-of-chapter review exercise 18, Cross-topic review exercise 3 Further Pure Mathematics 2 19 Hyperbolic functions 19.1 Exponential forms of hyperbolic functions 19.2 Hyperbolic identities 19.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions 19.4 Logarithmic form for inverse hyperbolic fun End-of-chapter review exercise 19 20 Mat 20.1 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors es 2 20.2 Matrix algebra 20,3 Diagonalisation 204 Systems of equations End-of-chapter review exercise 20 397 398 403 409 410 4 a7 429 430 431 432 438 440 442 446 447 448 451 461 465 an21 Differentiation 472 21.1 Implicit functions 473 21.2 Parametric equations 478 21.3 Hyperbolic and inverse functions 481 21.4 Maclaurin series 488 End-of-chapter review exercise 21 496 22 Integration 497 22.1 Integration techniques 498 22.2 Reduction formulae 503 22.3 Arc length and surface areas 509 22.4 Limits of areas 515 End-of-chapter review exercise 22 523 23 Complex numbers 524 23.1 de Moivre’s theorem 525 23.2 Powers of sine and cosine 529 23.3 The roots of unity 532 go 23.4 Complex summations 5337 End-of-chapter review exercise 23 543 24 Differential equations 544 24.1 First order differential equations 545 24.2 Second order differential equations: The homogencous case 550 24.3 Second order differential equations: The inhomogeneous case 557 24,4 Substitution methods for differential equations 565 End-of-chapter review exercise 24 575 Cross-topic review exercise 4 576 Further Pure Mathematics 1 practice exam-style paper 578 Further Probability & Statistics practice exam-style paper 579 Further Mechanics practice exam-style paper 581 Further Pure Mathematics 2 practice exam-style paper 582Cambridge International AS & A Level Further h The standard normal distribution function Answers: Glossary Index 629tec eat Introduction Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Mathematics is a very rigorous and rewarding course that builds ‘on the A Level Mathematics course, The Further Mathematics course is designed for students who wish to understand mathematics at a much higher level, and who have already successfully completed the A Level Mathematics course. With careful planning, Further Mathematics can be studied alongside A Level Mathematics. The course is divided into three major areas: Pure Mathematics, Probability & Statistics and Mechanics. There are 13 Pure Mathematics topics, 5 Probability & Statistics topics and 6 Mechanics topics, which make up the four examination papers that are available to students. Due to the flexible nature of the modules, students can take either AS Further Mathematics ot A Level Further Mathematics. The 24 topics build on knowledge already acquired in the A Level Mathematies course This coursebook has been written to reflect the rigour and flexibility of the Further Mathematics course. The authors have almost 30 years of Further Mathematics teaching experience between them, and have used their experience to create a comprehensive and supportive companion to the course. While the majority of the examples are within the scope of the course, there are opportunities for discussion and examples that will stretch the curious mind. The book is designed not only to instruct students in what is required, but also to help them develop their own. understanding of important concepts, Frequent worked examples guide students through the steps in a solution, Numerous practice questions and past paper questions provide opportunities for students to apply their learning, go In addition, there are cross-topic review exercises and practice exam-style papers for students to consolidate what they have covered during the course. The questions have been written to provide a rich and diverse approach to solving problems with the intention of enhancing deep learning, Every care has been taken to ensure that the English used in this book is accessible to students with English as an additional language. This is supported by a glossary of the key terms that are essential to the course. ‘The authors wish you the very best as you embark on this course Lee Mckelvey Martin Crozier Past exam paper questions throughout are reproduced by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education, (Cambridge Assessment International Education bears no responsibility for the example answers to questions taken from its past question papers that are contained in this publication. ‘The questions, example answers, marks awarded andlor comments that appear in this book were writen by the author(s). In an examination, the method in which marks would be awarded to answers similar to these may be different.How to use this book Throughout this book you will notice particular features that are designed to help your learning. This section provides a brief overview of these features. aenneene tone Treen f Learning objectives indicate the cone nportant ts within each chapter and help you to fe through the coursebook Prerequisite knowledge exercises identify prior learning that you need to have covered before starting the chapt Try the questions to identify any areas that you need to review before continuing with the chapter. Key point boxes contain a summary of the most importa tsand In this section we will be looking at cubic equations, : N\ are », Gola aease Key terms are important terms in the topic that you ese areleaming, They ae highlighted in orange bold. The * glossary contain: ar definitions of these key terms Worked examples provide step-by-step approaches to answering questions. The left side shows a worked x= solution, while the right side contains a commentary f explaining each step in the working, | consis nim tempos having cote Oand aa with amar Explore boxes ci work, Thess tain enrichment activities for extension Note the citer activities promote group-work and peer er discussion, and are intended to deepen your standing of a concept between (2a)? and Tip boxes contain helofu guidance about calculating or checking your answCCS UL tg Did you know? boxes contain interesting facts showing how Mathematics relates to the wider world Checklist of learning and understanding # Srabanen x At the end of each chapter there is a Checklist of learning and understanding, Ihe checklist contains a summaty of the concepts that were covered in the chapter. Youcan use this to quickly check that you have covered the main topics. 1 cena A= (58) mee (4 find Couch that BC= A. A? determine D, where ADI \ ‘The End-of-chapter review contains exam-style questions covering al topicsiin the chapter. You can use this to check your understanding ofthe topics you have covered Cross-topic review exercises appear after several chapters, and cover topics from across the preceding chapters cmos 2 exe mstemate natn at Nee serine menor Y Orem OES Recall from Chapter 15 that, for particles You will meet these formulae again in Chapter 7, when you will prove them in a more rigorous way travelling in horizontal circles, the tension component is directed towards the centre Rewind and Fast forward boxes direct you to related learning, Rewind boxes refer to earlier learning, in case you need to revise a topic. Fast forward boxes refer to topics that you will cover at a later stage, in case you would like to extend your study. ~ Extension material goes beyond the syllabus. Itis highlighted by a red tine to the left of the text. Throughout each chapter there are multiple ‘exercises containing practice questions, The ‘questions are coded ‘These questions focus on problem-solving. These questions focus on proots. These questions focus on modelling, You should nat use a calculator for these questions, You can use a calculator for these questions, ©e@ 9se08e These questions are taken from past examination papers.etn Me ga Eo Acknowledgements The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are grateful for the permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has not alvays heen possible to identify the sources of all the ‘material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting. Past exam paper questions throughout are reproduced by permis Education ion of Cambridge Assessment International Cambridge Assessment International Education bears no responsibility for the example answers to questions taken from its past question papers that are contained in this publication, Thanks to the following for permission to reproduce the images: Cover image darios44/Getty Images Inside (in order of appearance) 8. Lowry/Univ UlsteriGetty Images, John Crouch/Getty Images, franckreporter! Getty Images, Ann Monn/Getty Images, lan Hobson/Getty Images, Paul Bradbury/Getty Images, Derek Bacon/ Getty Images, Mitchell Funk/Getty Images, Martin Barraud/Getty Images, Aidan Richards/EyeEm/Getty Images, Frederic Cirou/Getty Images, Jay's photo/Getty Images, t_kimura/Getty Images, Tawan Prakaisakul/ Bi EyeEm/Getty Images, Ken Reid/Getty Images, MirageC/Getty Images, tobishinobi/Getty Images, Michelle Pedone/Getty Images, Matt Nolan/EyeEm/Getty Images, Andy Crawford/Getty Images, joe daniel price/Getty Images, Frank KrahmeriGetty Images, Derrick Argent Photography/Getty Images, John Thurm/EycEm/Getty Images, Richard Kail/Getty Imagesee eR ee cua ea Lue Senora Where it comes from What you should be able todo Check your skills, ‘AS & A Level Mathematics | Use simple substitutions to. | 1_Rewrite the following equations in terms Pure Mathematics 1, | make another variable the of the new variable. Chapter 2 subject. a aa es b e+27- © 8-3x47=0,y ‘AS & A Level Mathematics | Work with basic sigma Evaluate the following Probability & Statistics I, | notation, such as Ex and Ex? 10 Chapter 2 ‘AS & A Level Mathematics | Work with basic recurrence Write the first six terms for the following Pure Mathematics 1, | relations, relations Chapter 6 A tiyyt = Bip + 2s = 1 Bugg = tps ~ te + Sth = Lotte What are polynomials? | Polynomials are algebraic expressions made up of one or more variables and a sum of terms involving non-negative integer powers of variables. For example, 2x* ~ 3xy + Sx is splynonial btreiter et norare polnoi ngats epost that a new building can withstand the force of an earthquake. Medical researchers use them to model the behiaviour of bacterial colonies. We already know how to divide a polynomial by a linear term and identify the quotient and any remainder, We have worked with simpler polynomials when completing the square of a quadratic o finding the discriminant. Now we will extend this knowledge to work with higher powers. We will also use algebraic manipulation to understand the conditions for complex solutions and to combine polynomials with summation notation and recurrence relations, In this chapter, we will look at ways to find characteristics of polynomials, finding the sum and product of roots as well as other properties linked to their roots. 1.1 Quadratics To begin with, let us look back at the quadratic equation ax? +x + If we write this inthe form 3+ Se £0, thn we can compare iio the form (s=a)t~f)= 0. This shows that tbesum fhe rots + shown in Key point 1.1. Hence, we can say that x? — (a+ f)x + af = 0. 8 atthe potuct ofthe oo oP = 98a ep eS Nae eee pees ote ee arene oe ), the sum of the rootsis «+ ‘The product of the roots of the quadratic equation is a Peteicuaiss ‘The quadratic equation x? — 2px + p =O is such that one root is three times the value of the other root. Find p. Answer a+3a=2p ? ax3a=p Using ap = 5 pa Equate the two results, ‘Cross multiply. genbk 8 gi : Factorise and omit the case when > | 4, we can begin to define many other results, but first we must introduce some new notation. The sum of the roots can be written as Za =a +f and the product can be written as Zap = ap. Let us consider how to determine the value of a? + f®. The natural first step isto expand (+f) =a? +p +2ap, Hence, we can say that «2+ p= (Sa)? ~ 2Eay. We denote OB as Eee ‘Note the difference between (Za)* and Sa Next, look at (a) Again, expanding the brackets isa good start. So (a—p)? =a? + ~ 2ap. Hence, we can see that (a — f)* = Za? ~ 2Eap. Weean wie Le 2h How dowetndctesumet 1+ I Ft combine the vo 1 ee ectonstost “2, Wecanas thats is 2 Sintly wean wri Leg! +121 on of Pica we can showery Pee ROS ee tua ea a CUS g cients es Find o + f° in summation notation. Answer (a4 BP =a? + 3a + 30? + ‘Use the binomial expansion for (x-+ 5)" +P =(a+ 9) —3apla +p) Rearrange and factorise. Za = (Ba) - 32afZa ‘Sum for each possible root. Alternatively, use However, it is not as easy to calculate with this form, Some of the results found can be written in alternative forms, using a recurrence relation such as S, =a" +9". If we consider the quadratic equation x7 + 5x + 7=0, we can see that =5. This result can also be viewed as Sy =a + = ~5. To determine the value of +p, we can approach this from another angle. Given that @ and f are roots of the original equation, we can state that a? + Sa+7= and §? + 58+ 7-= 0. Adding these together gives the result (« + f°) + S(@ + A) +14=00r 'S) +55, + 14=0, Now we can work out the value of S, or a? + 6°. From S> + 5S) + 14=0 and 5 we have S3= a? + f= I1. Note this could also have been found from 20) Peciaruutsey Given that 2x2 + 3x —2= 0 has roots a. f, find the values of a? + f* and a® +p. Answer 2a? +3a—2=0 2p 4 3p-2=0 35;-4=0 Add the two equations to get the recurrence form. State $, = ~8 from the original quadratic equation. Qae+ P= 7 Substitute the S; value into the equation. 2x? + 3x = 32x43 -2v=0 Multiply by ». 25,438, - 25 =0 ‘Add 2a} + 342-20 =0 and 26° + 39" — 29 Use the values of S; and $3.eek eeu Saesty 1 Each of the following quadratic equations has roots a, f. Find the values of a +f and af. a 45x49=0 b x 4x48=0 © Qx?43x-7=0 2 Given that 3x? +4x + 12=0 has roots a, §, find: a atfand af b rtp 3. x2—(2+p)x+ (7+p)=0 has roots that differ by 1. Find the value of p given that p> 0. @ 4 tae b=-3 and += 7, find the value of ab and, hence, write down a quadratic equation with roots aandb © 5 We +bx+e=0 as roots and p, prove tha 16, if a= 49, then = 18 a Be 3 b if a=f-2, then = 4(e+ 1), equation px? + gx ~ 16=0, whick has roots «and f, Given also that a+ p=—! @® 6 Youaresiven the quad and af = -8, find the values of p and g 7 The quadratic equation x7 +2x~6=0 has roots @ and f. Find the values of (a — f)? and ° - @ 8 A quadratic equation bas roots «and p. Given that £+4=1 and a? +p = 12, find two possible quadratic eaiations that satisfy these vals, 5 9. The quadratic equation 32? + 2x~4=0 has roots and f. Find the values ofS}, Sy and S. @ 10 Vouare given the quadratic equation 4x — x +6 =0 which has roots «and f. a Find + b Without solving the quadratic equation, state what your value for part a tells you about the roots. 1.2 Cubics In this section we will be looking at cubic equations, We will use the same concepts as in Section 1.1, but this time the roots will be a, and y. Following on ftom te ‘idea you sew in Worked Beginning with ax’ + bx° + ex + d=0, the first step is to divide by the constant a to get example 1.3, if we d consider the notation eebte see Send + p47 and then use itt represent ur roots just as with P= (4 P+) + (op 4ay + fy)x~ apy =0 ‘quadratic equations, we b can se S, to represent Next, relate this to (x — a(x ~ f(x = 7) = 0 to establish the relation: Then a+ p+y=—%, whichis known as Ea of 5 24247 and soon. 4 written as Zap Other results are ap + ay + fy = &, written as Zap, and apy Recall from quadraties that Ba? = (Za)? ~ 2Eaf. This is the same result for a cubic equation, where the term (Za)?= (a+ + y= a" + p+ 7° + 2af + 2ay + 26, as shown in Key point 1.2Tea Uy Prony rag ean aE rere Cay Prins Find he summation frm or berenas Lt +P +P + 2a + Day +a+ Answer 11a eee ‘Combine the fractions. ag or a = State the result, Say ap eaie+ Pe a Combine the fractions, as before J # el = State the result a appt All ofthe results derived for quadratic equations can also be written for cubics, but the algebra is more complicated. Try to convince yourself that for a cubic itis true that Ea! = (Za)? - 3ZapEa + 3Eapr. reciente Given that x? + 2x? + 5 =0, find, using summation form, the values of S83, $3 and S_ Answer Si Recall thisis S= (Za)? ~2Bap -2x0=4 Recall the vatue of Bah is given by £=9 asthe linear term coefiicient is 0. i y= Ba)! ~ apa + Bap ‘The lst term is Say. = 3 x (0) x (-2) +3 x (-5) Substitute the values into the equation. Recall that this result is equivalent to which is obtained by taking the negative of the coefficient of the linear term and dividing by the constant term, Worked example 1.5 uses the summation form, but there is a more efficient way of finding Ss and higher powers,In Worked example 1.6 we will use the recurrence form to evaluate results such as S; and Ss. Consider the equation 2° + 3x" 4 6 = 0, Since a, f, yall satisly our cubics, we can see that 43a? + 6=0,f +36 +6=Oand? + 37°+6=0. ‘Adding the three equations gives «+ 84+ +4a2+ 6+ 7) +1 or S3+ 35) +18 =0. naan For the cubic equation 3x? + 2x? —4x+1=0, find the value of Sy. 35; +25,—45, +3 =0 peuene + 107 21 We have already seen how to manipulate a polynomial to get a higher power result, such as obtaining S; from a quadratic equation. Imagine we want to obtain a value such as S_p from a cubic equation, using only recurrence methods. 4 =0.The recurrence formula would then be aS; +38 + ¢S_y + dS_ = 0. Note the constant term, b, is multiplied by 3. Now we need to find only 5 and Sy, and from the original equation this is straightforward, ‘The first step would be to multiply our cubic by x~* to give ax + b+ E+ inated For the cubic equation 1° — 3x? + 4 = 0, find the value of Ss, AnswerPe Cu en RTC) en ea a We can generalise from Worked example 1.7, For @ general cubic of the form ax! + bx? + ex-+d= 0, if we multiply by x" then our recurrence formula is 4S,43 + bSqu2-+ Sys + 45; = 0. Note that only constant terms get counted multiple times, 1 Each of the following cubic equations has roots a, f 7. Find, for each case, a+f+y and afy. a 43-5 b 2x74 5x7-6=0 ¢ Y4Ix-9=0 2. Given that x? 3x? + 12=0 has roots a, 17 find the following values: a a+fty and af +ay+ by b Bae 3. The roots of each of the following cubic equations are a, fy. In each case, find the values of S; and S_, b 3044 € P43x745x-7=0 x-+7=0 has roots a, 9, y. Find the values of Za and Ya", a 2245 4 The cubic equation x7 © 5 Given that 22 + 5x? +1=0 has roots @,f,7, and that S,=a" + p" +’, find the values of S; and Ss. O@ « Thecubicequation P+ art beta 2: Find in tems andthe vals of Ea and 3 has roots «, f,7, and the constants a, bare real and positive. b Given that 5 O® 7 Treeabicequation 2x43 a Using the relation S, = a! + B+ or otherwise, find the value of Sy 0 has roots a,A,7. b_ Byconsidering S; and S,, determine the value of (f+) +Pa+1)+Pla+P) © & Acubic polynomials given as 2x! — 38+. ~ $= 0, having roots a. pur a Show that 28,43 — Sy42 + Suet — 58, = 0. b Find the value of S., © 9 Theeabicequation px) + gx as bs, cS has roots a, f, 7. Find, in terms of p, q.1: 10 The equation x'+ px? + gx-+r=0 is such that S) =0, Sp -2 and S.y=4, 5 Find the values of the constants p, 4, 1.3 Quartics Now that we are working with quartics, it s best to use the recurrence formula whenever wwe can. This is especially true for the sum of the cubes (a! + 6 + 7° +53). If we want to determine the sum of the cubes of a general quartic, the best way is to first note down 5}, then determine 5, and S_1. After this, we can use the form aS, + 6S: + 052 + dS + 4e = 0, then divide by x to obtain Sy, This process allows us to work out other values, especially those beyond the highest power. As we have seen with previous polynomials, there are standard results that are defined by observation from previous cases, but the algebra for some results is too complicated to be discussed here.