Principles of Genetics 1: Joy M. Alano, Mat

PRINCIPLES OF
GENETICS 1
Author
JOY M. ALANO, MAT
URS-IM-AA-CI-0187 Rev 00 Effective Date: August 24, 2020

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS
 MODULE I - GENETICS: THE SCIENCE OF HEREDITY

AND VARIATION
 MODULE 2 -THE CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF HEREDITY

MODULE I - GENETICS: THE SCIENCE OF HEREDITY AND VARIATION
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. state and explain the meaning of genetics, heredity and variation
2. describe the beginnings of genetics through the works of Mendel and other
scientists
3. enumerate related sciences and application of genetics
4. appreciate the contribution of genetics to other fields of study
LEARNING APPROACHES: Asynchronous and synchronous discussion of the

lesson, video watching, additional readings, learning
activities, assignment
Estimated Time Frame: 1.5 hours lecture

Introduction:
Genetics as a science emerged only at the beginning of the twentieth century. Before,
understanding of traits being passed to offspring were seen in agricultural practices when
farmers keep their seeds of best plants for the next year’s crop and using the best animals
for breeding. Not until recently that the scientific mechanism of inheritance were
understood. From the works of it’s founder, Gregor Mendel to the numerous scientists
that followed his footsteps, genetics as a branch of biological science has come along
way. Since then, genetics has grown in scope and in significance for it has greatly
contributed to the scientific understanding of other related fields, most especially in
agriculture.
A. MEANING OF GENETICS
Genetics is defined as the branch of biology that deals with the principles of heredity
and variation in all living things. It deals with the fundamental properties and problems of
life and living, thus impringing on all aspects of biology -biochemistry,
physiology,development,morphology, anatomy, evolution, and ecology. (Ramirez, 1991).
Genetics was derived from the Greek word gen, meaning to become or to grow into
something. The word was coined by William Bateson in 1906.
When characters or traits are passed on from one generation to the next, or from
parents to offspring, this is known as heredity. Children resemble their parents or
grandparents but often siblings obtain variety of characteristics. Differences between

parents and offspring or between offspring of same parents or between members of the
same population is called variation.
Variation is an important aspect of adaptation or survival in the environmental
changes of a certain population. Variation arises due to mutation or sudden changes in
genes. Gene is defined as the basic unit of heredity. It has two attributes, namely:
 The gene inherited from generation to generation in such a fashion that each
progeny has a physical copy of this material.
 The gene provides information regarding this structure, function and other
biological properties of the individual.
B. THE BEGINNINGS OF GENETICS
The following scientific milestones has led to a better understanding of how

inheritance takes place in living things. For the past years, continuous advancement of
technology has allowed geneticists to manipulate genes to an extent of recreating the
evolution of organisms in the laboratory.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) proposed the “Theory of
Pangenesis”. This theory proposed that semen was
formed everywhere in a man’s body and such semen
reflected the characteristics of the body part from where it is
formed. That semen traveled through the blood vessels into
the male reproductive organs.
https://www.magnoliabox.com/products
/aristotle-stanza-della-segnatura-
the-school-of-athens-detail-2595631
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) is known as the “Father of
Genetics”. In 1886, he discovered that hereditary
characteristics were determined by elementary units or
genes transmitted between generations in uniform
predictable fashion.The study of Mendel in garden peas led
to the formulation of the “Principles of Heredity” or
what is now called Mendel’s Law of Inheritance.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendel
ian_inheritance

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1892) proposed the
“Theory of Acquired Characteristics” based on the
Pangenesis theory. This theory was in turn proposed to be
the fundamental mechanism of evolutionary change. For
example, body modifications acquired by use or disuse
could be transmitted to the progeny because the semen
formed reflected such modifications.
https://todayinsci.com/L/Lamarck_Jea
n/LamarckJean-Quotations.htm
August Weismann (1834-1914) proposed the Germplasm

theory which explains that germplasm or sex cells
perpetuated themselves in reproduction generation after
generation. On the other hand, somatoplasm or cells of all
other parts of the body were produced by the germplasm
only as a means to protect and reproduce itself.
http://myscienceschool.org/index.php?/archives/1094-Why-is-August-Weismann-considered-
to-be-one-of-the-greatest-biologists-of-all-time.html
Kolreuter (1733-18067) observed that although hybrids

between species might have shown a uniform appearance,
their fertile offspring would usually produce considerable
diversity.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/F
ile:Josef_Gottlieb_Koelreuter_(origi
nal_upload).jpg
Increase your knowledge! Suggested Readings:

Three Great Milestones in Genetics pp. 2-4
Principles of Genetics- Snustad and Simmons
Follow Link:
https://www.pdfdrive.com/principles-of-genetics-
e185210607.html

1900 Carl Correns in Germany, Erich von Tschermak in
Austria and Hugo de Vries in Holand independently
duplicated Mendel’s experiments on garden peas, maize,
primroses, poppies and many other flowering plants. Each
of them obtained the same ratios as those of Mendel and
they all provided the follow-up work that Mendel was able to
do.
https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/
avencos-genetics-6cf63b67-ef5b-42b9-
8109-f1ab49654ebf
1902 Bateson, Sanders, and Cuenot had provided.The
information indicating that Mendel’s principles also applied
to animals.
1903 Walter S. Sutton in the United States of America and

Theodor Boveri in Germany independently suggested the
association of the Mendelian factors with the chromosomes
https://batesoninstitute.org/william by pointing to the resemblance in behavior between the two.
-bateson/
1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan and Calvin B.Bridges in 1916

- discovered the sex chromosomes, they also demonstrated
that each chromosome contained not one but many gene.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/classical-genetics/chromosomal-basis-of-
genetics/a/discovery-of-the-chromosomal-basis-of-inheritance
20th Century - O.T.
Avery, C. M. MacLeod
and M. McCarty
identified the nucleic
acid as the hereditary
material.
http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000002BI/P000991/M020195/ET/1
495017589Module-1-Etext_2.pdf
With James Watson and Francis Crick’s discovery of the

molecular structure of DNA in 1953 and the identification of

its chemical properties, the principles of heredity were
placed on firm foundation.
https://www.google.com/search?q=watson+and+crick&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR
5cW-t8_qAhXE7WEKHer9AnIQ_AUoAXoECA4QAw&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=Wgd0XxS3t1aMuM
In a relatively short time, researchers discovered how DNA functions as the

hereditary material—that is, how it replicates, how it encodes and expresses information,
and how it changes. These discoveries ushered in a new phase of genetics in which
phenomena could be explained at the molecular level. In time, geneticists learned how to
analyze the DNA of whole genomes, including our own. (https://www.pdfdrive.com/principles-
of-genetics-e185210607.html).
C. THE SCOPE OF GENETICS
The scope of genetics may be best appreciated by summarizing the broad problems
it deals with.
 From the standpoint of the individual, the development and maintenance of his
own unique, inherent pattern in dynamic interplay with the environment are the
central problems of life.
 For the species, the ability to transfer these systems to the other generations is
the primary requirement for continued existence.
 For living forms as a whole, the orderly variety of patterns and their changes
with time on a geological scale constitute the accomplishment of organic
evolution.
 Plant, animal and microbial improvement through breeding and genetic
engineering is another problem area.
 The definition of similarities arid differences in the patterns encountered within
the human species, and of the degrees of plasticity of these systems, are basic
to human understanding and important to human welfare.
D. APPLICATION OF GENETICS

The results of genetic research have been proven to benefit unmeasurably all
aspects of human life from food production to medicine. Listed are some of the
contributions this field of science has made:
1. Plant and animal improvement
 produce high yielding variety of crops such as cereals and vegetables
 improve breeding of farm animals like cattle, swine and poultry
 produce resistant varieties of crops to diseases that affect the income of
farmers
2. Medicine
 develop preventive measures for diseases and abnormalities that have
known genetic origin such as diabetes, hemoglobin abnormalities and even forms of
mental deficiencies.
 genetic study of disease causing microorganism such as viruses and
bacteria pave way to the development of vaccines
3. Genetic counseling
 knowledge of inheritance of certain desirable or undesirable characteristics, as well
as the ancestors of the prospective parents, is used in genetic counseling.
4. Legal applications
 Genetics has helped solve problems of disputed parentage. Blood type analyses will
establish parentage of children and clarify questions of illegitimate children, estate
claims or even baby mix-ups in hospitals
5. Genetic engineering
 Genetic engineering might be a controversial application of genetics since it has equal
potential for good and evil. Production of organisms that may eventually find use in
food production, medicine and energy production would be as possible as the
production of organisms that would be destructive to almost all living organisms.
Increase your knowledge!

Follow link to watch videos:
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Genetics+Timeline
*Genetics 101. National Geographic Jul 12, 2018

*A History of Research on Genetics Jan 30, 2017

Remember!!! Learning activities are
not sent in for assessment. 20 min
Learning Activity
Assignments, 1:
however, will be
graded.
Learning Activity 1 (SAQ 1) : Let us see what you have learned.
I. Identification
______________1. This is the branch of biology which deals with the study of
heredity and variation.
______________2. It means the transmission of characters from one generation
to the next, that is from parents to offspring.
______________3. It means the differences between parents and offsprings or
between offsprings of the same parents.
_____________ 4. It is a Greek word which means to become or to grow into
something.
______________5. He coined the term “genetics” in 1906.
_____________ 6.This theory was proposed by Aristotle during the 19th Century.
______________7. He proposed the “Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics”
_____________ 8. He is known as the “Father of Genetics”.
_____________ 9. This theory explains that germplasm or sex cells perpetuate
themselves in reproduction generation after generation.
_____________10. Scientists who discovered the molecular structure of DNA in 1953.
II. True or False

_______1. Inheritance of traits or characters are made possible because of the
presence of genes in all living things.
_______2. Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri discovered the sex chromosome.
_______3. Genetics can be applied in improving plant and animal breeding.
_______4. Aristotle proposed the “Theory of Pangenesis”.
_______5. Genetic engineering is an advance application of genetics.
Answer to Learning Activity 1 (ASAQ 1)

I.

1. Genetics
2. heredity
3. variation
4. gen
5. William Bateson
6. Theory of Pangenesis
7. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
8. Gregor Mendel
9. Germplasm Theory
10. James Watson and Francis Crick
II.
1. true
2. false
3. true
4. frue
5. true
Your Score Verbal Interpretation Your Action
15 Excellent Proceed to the next lesson

13-14 Very Good Proceed to the next lesson
11-12 Good Needs to review the lesson
9-10 Satisfactory Needs to review the lesson
8 and below Needs Improvement Oops! Go back to the previous
lesson
Assignment 1: To be submitted for grading
Research on recent studies conducted by scientists related to genetics. Discuss three

(3) discoveries made by scientists emphasizing it’s significant contribution to the field.
Submit in handwriting using a short bond paper on time ( 30 pts).
Rubrics for scoring:

CRITERIA PERFORMANCE INDICATORS POINTS

Content Provided complete and accurate information with 20
references
Organization of ideas Discussed the assignment in clear and logical 5
arrangement of ideas in the paragraph
Grammar Used correct grammar, punctuation, spelling, and 3
capitalization
Punctuality Submitted the assignment on schedule 2
30
TOTAL
References:
Ramirez, Dolores A. GENETICS, 7th Ed, 1991, SEAMO-SEARCA, UPLB,

Laguna
Snustad, Peter D. and Simmons Michael J PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS, 6th
Ed. 2012, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
https://www.genome.gov/Pages/Education/Modules/BasicsPresentation.pdf
Video Credit:
Genetics 101. National Geographic Jul 12, 2018
A History of Research on Genetics Jan 30, 2017
MODULE 2 -THE CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF HEREDITY

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, the you should be able to:
1. review the parts of the cell
2. describe chromosomes structure, function and classification
3. identify the stages of Mitosis and Meiosis and compare the two type of cell
division
4. present the correct type of chromosome that appears in the different stages of
cell division
5. appreciate the significance of cell division for the continuation of life
LEARNING APPROACHES: Asynchronous and synchronous discussion of the lesson,
film viewing, additional readings, learning activities/self-assessment, assignment
Estimated Time Frame: 3 hours lecture
INTRODUCTION
All living organisms here on Earth share common features which are necessary
for their continuous existence including growth, maturation, and reproduction. The cell is
the basic unit of life that helps attain the functions and structures of different organisms
(De La Peṅa, 2016).
The cell was discovered in cork cells by Robert Hooke in 1665. Cells vary in size,
shape, and function, yet have common cell structures. The cells of complex plants and
animals differ in several ways, although their basic structure is the same.
THE CELL THEORY
The invention of the microscope led to many advances in the study of science. By
the 1830s many biologists were using the microscope as their chief investigative tool.
Three of these advances were especially important in building one of the key theories in
biology:
* Matthias Schleiden – a botanist who found out that plants are made up of cells.
In 1838, Schleiden made a generalization that all plants are made up of cells.
* Theodore Schwann – about the same time he studied animals and made him
generalize that all animals are made of cells. He further proposed that all organisms are
made up of cell.

* Rudolf Virchow – in 1830, disputed the idea of spontaneous generation, he
reasoned that all new plants and animals arise only from existing plants and animals only.
The ideas of Schleiden, Schwann and Virchow make up what is now called the cell
theory. The cell theory consists of three principles:
1. Cells are the basic units of life. (Schleiden and Schwann) (1938-39)
2. All organisms are made of one or more cells. (Schleiden and Schwann) (1938-
39)
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells (Virchow)(1858)
Today, we have what we call as the “Modern Cell Theory” which contains
four statements:
1. The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is pass on from cell to
cell during cell division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic
activities.
3. All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside the cells.
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within the cell.
Historically, the cell theory has provided direction for the many work of
many biologists and physicians as they study life processes, genetics and diseases.
Let us review the parts and

functions of the cell
THE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL
1. Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall

The plasma membrane or plasmalemma is a thin living membrane that encloses
the cell, defining the boundaries between extracellular and intracellular spaces. The
membrane functions for support, protection, and passage of substances to and from the
cell. It is semi-permeable (permeable in water, but selectively permeable or impermeable
to other substances) and is made up of a bilipid layer with protein. The plasma membrane
provides the identity of the cell.
The cell wall is a cellular structure found outside the cell membrane in many
organisms. It is made up mainly of cellulose in plants and algae, murein in bacteria, and
chitin in fungi.

2. Cytoplasm and Organelles
This is the cytoplasmic ground substance or matrix. When viewed under a
microscope, it appears as a clear thick liquid with specks scattered throughout. The
metabolic activities of the cell occur in the cytoplasm. It is here where food nutrients are
received, processed and used, and where waste products are removed. The cytoplasm
thus serves as the general storage and working area of the cell.
Table 1
Organelles Present in the Cytoplasm
Organelles Structure Function
a.Endoplasmic winding network of membranes Provides channels through which

Reticulum interconnected with each other transport of materials can be made
effectively throughout the cytoplasm. It
also functions for synthesis of chemicals
a.1 Rough ER contains ribosomes synthesize proteins
produces lipids, cholesterol, and

a.2 Smooth ER does not contain ribosomes carbohydrates like glycogen.
b. Mitochondria slender rod or filaments synthesize adenosine triphosphate

enclosed by two membranes (ATP). This where cellular respiration
with outer smooth, and the takes place.
inner forms are thrown into
folds called cristae.
c. Golgi apparatus flattened smooth–surfaced site for the processing and packaging of
sacs stacked one on top of the cell secretions/products (ex. proteins)
other.
d. Lysosomes vesicles present only in animal break down large organic

cells which are surrounded by molecules(proteins, lipids,
membranes and contain carbohydrates, and nucleic acids)
hydrolytic enzymes
e. Centrioles cylinder-like structures located involved in the movement of

just outside the nucleus. It is chromosomes during cell divisions
absent in plant cells.
f. Plastids Round or oval bodies that are contain pigments

absent in animal cells
contain green pigments (chorophyll) that
consisting of inner structures trap light during photosynthesis
f.1 Chloroplasts called thylakoids and grana.
contain red, yellow, red and

f.2 Chromoplasts orange pigments

characteristics of carrots,
flowers, tomatoes and others
contain pigments for colorless

f.3 Leucoplasts appearance, ex. starch, grains
of rice, and radish.
g. Vacuoles Membrane-bound bodies For food storage (food vacuole),

containing various substances excretory waste (excretory vacuole),
in dilute solution and water storage in plants (central
vacuole) that comprise almost 95% of
cell space for plants.
TONOPLAST-membrane of the
vacuole
h. Microtubules, Thread-like support and movement

structures,cytoskeleton
intermediate filaments
and microfilaments
3. Nucleus
The nucleus is a specialized spherical central mass of protoplasm considered as
one of the most conspicuous structural areas of the cell. The nucleus play the central role
in controlling and directing both biochemical reactions that occur in the cell and
reproduction of the cell. It also plays a crucial part in determining the way the cell will
develop, and what form it will exhibit at its maturity.
The nucleus has the following parts:
a. Nuclear Membrane
This structure surrounds the nucleus, separating it from the adjacent cytoplasm and
forming a controlled avenue for the continuous interchange of materials between
them.
b. Nucleoplasm
This is the fluid portion of the nucleus in which other structures are found.
b.1 Nucleolus – one or more deeply stained spherical bodies containing RNA. The
nucleolus is responsible for manufacturing and exporting ribosomes – the
precursors of the particles- to the cytoplasm in which proteins will be synthesized.
b.2 Chromosomes –these are elongated, thread-like bodies which are clearly
visible only when the cell is undergoing division. They are composed of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein, and bear in linear arrangement of the
basic units of heredity called genes, which are composed of DNA. Genes are
passed on from generation to generation in cells and thus determine the

characteristics of cells and act as the units of control in different cell activities. They,
thus, act as code units for the transmission of hereditary information from parent
to offspring.
TYPES OF CELL
There are two general types of cells:
 Prokaryotic cell – lack membrane-bound subcellular

structures. Prokaryotes include bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Typically, bacteria are ten or more times smaller than most
cells and function efficiently without complex structures.
Ribosomes are simply dispersed in as small volume of
cytoplasm. The DNA is more or less concentrated in the
irregularly-shaped region called the nucleiod.
Bacterial Cell
Source:http://www.prism.gatech
 Eukaryotic cell – contain subcellular structures
.edu/~gh19/b1510/bactcell.jpg enclosed by a membrane that separates them from the
surrounding cytoplasm. All cells, except bacteria and
cyanobacteria, are eukaryotic. They contain many organelles
and have cytoskeletons which serve as an internal framework
for organizing organelles and ribosomes.
Plant Cell
Source: http://waynesword.palomar.
edu/lmexer1a.htm
Animal Cell
Source: http://waynesword.palomar.
THE GENETIC MATERIAL edu/lmexer1a.htm
All cells have the capability to give rise to new cells and the encoded information
in a living cell is passed from one generation to another. The information encoding
material is the genetic or hereditary material of the cell.

• The genetic material is defined as the substance that determines the properties or
characteristics or phenotype of living organisms
• It is also the substance responsible for transferring traits and characteristics from
parent to offspring.
Two kinds of Genetic Material
1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)-found in eukaryotes (plants and animals), bacteria
and some viruses.
2. RNA (ribonucleic acid)- some viruses use RNA as their genetic material.
A. PROKARYOTIC GENOME
Bacterial Chromosome -is a closed-circular DNA which is about 4.6 million
base pairs in E. coli. The DNA is located in the nucleiod region. In normal growth
this genetic material is being replicated continuously. This bacterial DNA is also
reported to be wrapped around non-specific DNA-binding proteins (histone-like
and non-histone-like). Several strains of bacteria possess extrachromosomal DNA
called PLASMID
 PLASMID – are closed circular DNA that are much smaller than the genomic
DNA. Plasmid usually contains genes that confer selective advantage to the
organism and were later used in recombinant DNA work.
GENOME OF VIRUS
What is a virus? Do you know what a virus look like?
Viruses are sub-microscopic, obligate intracellular parasites. They can be
considered living organisms because they can reproduce and possess
characteristics that can be inherited. They can produce only inside another living
host cell and they cannot generate their own organic molecule. They do not grow
nor divide but they are “assembled”. Viruses use the machinery of the host cell to
synthesize nucleic acids and proteins. Outside a living host cell, viruses are
considered “non-living”. The virus particle is typically composed of the genomic
nucleic acid and coat protein but may lipid membrane and other components.
B. EUKARYOTIC GENOME
A eukaryotic cell has genetic material in the form of genomic DNA enclosed
within the nucleus, Genes or the hereditary units are located on the chromosomes
which exist as chromatin network in the non-dividing cell called interphase.

Thomas Splettstoesser [CC BY-SA 4.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)]
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
In early 1880’s, Walter Flemming, a German biologist, revealed that during cell
division the nuclear material organize themselves into visible thread like structures which
were names as chromosomes.
The term chromosome was coined by W. Waldeyer in 1888. Chrome is coloured
and soma is body, hence they mean “colored bodies” and can be defined as higher order
organized arrangement of DNA and proteins.
Chromosomes are tightly coiled DNA around basic histone proteins, which help in
the tight packing of DNA. During interphase, the DNA is not tightly coiled into
chromosomes, but exists as chromatin.
There are normally two copies of each chromosome present in every somatic cell.
The number of unique chromosome (N) in such a cell is known as its haploid number,
and the total number of chromosomes (2N) is its diploid number. The suffix “ploid” refers
to chromosome “sets”. In Eukaryotes other than the nucleus chromosomes are present
in mitochondria and chloroplast too. The number of chromosomes in each somatic cell is
same for all members of a given species.

Source: (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)]
A chromosome at mitotic metaphase consists of two symmetrical structures called

chromatids. Each chromatid contains a single DNA molecule and both chromatids are
attached to each other by centromere and become separated at the beginning of
anaphase. Chromomeres are regions of tightly folded DNA and become especially
prominent in polytene chromosome. Centromere in a chromosome contain specific DNA
sequences with special proteins bound to them, forming a disc shaped structure, called
kinetochore.
The size of the chromosome is normally measured at mitotic metaphase and may
be as short as 0.25 µm to as long 30 µm. The monocots contain large sized chromosome
compared to dicots. Organisms with less number of chromosomes contain comparatively
large sized chromosomes. The chromosome in sets vary in size.

KINDS OF CHROMOSOMES
In a diploid cell, there are two of each kind of chromosome (termed homologous
chromosome) except the sex chromosomes. In humans, one of the sex has two of the
same kind of sex chromosomes and the other has one of each kind.
In humans, there are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (2n=46). The human
female has 44 non sex chromosomes, termed autosomes and one pair homomorphic sex
chromosomes given the designation XX. The human male has 44 autosomes and one
pair of heteromorphic sex chromosomes, one X and one Y chromosome.
TYPES OF HUMAN CHROMOSOMES

There are four types of chromosomes based upon the position of the centromere in
humans.
1) Metacentric – the centromere occurs in the center and all the four chromatids are of
equal length.
2) Submetacentric – the centromere is a little away from the center and therefore
chromatids of one side are slightly longer than the other side.
3) Acrocentric – the centromere is located closer to one end of chromatid therefore the
chromatids on opposite side are very long.
4) Telocentric – the centromere is places at one end of the chromatid and hence only
one arm.
https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/chromosome
s-introduction-structure-types/

CELL CYCLE
Cells go through phases. The sequence of phases in the life cycle of a cell is
called the cell cycle. The cell cycle is the period from the beginning of the next cell
division. The cell cycle has two parts: growth and preparation (interphase) and cell
division.
Cell division allows an organism to grow, repair itself and reproduce. From being
unicellular in the form of zygote during fertilization, a complex organism can become
multicellular because of cell division. Tissues that are damaged can be replaced by new
cells. Species can propagate because of this process.
Cell division can be simply defined as the splitting of one cell into two cells. Since,
complex organisms have two types of cells in the body: the somatic or body cells and the
reproductive cells, the gametes or sex cells, there are also two types of cell division,
mitosis and meiosis.
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

1. MITOSIS
Cell division is divided into two stages – mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis
(cytoplasm division).
Mitosis is a process of nuclear division in a living cell by which the carriers of
hereditary information, or the chromosomes, are exactly replicated and the two copies
distributed to identical daughter nuclei. Mitosis is almost always accompanied by cell
division (cytokinesis), and the latter is sometimes considered a part of the mitotic process.
The pattern of mitosis is fundamentally the same in all cells. However, while animal cells
apparently divide by pinching into two separate cells, plant cells develop a cell plate,
which becomes a cellulose cell wall between the two daughter cells. The importance of
mitosis is the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each cell formed receives
chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of
the parent cell.
Before the actual cell division or mitosis occurs, the cell prepares itself for
division, this is called the Interphase stage. During interphase the chromosomes are
dispersed in the nucleus and appear as a network of long, thin threads or filaments, called
the chromatin.

Interphase is divided into three phases:
 Growth 1 (G1) phase - cell synthesizes proteins, including the enzymes and
structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the 46 human
chromosomes consists of a single (very long) molecule of DNA .
 Synthesis (S) phase - the genetic material is replicated, each of its chromosomes
duplicates. The cell is still diploid, however, because it still contains the same
number of centromeres. However, the identical sister chromatids are in the
chromatin form because spiralization and condensation into denser chromosomes
have not taken place yet. It will take place in prophase I in meiosis.
 Growth 2 (G2) phase -The cell continues to grow making the cell larger.
STAGES OF MITOSIS
Two chromatids remain attached to one another at a

region called the centromere, but each contracts into a
compact tightly coiled body; the nucleolus and, in most
cases, the nuclear envelope break down and disappear.
Also during prophase the spindle begins to form. In animal
cells the centrioles separate and move apart, and
radiating bundles of fibers, called asters, appear around
them. Some sets of fiber run from one centriole to the
other; these are the spindle fibers. In plant cells the
PROPHASE
spindle forms without centrioles.
During metaphase the chromosomes align themselves at a

plane midway between the two ends to which the spindle
tapers. This is called the equatorial plane and marks the point
where the whole cell will divide when nuclear division is
completed; the ends of the spindle are the poles to which the
chromatids will migrate. The chromatids are attached to the
spindle fibers at the centromeres.
METAPHASE

During anaphase the two chromatids of each
chromosome separate and move to opposite poles, as if pulled
along the spindle fibers by the centromeres.
ANAPHASE
During telophase new nuclear envelopes form around the two
groups of daughter chromosomes (as they are now called), the
new nucleoli begin to appear, and eventually, as the formation
of the two daughter nuclei is completed, the spindle fibers
disappear. The chromosomes uncoil to assume their dispersed
distribution within the interphase nucleus. Cytokinesis, which
may begin before or after mitosis is completed, finally separates
the daughter nuclei into two new individual daughter cells.
TELOPHASE
Source: http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/mitosis
2. MEIOSIS
Meiosis is defined as the division of sex cells which results in formation of haploid
number of chromosomes in sperm of male and egg cell of female. It involves two stages
of cell division, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. The substages are similar to the stages of mitosis
except for the prophase in meiosis I where there is an exchange of genetic materials
between two parents.
Meiosis I
1. Prophase I- is prolonged and characterized by the following substages:
a) Leptotene - chromosomes can be recognized as long and thin filaments characterized
by bead-like thickenings, the chromomeres.
b) Zygotene - homologous chromosomes synapse or pair intimately with each other
c) Pachytene - is characterized by the contraction of chromosome resulting in shorter
and thicker filaments. Pairing is complete and the homologous chromosome and
form four chromatids called tetrad. Each homologous chromosomes cross over
to exchange genetic material at this stage.
d) Diplotene - homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little.

The chromosomes themselves uncoil a bit, allowing some transcription of
DNA. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain
tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing over occurred.

e) Diakinesis – marked by dissolution of both the nuclear envelope and nucleolus and
also the formation of the spindle fibers. At this stage the chromosomes in the
bivalent have condensed maximally and have spread out evenly in the nucleus.
2. Metaphase I – the paired chromosomes, possibly still held together at some points
by chiasmata, align along the equatorial plate.
3. Anaphase I – is chracterized by the complete separation and movements of the

univalents (dyad) of each bivalent to opposite poles. By the time the
chromosome have reached their respective poles, telophase I has begun.
4. Telophase I -The first meiotic division effectively ends when the centromeres arrive at
the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each
chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids.. The microtubules that make up
the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each
haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. Cytokinesis, the
pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in
plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells.
Meiosis II – the second meiotic division is similar to the stages of mitosis
1. Prophase II – differs from mitotic prophase in that only half of the diploid
chromosome number is present.
2. Metaphase II – the chromosome condensed and independently align on the

equatorial plate.
3. Anaphase II - The centromeres are cleaved, allowing the kinetochores to pull the
sister chromatids apart. The sister chromatids by convention are now called
sister chromosomes, and they are pulled toward opposing poles.
4. Telophase II- is similar to telophase I, marked by uncoiling, lengthening, and

disappearance of the chromosomes occur as the disappearance of the
microtubules. Nuclear envelopes reform; cleavage or cell wall formation
eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of
chromosomes. Meiosis is now complete.

Phases of Mitosis Mar 18, 2014

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mXVoTj06zwg
Phases of Meiosis Mar 22, 2014

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16enC385R0w

not sent in for assessment. 30 min
Assignments, however, will be
graded.
III. Identification
______________1. It is basic structural and functional unit of all living things
______________2. He discovered the cell in 1665.
______________3. The botanist who states that all plants are made up of cells.
______________4. This kind of cell lacks membrane-bound subcellular structures
______________5. Plants, animals and fungi have this kind of cell in their body.
______________6. These are elongated, thread- like bodies that carries the hereditary
material of the organism.
______________7. The spherical body inside the cell where the chromosomes are
located.
______________8. The scientist who discovered the chromosome.
______________9. It is simply defined as the splitting of one cell into two cells.
______________10. A type of cell division that is responsible for growth and repair of
damage tissue.

IV. Concept Mapping: Identify the two types of cell division and their stages. (15 pts.)
Cell Division

I.
1. cell
2. Robert Hooke
3. Matthias Schleiden
4. prokaryotic
5. eukaryotic
6. chromosome
7. nucleus
8. Walter Flemming
9. cell division
10. mitosis
II.

Cell Division
Mitosis Meiosis
Prophase Meiosis I Meiosis II
Metaphase Prophase I Prophase II
Metaphase
Anaphase Metaphase I
II
Telophase Anaphase I Anaphase II
Telophase I Telophase II
24-25 Excellent Proceed to the next lesson

14 and below Needs Improvement Oops! Go back to the
previous lesson
Submit this assignment handwritten in a short bond paper (refer to your course guide for
the schedule)

A.Fill-up the Tables:
1. Compare the cells of plants, animals and bacteria.
Basis for Comparison Plant Cell Animal Cell Bacterial Cell
2. Compare mitosis and meiosis

Basis for Comparison Mitosis Meiosis
Rubrics for scoring:

CRITERIA PERFORMANCE INDICATORS POINTS
Provided complete and accurate information with 6
Content references
Organization of ideas Discussed the assignment in clear and logical 2
arrangement of ideas in the paragraph
Grammar Used correct grammar, punctuation, spelling, and 1
capitalization
Punctuality Submitted the assignment on schedule 1
TOTAL 10
References:
Ramirez, D. A. GENETICS, 7th Ed, 1991, SEAMO-SEARCA, UPLB,

Laguna
Alano, J.M., Agricultural Biology Module

http://www.prism.gatech.edu/~gh19/b1510/bactcell.jpg
http://waynesword.palomar. edu/lmexer1a.htm
http://waynesword.palomar. edu/lmexer1a.htm
https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/chromosomes-introduction-structure-types/
Thomas Splettstoesser [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
sa/4.0)]
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)]
Video Credits:
Phases of Mitosis Mar 18, 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mXVoTj06zwg

Phases of Meiosis Mar 22, 2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16enC385R0w
UNIT 2 – MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY
 Module 3 - Gene Segregation and Interaction
 Module 4 - Linkage and Recombination

MODULE 3 - GENE SEGREGATION AND INTERACTION
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, the you should be able to:
1. describe Mendel’s experiments and the principles of heredity derived.
2. define genetic terminologies
3. describe non-Mendelian inheritance
4. solve genetic problems using different methods
LEARNING APPROACHES: Asynchronous and synchronous discussion of the

lesson,video watching, additional readings, learning
activities/self - assessment, assignment
Estimated Time Frame: 6 hours lecture

INTRODUCTION
Gregor Mendel’s experiment in garden peas (Pisum sativum) has led to the
formulation of the basic principles of inheritance. In his study, he chose the contrasting
traits of garden peas and observed the results of his breeding experiments. He was able
to come with his conclusion which we recognized today as the principles of heredity which
later were developed into laws.
Mendel and His Experiments on Peas
Sir Gregor Johann Mendel (1822 to 1884) was Austrian monk born in what is now
Czech Republic. He was a son of peasant farmer. He studied Theology and was ordained
priest Order St. Augustine. He went to university in Vienna, where he studied botany.
He published the results of his experiment in 1865 and later on was rediscovered
in 1900, long after his death, by Tschermak, Correns and DeVries. Because of his
suggested principles of inheritance, he was regarded as the founder or father of genetics.
Mendel worked with 22 pure-breeding varieties of peas in the large monastery
garden in Brunn. A pure-breeding variety is one that if self-fertilized would bear the marker
character trait faithfully from generation to generation without the character being altered.
Mendel cross-pollinated pure-line varieties of peas having contrasting pairs of characters.
A contrasting pair of characters is called an allelomorphic pair or simply a pair of alleles.
Mendel wanted to test if it was possible to predict the kinds of offspring they would bring
forth. He initially followed up the offspring from parent peas that differed in only a single
pair of alleles, or what is referred to as monohybrid inheritance
Mendel’s experiments with tall and short plants

http://www.tutorvista.com

After Mendel cross-pollinated tall and dwarf (short) plants, he collected and planted
the resulting seeds. All of these uniformly and with no exception gave forth tall plants. No
dwarf plants were observed in the first generation progeny which Mendel referred to as
the first filial generation or F1. Since only one of the two parental traits, tallness, was
observed in the offspring, Mendel called that stronger character dominant and he
represented the dominant character with a capital letter T. The weaker character that was
not manifested in the F1, dwarfness, was called by Mendel as the recessive and he
represented it as t, or small letter of the dominant character.
The tall F1 plants were next to self-fertilize and the resulting seeds were sown to
produce the second filial generation or F2. Mendel observed that all resulting offspring
were a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. He recorded 787 tall plants and 277 short ones,
i.e., 3/4 of all the progeny were of the dominant character and 1/4 were of the recessive.
The ratio of dominants to recessive was 3:1. Mendel noted that the recessive character
had appeared in the F2 progeny. It became obvious that the recessive trait had not been
lost in the F1 notwithstanding the fact that it was not visibly observed.
The idea came to Mendel’s mind that the inheritance of character traits was
accomplished through a particulate substance which he called factor. The external
expression of a factor is what is referred to as phenotype, e.g., tall or short. That the tall
F1 plants gave rise to both tall and short plants made Mendel conclude that the F 1 were
hybrids and contained factors for both tallness (T) dwarfness (t). In the genotype or
genetic make-up of the hybrid F1 plants (Tt), each of the two factors had been contributed
by the two parents. The Mendelian factor is what we now call as the gene and which, at
the molecular level, is a segment of DNA. The factors or genes in the parental stock which
are pureline varieties would be TT for the tall plant and tt for the dwarf plant.

http://www.tutorvista.com
Follow link to watch video:
Mendelian Genetics and Punnet Square

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3f_eisNPpnc
&t=58s
Genetics Terminology:
Gene a particular segment of a DNA molecule which

determines the inheritance and expression of a
particular character.

Alleles or Allelomorphs two genes that occupy the same position on
homologous chromosomes and that cover the same
trait.
Trait is the expressed character, for example, colour of
flower.
Dominant gene or trait the allele of a gene that mask or suppresses the
expression of an alternate allele; the trait that
appears in a heterozygous condition.
Recessive gene or trait an allele that is masked by a dominant allele; does
not appear in the heterozygous condition, only in
homozygous.
Genotype the genetic constitution of an organism which has
been inherited from the parents
Phenotype the physical or morphological appearance of an
individual ( genotype plus the environment)
Homozygous an individual having identical alleles (one from each
parent) for a particular characteristic.
Heterozygous an individual having two different genes for a
particular characteristic
Parent generations the parents used for the first cross represent the
parent of P1 generation.
F1 generation the progeny produced from a cross between two
parents (P1) is called First Filial or F1 generation.
F2 generation the progeny resulting from self hybridization or
inbreeding of F1 individuals is called Second Filial or
F2 generation.
Monohybrid cross a genetic cross involving a single pair of genes (one
trait) ; parents differ by a single trait.
Dihybrid cross the cross between two parents of contrasting
characters are studied simultaneously for the
inheritance pattern.
Hybridization crossing organisms belonging to different species for
getting favorable qualities in the offspring.
Test Cross crossing of the F1 progeny with the homozygous
recessive, the test cross always yields the ratio 1:1
Reciprocal cross is the cross in which the sex of the parents is
reversed
Probability the chance that any particular outcome will occur.
Laws of Heredity According to Mendel
1. Law of Segregation – it states that during the formation of gametes (sperm and egg
cells) the two chromosomes of each pair separate (segregate) into two different cell
which form the gametes. This is a universal law and always during gamete formation

in all sexually reproducing organisms, the two factors of a pair of factors and the
gametes are pure.
More recent studies and information support Mendel’s law of segregation. The
events in meiosis wherein each gamete receives only one of each pair of homologous
chromosomes, hence only one of the allelic genes that occupy corresponding
positions or loci in the homologous pair, is eloquent substantiation of Mendel’s first
law. The concepts of meiosis and chromosomes were not known during Mendel’s
time.
2. Law of Dominance – it states that the two contrasting genes of a pair, the expression
of one is dominant over the others. This applies to heterozygous genes who have
both dominant and recessive traits which are the result of crosses from male and
female parents.
3. Law of Independent Assortment – it states that if two traits are cross together, these
two traits will be passed on the offsprings independent of one another.
Subsequently, Mendel experimented with pure-line plants that differed in two
(dihybrid) or more (multihybrid) hereditary characters.
When he crossed a pure-line plant with two distinct heritable characteristics,
smooth yellow seeds, with a pure-line variety with the contrasting traits of wrinkled and
green seeds, all F1 had smooth and yellow seeds, indicating that smooth (S) and yellow
(Y) were dominant characters. When the F1 were self-pollinated, all the possible
combinations of the parental characters were observed with definite proportions of 9/16
smooth and yellow (SY), 3/6 smooth and green (Sy), 3/16 wrinkled and yellow (sY), and
1/16 wrinkled and green (sy). Mendel’s conclusion, embodied in his second law id: “when
two or more characters are inherited independently of one another, the offsprings
produced are the results of random assortment of the hereditary factors in the gametes
and subsequent recombination of these during fertilization”.
The Punnet square below illustrates all the possible F2 genotypic combinations from the
fusion of the 4 kinds each of male and female gametes.
Father gametes
SY Sy sY sy
Mother SY SSYY SSYy SsYY SsYy
g smooth smooth smooth smooth

a yellow yellow yellow yellow
m

e Sy SSYy SSyy SsYy Ssyy
t smooth smooth smooth smooth
e yellow green yellow green
s
sY SsYY SsYy ssYY ssYy
smooth smooth wrinkled wrinkled

yellow yellow yellow yellow
sy SsYy Ssyy ssYy ssyy
smooth smooth wrinkled wrinkled

green green
yellow yellow

 Solving genetic problems

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qcmdb25Rnyo
 Incomplete and codominance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Bkc7SGVwqI
 How to use forked-line method to solve probability problems in
Genetics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUWou0iBV6w
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
Non-Mendelian inheritance is a general term that refers to any pattern of

inheritance in which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendel’s laws. These laws
describe the inheritance of traits linked to single genes on chromosomes in the nucleus.
In Mendelian inheritance, each parent contributes one of two possible alleles for a trait. If
the genotypes of both parents in a genetic cross are known, Mendel’s laws can be used
to determine the distribution of phenotypes expected for the population of offspring. There
are several situations in which the proportions of phenotypes observed in the progeny do
not match the predicted values.

Most traits are Non-Mendelian, meaning they do not follow the rules of Mendelian
traits (e.g. there are multiple alleles in a population, not true dominance/recessiveness,
the trait is determined by more than one gene (polygenic inheritance) or the environment
("nurture") affects the trait. Almost all traits in humans are non-mendelian inheritance.
Examples of Non-Mendelian Inheritance
A. Dominance Relationships
1. Incomplete dominance or no dominance-The case when the heterozygous

individual has a phenotype halfway between the dominant and recessive phenotypes.
E.g., flower color in Mirabilis jalapa (four o’clock plant).
P1 and P2 : RR(Red) x rr(White)
F1 : Rr (Pink)
F2 : 1RR(Red) : 2 Rr (Pink) : 1 rr(White)
2. Overdominance
The herterozygote exceeds the phenotypic measurements of the homozygous parents.

For example, the heterozygote w+ /w in Drosophilia has a higher amount of flourescent
pigments (sepiapteridine and himmelblaus) than those of the white (w/w) and wild type
(w+/w+)homozygotes.
Another example:
M-N blood types in man. Three general classification of humans based on the
agglutination characteristics of the red blood cells.
Blood Type Genotype Agglutinogen Agglutinin
M MM M Anti-N
N NN N Anti-M
MN MN M;N none
B. Multiple alleles - In which a population has more than two alleles in it--e.g. ABO blood
groups in humans, in which there are three possible alleles (A, B, and O.)

Genotype Blood Group
IA IA A
IA IO A
IB IB B
IB IO B
IA IB AB
IO IO O
C. Polygenic inheritance - More than one gene affecting a trait, this is quite common.
Most traits in humans are polygenic, especially the more complex ones such as weight,
height, IQ, personality, etc. Skin color is probably determined by five genes, each with
two alleles, giving nine possible phenotypes. Note: skin color is also environmental-
determined (phenotype is plastic.)
D. Phenotypic plasticity - The case when the phenotype that develops is affected by
the environment. This is also very common (skin color, weight, height, personality traits,
IQ in humans are examples.)
F. Sex-linked inheritance - For those genes on the "X" chromosome, the pattern of
inheritance is different for males than females. E.g. for a recessive trait to show up, a
female (XX) must have two copies of that allele, while a male (XY) needs to only have
one. So for X-linked traits such as red/green color blindedness, hemophilia, etc., human
males have the recessive condition much more commonly than females.
G. Lethal allele – The yellow coat colour in mice is due to the presence of the gene which
is also responsible for killing the mouse born with that gene. Such genes are termed lethal
genes. Some lethal genes kill only in the homozygous condition and are recessive lethals.
Dominant lethals cause death even when present in the heterozygous condition.

H. Epistasis - is a form of gene interaction in which one gene masks the phenotypic
expression of another.
 The alleles that are masking the effect are called epistatic alleles
 The alleles whose effect is being masked are called the hypostatic alleles.
Examples of Epistasis
1. Recessive epistasis - occurs when the phenotype of one locus masks, or prevents,
the phenotype of another locus. Thus, following a dihybrid cross fewer than the
typical four phenotypic classes will be observed with epistasis. There are four
phenotypic classes among the progeny of a dihybrid cross. The four phenotypic
classes correspond to the genotypes: A_B_, A_bb, aaB_, and aabb. If either of the
singly homozygous recessive genotypes (i.e. A_bb or aaB_) has the same
phenotype as the double homozygous recessive ( aabb), then a 9:3:4 phenotypic
ratio will be obtained.
2. Dominant epistasis -In some cases, a dominant allele at one locus may mask the
phenotype of a second locus. This is called dominant epistasis, which produces
a segregation ratio such as 12:3:1, which can be viewed as a modification of the
9:3:3:1 ratio in which the A_B_ class is combined with one of the other genotypic
classes that contains a dominant allele. One of the best known examples of a 12:3:1
segregation ratio is fruit color in some types of squash . Alleles of a locus that we
will call B produce either yellow (B_) or green (bb) fruit. However, in the presence
of a dominant allele at a second locus that we call A, no pigment is produced at all,

and fruit are white. The dominant A allele is therefore epistatic to
both B and bb combinations
3. Duplicate gene action-When a dihybrid cross produces progeny in two phenotypic

classes in a 15:1 ratio, this can be because the two loci’s gene products have the
same (redundant) functions within the same biological pathway. Yet another
pigmentation pathway, in this case in wheat, provides an example of this duplicate
gene action. The biosynthesis of red pigment near the surface of wheat seeds
involves many genes, two of which we will label A and B. Normal, red coloration of
the wheat seeds is maintained if function of either of these genes is lost in a
homozygous mutant (e.g. in either aaB_ or A_bb). Only the doubly recessive
mutant (aabb), which lacks function of both genes, shows a phenotype that differs
from that produced by any of the other genotypes.
4. Complementary gene action -The progeny of a dihybrid cross may produce just two
phenotypic classes, in an approximately 9:7 ratio. An interpretation of this ratio is
that the loss of function of either A or B gene function has the same phenotype as
the loss of function of both genes, due to complementary gene action (meaning
that the functions of both genes work together to produce a final product).
Applications of Mendel’s Principle

These methods can be applied to Mendelian and Non-mendelian crosses to
determine the expected phenotypes and genotypes of offspring.
1. The Punnet Square Method – this was invented by the British geneticist R. C.
Punnett. By using a table, gametes are combine systematically to predict the
possible combination of gametes.
2. The Forked-lined Method - combination of gametes are predicted systematically

using a diagram of branching line.
3. The Probability Method – is more of a mathematical method to predict outcomes.

There are two rules of probability:
a. Multiplication Rule – states that the probability that two or more independent
events will occur together is the product of their individual probabilities.
Probability of F1 monohybrid cross can be determined using the multiplication
rule.
b. The Rule of Addition – states that the probability that any one or more
exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual
probabilities. The rule of addition can be used to figure out the probability that
an F2 plant from a monohybrid cross will be heterozygous rather than
homozygous.

not sent in for assessment. 1 hr
Assignments, however, will be
graded.
I. Multiple Choice: Encircle the correct answer.
1. (Law of Segregation, Law of Dominance, Law of Independent Assortment) states that,

alleles in diploid individuals separate during gamete formation.
2. (Law of Segregation, Law of Dominance, Law of Independent Assortment) states that,
in a heterozygous condition one gene masks the appearance of
the other.
4. (Law of Segregation, Law of Dominance, Law of Independent Assortment) states that
the inheritance of different traits are independent from one another.
5. (Gene, Allele, Genome) refers to the particular segment of DNA molecule which
determines the inheritance and expression of a particular character.
6. (Genome, Allele, Locus) refers to two genes that occupy the same position on
homologous chromosome and that cover the same trait.
7. (Dominant, Recessive, Homozygous) is the characteristic that appears only in the
absence of the other trait.
8. (Genotype, Phenotype, Dominant) refers to the physical or morphological appearance
of an individual.
9. (Homozygous, Heterozygous, Recessive) is an individual having identical alleles for a
particular characteristics.
10. (Monohybrid cross, Dihybrid cross, Trihybrid cross) is the cross between two
parents in which two pairs of contrasting trait are studied simultaneously.
11. ( F1, F2, F3) is the progeny produce from a cross between two pure-breeding
parents.
12. (Codominance, Incomplete dominance, Multiple alleles) refers to a gene that have
more than two alleles).
13. (Codominance, Incomplete dominance, Multiple alleles) is a cross between two
parental varieties give rise to an offspring having both alleles visibly expressed.
14. (Pleiotropy, Polygenic inheritance, Lethal gene) is a type of non-mendelian
inheritance in which a trait or characteristic that appear is controlled by a number of
different genes.
15. (Pleiotropy, Polygenic inheritance, Lethal gene) is a condition in which the trait that
appears can cause death in an offspring when in a recessive or dominant condition.
16. ( Epistatic gene, hypostatic gene, lethal gene) is a kind of gene interaction that hide
the phenotypic expression of the other allele.

II. Solving Genetic Problems: Give the genotype and phenotype and the ratios for each
problem. Use Punnet square or Forkline method.
Mendelian Inheritance
A. Monohybrid Cross (5 pts.)

In pigeons, the feather color white is dominant over feather color gray. What will
be the F1 and F2 of pure breeding parents?
WW= white ; ww=gray
P1 : WW x ww
B. Dihybrid Cross (10 pts.)
In seeds of pea plants, S is the allele for the dominant, spherical shape
characteristics; s is the allele for the recessive, dented shape characteristic. Y is
the allele for the dominant, yellow color characteristic; y is the allele for the
recessive, green color characteristic.
Get the F1 and F2 of pure breeding parents.
P1 : SSYY x ssyy
Non-mendelian Inheritance
A. Incomplete Dominance ( 5 pts)
A man crosses two pink-flowered four o’clock and obtain seeds which grow into
plants bearing the following colors: 24 red, 53 pink, and 26 white. From these
results, indicate how these colors are inherited and show a diagram of the cross.
Get the results for the F1 and F2 generation.
P1 : PP x pp
B. Recessive Epistasis (10 pts)

Color of onion bulbs may be red, yellow, or white and these are found due to a
recessive epistatic gene c. When present as homozygous recessive cc, it inhibits
color expression. C allows color expression; R gives red ; r gives yellow. If two
heterozygous plants (CcRr) are crossed, what would be the chance in the
immediate progeny to have plants with (a) yellow bulb? (b) white bulb? Get the
result for the F2 generation.

P1 : CCrr (yellow) x ccRR (white)
F1 : CcRr (red)
P2 : CcRr (red) x CcRd (red)
F2 :
I.
1. Law of Segregation
2. Law of Dominance
3. Law of Independent Assortment
4. Gene
5. Allele
6. Recessive
7. Phenotype
8. Homozygous
9. Dihybrid cross
10. F1
11. Multiple alleles
12. Codominance
13. Polygenic inheritance
14. Lethal gene
15. Epistatic gene
II.
Mendelian Inheritance
A. Monohybrid Cross (5 pts)
WW=white ; ww=gray
P1 : WW x ww
W x w
F1: Ww (white feather color)
P2: Ww x Ww
F2: W w
W WW Ww
Ww ww
w

GR: 1:2:1 1 – WW (white); 2 Ww (white); ww (gray)
PR: 3:1 3 white ; 1 gray
B. Dihybrid Cross (10 pts.)
P1 : SSYY x ssyy
SY x sy
F1 : SsYy (spherical yellow seeds)
P2: SsYy x SsY
F2 : S s Y y
SS Ss YY Yy
S Y
Ss ss Yy yy
s Y
1 SS; 2 Ss;1 ss X 1 YY; 2 Yy ; 1 yy
1 YY ------ 1 SSYY smooth yellow

Phenotypic ratio:
1 SS 2 Yy --------2 SSYy smooth yellow
9 S_Y_ smooth yellow
1 yy ------ 1 SS yy smooth green 3 S_yy smooth green
3 ssY_ dented yellow
1 YY ------ 2 SsYY smooth yellow 1 ssyy dented green
2 Ss 2 Yy ------4 SsYy smooth yellow
yy ------ 2 Ss yy smooth green
1 YY ------ 1 ssYY dented yellow
2 Yy ------2 ssYy dented yellow

1 ss
1 yy ------ 1 ss yy dented green

Non-mendelian Inheritance
A. Incomplete Dominance (5 pts.)
PP = red pp= white Pp= pink
P1 : PP x pp
F1 : Pp (pink)
P2 : Pp x Pp
F2 :
P p
PP Pp
P G.R. 1 PP (red); 2Pp (pink); 1 pp (white)
Pp pp
p
B. Recessive Epistasis (10 pts.)

P1 : CCrr (yellow) x ccRR (white)
F1 : CcRr (red)
P2: CcRr x CcRr
R r
F2: C c
RR Rr
CC Cc
C R
c r Rr rr
Cc cc
1 CC; 2 Cc;1 cc X 1 RR; 2 Rr ; 1 rr

1 RR ------1 CCRR red onion bulb
1 CC 2 Rr -------2 CCRr red onion bulb

Phenotypic ratio:
1 rr ------ 1 CCrr yellow onion bulb 9 C_R_ red onion bulb
3 C_rr yellow onion
1 RR ------ 2 CcRR red onion bulb bulb

2 Cc 4 cc_ white onion
2 Rr ------ 4 CcRr red onion bulb
1 rr ------ 2 Ccrr yellow onion bulb bulb

P.R. - 9:3:4
1 RR ------ 1 ccRR white onion bulb

1 cc
2 Rr ------ 2 ccRR white onion bulb
1 rr ------ 1 ccrr white onion bulb
42-45 Excellent Proceed to the next lesson

26 and below Needs Improvement Oops! Go back to the previous
lesson

Submit this assignment handwritten in a short bond paper.

Solve the following genetic problems (show step by step solution):
1. Mendelian inheritance (5 pts.)
White color (W) is dominant to yellow color (w) in squash. A heterozygous white fruit plant
is crossed with a yellow fruit plant. What is the expected phenotype ratio of the offspring?
2. Incomplete Dominance (5 pts.)
In cattle, RR = red, Rr = roan, and rr = white. What are the predicted color phenotypes
and their frequencies for the offspring from crosses between:
a. a red bull and a white cow
b. a red bull and a roan cow
c. a roan bull and a roan cow
3. Recessive Epistasis (5 pts)

Flower colour in Salvia. Two genes on different chromosome A/a and B/b are involved:
AAbb = pink B =purple
aaBB = white b = pink
AaBb = purple
Homozygous recessive aa is epistatic to B and b
a. What colour flowers would aaBb, AaBb and AAbb have?
b. What ratio of colours do you expect in the offspring of two AaBb plants?

References:
Ramirez, Dolores A. GENETICS, 7th Ed, 1991, SEAMO-SEARCA, UPLB, Laguna

De la Pena, Jr. Renato A, et.al. GENERAL BIOLOGY, 2016 ed. JFS Publishing
Services.
Snustad, Peter D. and Simmons Michael J PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS, 6th Ed. 2012,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
https://www.genome.gov/Pages/Education/Modules/BasicsPresentation.pdf
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Genetics/Book%3A_Online_Open_Genetics_(Nick
le_and_Barretteg)/06%3A_Genetic_Analysis_of_Multiple_Genes/6.2%3A_Epistasis_an
d_Other_Gene_Interactions
https://www.saddleback.edu/faculty/steh/bio20folder/geneticproblems.pdf
https://www.yc.edu/v6/academics/pathway/biodocs/GeneticsProblems.pdf
https://www.bio.fsu.edu/~winn/BSC2011_02/Mendelian_problems.pdf
https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~genetics/Research/2010JEdCompRes.pdf
https://www.csus.edu/indiv/p/peavyt/184/3lect184.pdf
Video Credits:
Mendelian Genetics and Punnet Square
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3f_eisNPpnc&t=58s
Incomplete and codominance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Bkc7SGVwqI
Solving genetic problems

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qcmdb25Rnyo
How to use forked-line method to solve probability problems in Genetics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUWou0iBV6w


Principles of Genetics 1: Joy M. Alano, Mat

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PRINCIPLES OF

JOY M. ALANO, MAT

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 MODULE I - GENETICS: THE SCIENCE OF HEREDITY

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LEARNING APPROACHES: Asynchronous and synchronous discussion of the

Estimated Time Frame: 1.5 hours lecture

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B. THE BEGINNINGS OF GENETICS

The following scientific milestones has led to a better understanding of how

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August Weismann (1834-1914) proposed the Germplasm

Kolreuter (1733-18067) observed that although hybrids

Increase your knowledge! Suggested Readings:

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1903 Walter S. Sutton in the United States of America and

1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan and Calvin B.Bridges in 1916

With James Watson and Francis Crick’s discovery of the

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In a relatively short time, researchers discovered how DNA functions as the

C. THE SCOPE OF GENETICS

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Increase your knowledge!

*Genetics 101. National Geographic Jul 12, 2018

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Learning Activity 1 (SAQ 1) : Let us see what you have learned.

II. True or False

Answer to Learning Activity 1 (ASAQ 1)

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Your Score Verbal Interpretation Your Action

15 Excellent Proceed to the next lesson

Assignment 1: To be submitted for grading

Research on recent studies conducted by scientists related to genetics. Discuss three

Rubrics for scoring:

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Ramirez, Dolores A. GENETICS, 7th Ed, 1991, SEAMO-SEARCA, UPLB,

MODULE 2 -THE CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF HEREDITY

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Estimated Time Frame: 3 hours lecture

THE CELL THEORY

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Let us review the parts and

THE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL

1. Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall

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Organelles Structure Function

a.Endoplasmic winding network of membranes Provides channels through which

produces lipids, cholesterol, and

b. Mitochondria slender rod or filaments synthesize adenosine triphosphate

d. Lysosomes vesicles present only in animal break down large organic

e. Centrioles cylinder-like structures located involved in the movement of

f. Plastids Round or oval bodies that are contain pigments

contain red, yellow, red and

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contain pigments for colorless

g. Vacuoles Membrane-bound bodies For food storage (food vacuole),

h. Microtubules, Thread-like support and movement

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There are two general types of cells:

 Prokaryotic cell – lack membrane-bound subcellular

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