AH-64 Apache Wing Design Project Paul Poungsangchaun’ Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, 400 Bizzel St, College Station, TX 77843 AERO 304 -700 Abstract In order to demonstrate the effects of stress, shear, structural integrity, and forces on a AH-64 Apache Helicopter, we must take into account the three parts of physical sciences -- kinematics, material science, and physical principles. Given our knowledge from introduction to flight, kinematics and dynamics of a material, and material science from our previous AERO courses, values could be found for which different types of actions could take part if we were to calculate the blade into its individual components. As a result, values such as area, lift, moment of inertia, clastic modulus, stress and shear could be found. With our results, we are then able to break the blade into components of aerodynamic and dynamic loading in which we can see how the blade will act differently. In the end, these calculations give us a better insight into how blade performance will work in real world scenarios as we could expect issues such as cracking, fatigue, yielding, and acrodynamic/dynamic failure. ‘Student, Department of Aerospace EngineeringPoungsangehaun 1 (C= chord length it coefficient section lift coefficient L = lengths ( blade, spar webs, spar web connectors) (x)= lift pr unit length of blade «> dynamie pressure pair mass density «= angle of blade rotation angle of attack v peedveocity m= mas (gross weight) {= area (par and ctoss sectional) M= mach number 2 = gravitational acceleration position along chord 11 %4 thickness along the chord {= thickness (chord, spar, skins) S=Area b= height ‘T= temperature F = force (specifically will be used to denote lift foree) x= position along chord y= position relative to surface of airfoil along chord ideal gas constant 0 =angle of twist o> stress = strain = shear flow 1+ moment of inertia Jastic modulus M,.= molecule of air My=M,= Vy internal moments force acting in y-direction Pe Py = Pe = Ve" Wy = vz = external loads (4, ¥g, We) = displacements A{h) = function of height 2, ~mass density of aluminum 7075 ~ stress levelPoungsangehaun 2 INTRODUCTIO’ Aerodynamics provides flight envelopes with no consideration of structural design or failure, Structural mechanics provides equations for failure with no consideration of aerodynamic forces or aerodynamic limits such as stalls. The purpose of this project is to combine aerodynamics and structural mechanics by demonstrating blade mechanics on the AH-64 Apache Helicopter. The Helicopter You will design the rotor blade for the AH-64. Figure I: AH-64 helicopter The Blade The notation used herein does not match the standard notation used in helicopter theory. ‘The AH-64 blade is HH-02 at the root and NACA 64A006 at the tip. For the purpose of this project, we will begin using a NACA four digit, As a result we will be using a NACA 0012. Unlike the real AH-64 blade, your blade will be prismatic, meaning that it will not taper and the thickness is constant. The spar caps are treated as stringers, also called booms, which carry the bending loads, also called direct loads, but no shearing loads, The skin and the spar webs carry the shearing loads but no direct loads,Poungsangehaun 3 yy Figure 2: Top view of wing x * into the page a “, not part of the 2 structure Figure 3: View from the root towards the tip, showing location of main spar and secondary spar THEORY The following equation is a representation for a symmetrical 4-digit NACA airfoil:[7] B=s [0.2960] -0 1260(2)—0.3516(2)° + 0.2843(2)° - 0.1015(3)° ]osks10 w where A is the position along the chord, 77 is one-half of the thickness at a given distance along the chord, C is the chord, and 1 is the maximum thickness as a fraction of the chord, so that t is given by the last two digits of the NACA 4-digit denomination divided by 100. For the purpose of the project the blade length is given to be L = 7.2m and the chord length is given to be C= L/15 [7]Poungsangehaun 4 The lift force equation found in the Anderson [3] is given by F=Seq 2 Where S represent the area, c, is the sectioned lift coefficient, and q is the dynamic pressure. ‘The area can be rewritten as S=CL GB) for non-tapered blades “C” represents the chord length and “L” represents the length of the blade. From the Introduction of Aerodynamic by Anderson, we learned that the dynamic pressure can be written in such notation such that a> tov? a where * p” is the atmospheric density and “V” is velocity. We will neglect any drag forces. Assume that the blade is an infinite airfoil, so the helicopter body and the tip have no effect on the aerodynamics. Thin airfoil theory predicts that the section lift coefficient of a symmetric airfoil of infinite ‘wingspan is given by = 2n (a) aldeg) 6.) where @ is in units of radians. The data in Appendix D in Introduction to Flight [1] show that eqn (2) is a good assumption until @ is large enough to initiate a stall, @ in that data is in units of degrees, in which case the equation becomes = 2) 3 Gat) odes) 62) Assuming that we are using a thin airfoil, the theory predicts the section lift coefficient of a symmetric airfoil with infinite wingspan is given by the following equation. Where the effects of Reynolds number is neglected. Recalling from AERO 201, we know that atmospheric density is a function of altitude, As a result, we will use the density equation. In order to understand the values with respect to altitude, we must consider that temperature is linearly related to altitude, As a result the temperature change is the time lapse rate ‘where temperature is a function of height. [3] P= por ex ey 6 T= Ty+Tyh oPoungsangehaun 5 ‘We can also recall that the speed of sound is a function of altitude and temperature. From the ideal gas law, we can rewrite the speed of sound equation to be [3] Yooana = YE 8) The relation between linear and angular speed is as follows V= Myx where ,,, is the angular speed and x is the position along the blade length. We will substitute x for L = 7.2m. Displacement In order to find the displacement along our blade, we must find the internal and external resultants, moment of inertia, forces, area, and coordinates that would allow us to manipulate our equations Because our blade is prismatic and homogenous, thermal loadings can drop, * values can change to non *, Elastic Modulus £1 will be just E, and all moments of inertia acting in two different planes will equal zero due to symmetry. Where a = o We can algebraically solve for P + tie) x (ts + Mie) Tyla: ~ AE Lyle — 12 1) d?vq _ (Mz — MI) + (My + My) dx? E\USls - 12) (9.2) Figure 5: v_0 deflection derivationPoungsangehaun 6 d?wo _ —(My + My)IS ~ (Mz — MIDI dx? E\(igls — 1) (9.3) Figure 6: w_0 deflection derivation Yon Mises Stress Criterion and Twist The maximum von Mises stress criterion is also known as the Shear-energy theory or max distortion energy theory, In order to understand this criterion, we must know that stress in the blade is due to centripetal acceleration, For the purpose of this project, the blade is homogenous. Therefore. 0 oy = 6:2 = Gye = Gz Cy Gxl,942) = Oxx(X) Taking the summation of forces in the x direction: O= Say ta 4 x = at de de 1 X= POy ‘Neglecting body forces and accounting for our zeros, the only term to remain is the partial derivative in the sigma xx direction. As a result. oy 2 Fe = -pQ,, * (10) We can now integrate this and use boundary conditions to get the constant of integration, Ga(X,) = Oat the tip of the blade This stress is present at all points in the structure, including spar caps, webs, and skins, In terms of principal stresses, the von Mises stress is expressed as the following: 6, ~ von Mises(effective) stress 6y ~ (6x = yy)" + (yy = B22)? + (Gre = Ges) + (Gy-2 FG? + Fy?)] ay Yielding occurs when (a good approximation for most metals) 22 ¥? = (BEY = 34? curve fit aL Note that o, > 0Poungsangehaun 7 In order to understand the von Mises stress, maximum deflection, and angle of rotation of the blade, we ‘must follow the equation from the Allen and Haisler such that [2] My=2 3 Aa, = 24a) * Anta) (2) To solve the following equation such that our ¢-values are unknown, we can follow the follow equation for theta = gge o- sage Where theta can equal the angle of twist if we view it from the equation: oF which is the angle of twist per unit length. External and Internal Resultants Be hn cag ~ [pst de> Posy = Pe) ~ ["p,00 a oO VQ) = Vy(x) — f i) de vas) = Vann ~ fps ae ca Mo) = Mae) ~ [mg de MQ) = Myo) - ie) — V,Q)) de we? = My) - [mee + VQ) de Figure 7:Resultant equations ‘Max Rivet Spacing The goal is to determine max rivet spacing (4.36a) (4.36b) (4.36c) (4.36d) (4.36e) (4.36F) 2.1) (12.2) (13- 13.5)Poungsangehaun 8 ay ~ Oust aay The shear force on rivet is Arg = 3D" oan) The equation for the force between rivet is as followed au =F (142) (43) Crack Growth The stress intensity factor (which is not the same as the stress concentration factor, which you do not need here) K is given by K = Yovra aay where © is the component of tensile stress that is normal to the face of the crack, ais the crack length in ‘meters, and Yis a non dimensional shape factor, and in this case ¥=1.0. (Note that Y is not the yield stress of the material). The crack will grow if the stress intensity factor equals a critical value, Key , also called the fiacture toughness, which is a material property. The equation can be rearranged to solve for the critical value of the stress that will cause the crack to grow: K, = Ger is.) Upon achieving a stress that is not considered tensile, we can use the following to transform out stress to which we can obtain the tensile stress equation 3 = a,/cos(9) (15.2) =4 (15.3) The stress level is denoted as (16) The values in our stress level can be broken down into the difference of the stress cycles divided by two. To take the difference we must find the highest stress cycle and lowest stress cycle, where the eyele (in this case), is a varying value in respects to alpha.Poungsangehaun 9 Al) GEOMETRY Referencing to Eqn (1) the following equations can be formed to find the depth of spar webs, length of lines connecting the spar caps, and the areas enclosed by the two sections of our blade. The cross sectional area of each centroid is denoted by the following equations: 2 =2) nde ase 2° sec [0.2969] —0.1260 (2) ~o.3s16(2)? +0.2803(2)' -0.1015(8)"] am ° — one > : ‘ 25 sic [0296042 0.1260 (2) —0.3516(4)° + 0.2843(2)° —0.1015(2)"] aa ase f s1c [o2s60-f ~0.1200(2)- o3si6(3y +0.2883(2)* —0.1015(2)"] he 2 —o.1260(8 ay r028ea(2)" —0.1015(2)" In order to find the depth of the spat webs, we must utilize the chord equation with our given conditions, and double the resultant in order to account for both the top and bottom of the spars. Lal: =sic [o. 2569)3 -0. 1260(2)—0.3516(2)" + 0.2843(4)' -0.1015(8)"] x2 ‘To find the length of the lines connecting the spar caps, the length of a line segment formula or by integration could be used to find an approximated length. Where x represents the position along the chord and y represents the position relative to the surface of the airfoil at the following chord position L Later on, in a spreadsheet, we can use these symbolic equations with the given lengths of blade length and chord to solve for these systems. Locate the Centroid (USING NACA 0012) Ly =Ly= Ves Oa Las 2, = 0.240370926392mPoungsangehaun 10 Ly 5(0.129048) [ 02960) ne (t)- o3s16( See = 0.0570335925m = 50.12)0.48)L oasis)! +0.2843(2842)' _0,1015(2842)') x2 Ta oss 0.296955 — 0.1260 (8 sa oa) L,70.030338939813m — _ 02s) l az ‘| A,=2 J 5(0.12)(0.48) [0.2969 Jz — 0.1260 (pe) —0.3516( A)’ +0.2843( Ae)’ —0.1015( ce) ] aa ] (ae) -9.3516( cis) (aia (aa) Ay =0.005316912m a J 5(0,12\0.48) [0.296925 — 0.1260 (cz) 0.3516( Ag)’ +0.2843( sz)” -0.1015(2x)"] aa 0116455535551m Due to symmetry and the location of the coordinate system: As for 7_bar, Iyy, and Izz, we ean find those values with respect to the area of the spar and the chord length: Zhan = AY spar G) * 205 spar FI) (2A4 spar + 2s spay ) = 0.24. ~ QA, sper bar = FP) 25 spr 8S = 2h) * 2A par *2As pap) = 0.1301 gmn'2 es = A spr $Y) + 2045 par EY) * 2A, yar + 24s gap ) -0.0005217 eg 2Poungsangehaun 11 A2) NEWTON'S SECOND LAW Free Body Diagram Figure 8 : Free Body Diagram of Helicopter To solve for static equilibrium in the vertical direction, the thrust with it’s respected angle, gravity and weight must be accounted for and summed. DFma, SF) = mh, = Teos 6 —mg Substituting T and isolating mg, we achieve the equation mg =4F cos 0 Where 1 =4F , F being the lift force of one blade — neglecting effects of « (blade rotation) and h is altitude. AF cos 8 - mg = mij, For steady hover, hij, F = 25> at steady hoverPoungsangehaun 12 A3) LIFT BLADE AND ODE ‘Using the following conditions found in the assignment source and external resources the following assumptions can be made: Blade length (L) = 7.2m Chord (C) = ane Blade tip Mach number = 0.8 Gross weight = mg = 8,006 kg = 78458.8 N The lift equation can be formed using Eqn (2-5.2) s Where $ 1L we can achieve the section lift coefficient of 1 Upon getting the section lift coefficient we can then integrate the lift force F=f iledx = [eCa(x)dx = Cl pV (ade o We can denote that V = @,,,, the force equation will now simplify into C ep Lagl? In order to use the density in our force equation, we must account for the density equation. The average height of the hover must be known to decide on which variation of the density equation would be used. The service ceiling of the AH-64 is 6,100m meaning operation of the AH-64 is assumed to be contained in the troposphere [6]. Therefore, the initial conditions ean be assumed to be at sea level - allowing us to rewrite Eqn (7) with the following values.Poungsangehaun 13, hiy=0 M,, = 0.0289 p= 125ep( ety As a result, we are left with one unknown variable, h -- height Because the AH-64 is assumed to be in the troposphere during hover, the time lapse rate I’, is -0.0065 & which can be substituted into eqn (8). T = 288 - 0.0065: ‘Making the assumption that we are in cold-air standard for dry air, our constant 7 = 1.40. Asa result, we can substitute our values to solve the following = 4[RTEREOEED ~ 39 95 Shae OEE a= KBREOEED ~ 99,95 ARR — 0.0065K For the purpose of this assignment, it is assumed that the angular velocity, @,,,,, will not be accelerating, Therefore ®,,, will be constant so the blade speed is only a function of the length of the blade (x). We are accounting for the blade tip of L= 7.2m In order to achieve @ Vj, Value, the Vg < MV jag Where M is the mach number and V jag is the velocity of sound, The maximum mach number for the purpose of this project will be M = 0.8. This is to account for the factor of safety. As for the speed of sound, the value is a function of altitude — being a composite function, Accounting for the mach at the tip, the velocity can be approximated to be 272 # assuming speed of sound is 340.3 ® at standard atmosphere conditions, Where Vitip) = V(L)= 94, and x= =7.2{m] 08M sound = Ado TLD] 28s jg, = Set = 2.23 Y28R — 0.0065 +h From eqn (8) we know that ¥,,,,4 is equal to the following with these initial conditions: Ysoune = YUE y= 140 R=831 T= (288- 0.0065h) M=0.0289Poungsangehaun 14 Applying the following procedure above with oUF V4, equation, we achieve the following 2, equation as shown wy, afi Dy, = PM aNd Young — 0.0289, TET T 2,,- But for symbolic purposes we will keep the speed of sound as @ variable until the end We previously derived a new ,,, equation that could now be utilized in our lift equation. = Gh oy( py 1’) P= eSh+ pV 7L)M*(L)L) We must note that ¢, = 0.10 F = (1.61810) + (pV) *(CL)* Muy Let th) = p,¥7,q) where we want the equation to be in terms of h, altitude Assuming C= 0, then F = (111x107) «f(s PMP) Using our rewritten equations, value assumptions, and the gross weight value, we can substitute the values into the lift equation to find height. Recalling from our static equilibrium equation with respect to the lif force, mg = 4cos 6 F, we can substiFrom the carlier process, we wrote the air density equation in terms of changing altitude. This equation can be substituted in so that the only unkntute the simplified lift force equation as followed. AKF Jeos 0-mg Where mhj, = “Sand h(t) denotes an ODE The only variable left in the equation is height. Where p = 1.225-exp[ 222849) we can further simplify this equation to bePoungsangehaun 15 1.225% expl- 1.185-10A] Substituting it into our rewritten lift equation we get the following ig = BASNIO) +f) + EM2(L)a 08 8-mg Isolating f(h) we obtain. = ____ ei 10)- Geaewean ae ME) - Ar 51288-0065 Sh) = pV? = (1.225 « exp[- 1.185-107 hp RRs) Where p¥7 is both a function of altitude ‘We can note that this equation is a nonlinear second order differential equation because the ODE depends oon more than one variable. Ady N N, N noe partot the sci Rew OM i O-2sG, Figure 9: Cross section from view from the root Applying the work for A3) L F =f gar ° Ios) = CEpV 2G) = /C2PM ye? = a? Where a= ¢,C2pQj,," therefore Kx) = ax?Poungsangehaun 16 Quel = VL) = MW song >= PY sunt ¢; = Ola (deg) a= lal V sound = (SX WICH APY sauna)” For our equation, we must follow the following assumptions Constant of M(L) is fixed, for example M(L)=0.8 Fxn of altitude Extern: px=pz=my=mz-0 py =Ix) Pye—$) mx = py(x) Where the following constants and equation equal... I) = ax? a= (5x 107)CO apV sound)? = x 1076 Path) Where we know that {(h) = p(V soup)” allowing us to make this equation a function of h, For the integration, we are using the boundaries x1— 0 and x2 ~ x Internal: P=Vz=My =0 Vy =~ dar — 15x 1 }CHB Pap(P ga)” #6088 M, = tax (2-4) cos 8 M.= hax‘ cos® Because we are not assuming steady hover, cos 0 will added on to end of our internal resultantsPoungsangehaun 17 Initial Conditions Thickness is t= 0.001 m In order to understand the von Mises stress, maximum deflection, and angle of rotation of the blade, we must follow the equation from the Allen and Haisler such that [2] 2 Mz =25 Ag, = 24a) + Ang) From problem Ad Part A, we derived to find that the intemal force moment about xis. M,=-(7-$) «tpV7SCe, cos To solve the following equation such that our q-values are unknown, we can follow the follow equation for theta Al OF TWIST AND VON MI O= hylan s Fon 84) L the Tig (1 soot 2 Or= Fg (n$ ta $F) 8= aig (aah anc We know that = {2 which isthe angle of twist per unit length Upon obtaining theta 1 and 2, we can set the theta values equal to cach other duc to the beam being prismatic. This logic follows as the beam is uniform and the change in angle will be the same. We can set 0, =0, such that. el g)-e2= 3g, +04 qPoungsangehaun 18 We can now form a matrix in which we can use reduced row echelon form to solve for ql and ql where theta one will equal the moment and theta two will equal to zero. Figure 10: Curve length from 0 to 0.25 Chord Where Mx is multiplied by cos to account for pitch angle (ay soit ~9az0r) 8 ae %, (425001 4G + ooo) ie NOTE: “s” denotes the curvature from leading edge to quarter chord DERIVING CENTROIDAL DISPLACEMENT Following this matrix, the q-values are now known. With the q-values, we can find our shearing forces and stress forces Because P= 0Poungsangehaun 19 “& Ele Me Er* + Cx +0, For which M, = ;sax* and J. is some constant value solved in Al "= artcost Vo ~ TEL y= axkcost Vy > “Cont, C1 ateos 4 C . ¥y = Seog, + Cx + Co Solving for C; at the tip (L)...x=0 , V5 = Solving for C, atthe tip (L)..x=0 v5 =0 c,=0 Because My = 0 as solved in A4 we can state MAX Vor MIS] DI IVATIO! In terms of principal stresses, the von Mises stress is expressed as the following: 6, = von Mises(effective) stressPoungsangehaun 20 2 2 6(6,.2 +622 + 6y)] = H(Gu— 8) + (Gy 82) + (Oxe— Yielding occurs when ( a good approximation for most metals) y? = (\Bk)? = 3 curve fit Note that 6, > 0 AG) CALCULATING YIELD FORCE, DISPLACEMENT, ANGLE OF TWIST, AND VON MISES. WHERE WILL YIELDING INITIATE If we were to take the stress We are assuming that yield will initiate at the root of the blade at x equation and set the derivative equal to zero itis assumed that x: the function is only one term, ULATE LIFT THAT WILL CAUSE YIELD Solving for the lift with respect to yielding we obtain the following: Pad “i Fylde pV A) = eC 3p Q 4,73? = ax, where a= C\ChpQ 7 Vyitd®) = Ayia Must, 24,= at Ie) = ¢ Bia = $OO.N) EY PY sun” Min? Big = 0.08 CAPY CPV sound) We now obtain a fully simplified equation that demonstrates where yielding will initiate P yaad | Cyt OE =A yg |? o ° ia Nya F yts= HO.0SCEPY AV sound )) ving for the Fivield Mz= fx‘ cos Fe Vy=#x' cos0Poungsangehaun 21 Fryieta = Ayicid’s C088 M2) _ mated veo 90 = Gytg = O30 = Ta o yi Bren Fyield = (PS) Fcos0= -&) Solving von mises at a height of h=6100m (service ceiling) we achieve a force yield for F(yield) is already all a function of f{h), so in order to solve for a direct value we must set a h In order to find the centroidal displacement, we must redo our internal and external distributions with respeets to yielding Externs px=pz=my=mz=0 etd) mx = py(x)=—p,(@— Where the following constants and equation equal Vyetdl®) = Ayia? Mn,2, Aya ~ 0.05 CPP APY sound ) = 6x10) cy afin) Where we know that f{h) = pV qd)” allowing us to make this equation a function of h For the integration, we are using the boundaries x1= 0 and x2 = x ern) P=Vz=My Vy =— Rajat? cos 8 My= }ayugX? @— $)c08 0Poungsangehaun 22 Because P= 0 u,=0 44-0 Plugging in Saat = fue! go wer, * C1 ayaa " tee 0 Suet, TCX +C Solving for C, at the tip (L)... x =0 ,v/,=0 c,=0 Solving for C, atthe tip (L)..x-0 vy -0 =0 dirs Now plug in x= to account for the wingtip and substitute ain terms of yield _ Grice % ‘360EI, PagaesPoungsangehaun 23, 2 LC. der,* + Cx + Cy Because My = 0 as solved in A4 we can state w,=0 sxc 3608 Pads 0 Displacement at the tip at®cost (Sx 107) CAE Parumicos® (24qs Vo Wo) =(0, goa 0) 0, sun, 9) Solving for the angle of twist, 0 derived equation in AS which is the angle of twist per unit length, We solve for q from the QI =-1049.0864= 1049.0864 (clockwise) Q2 = -1082.4454 = 1082.4454clockwise) (a tat 421 Since 0,=0, for 0= & We achieve 0~-0,0004467 (rad) = -0.0256 (deg) which is approximately a full 360° turn. Assuming stall occurs at a= 8(deg), we can solve for a h-value where {(h) = p(V sound)” F ya =H 0.05CPY G0) LF £0) = PV sana A{h) = (1.225 + exp[— 1185-10 Ap SAE ase ons, To solve for h, we must isolate f(h) Asa result we get an altitude of h=0 (sea-level). This is the same as the helicopter performing takeoff or landing.Poungsangchaun 24 The following assumption can be made since “Rotor stalls happen most often on takeoff or landing. By solving for f{h), the height obtained was at h= 0 which is at takeoft/landing. It is due to the pilot having to pull maximum power to cither take off from a hover or de: autorotation recoveries, when students yank on the coll (31 id into one. It's also common on ive as they see the ground rushing up” - AOPA While this statement is based on a real world scenario, we have to account for our project that is not relative to the real world scenario, While the height of the stall is relatively close to zero, the value is actually negative, This is due to the relation of alpha and h in our velocity of sound and that results in a ‘trending negative value of height. This negative trend of height for stall denotes that the yielding of a helicopter tends to yield at a stall of a small height value rather than large (which was normally expected) Asa result, his negative value can relate to sea-level as stated in reference [3] or any height that is relatively low in the positive direction. 285-0465) sossoaseabeto = (1azserp-1185 10" hi f.4ns. 28 asaezamebc tot 499 976" a8 0H 1601x107 hoe -oonstira wstonsmabe te = -2208ep.-"" 443677 naseonmeonabcie = Maa. sanmap ey wosepsasasctot =e" e207. 120859 Figure 11: Stall height for yieldingPoungsangehaun 25 ACCELERATION In order to find the associated vehicle acceleration in the upward direction, i.e. the second time derivative of the altitude with ©=0 deg, we must find for when > 0. To find the value, we will use the force yield at our specific height of 6100m. (This height can be altered later on in the google spreadsheet) inhi, = AF Joos 0-me Rg = (UF Joos 9-mg)/m Because cos(0) = 1 iy, > UF) -mgyim STEADY HOVER calculate the maximum von Mises stress, the displacements (uo, vp, Wo) of the tip, and angle of twist of the tip. Atsteady hover, hj,,=/y,,= 0 as noted in section A2. Therefore the force equation can be altered to, me Fond But because in our inital statement, it states that 00 deg, it can be further simplified to Foe aF=mg The lift equation is simplifies to the following F = 6 Sh + pQayrV ae BBX 1 VCEP APY saad Where fh) = pV? Intern: P=Vz= My = FE 1H Pap sad = jax (@-§)Poungsangchaun 26 ig vor) $0, Abe, 0) (0, SEER Fatt oy (tg, Vos Wo) =0, 0.00003, 0) Ata steady hover where pitch is not accounted for, the value will not change significantly unless the pitch is changed to a higher degree, For the purpose of this, I chose a pitch angle of 8 deg for no hover. Similarly to the previous displacement with respect to a change of pitch angle, the cos(x) is dropped in this notation as the vehicle is in steady hover. The rest is as followed when following the von mises and angle of twist per unit length equation. The solutions are found in the excel for exact values in which cos(0) = | In order for yield to initiate our von mises stress must exceed our yield strength. That does happen in our results in which the von mises is SSSMPa and the yield strength is S0SMpa AT) CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION Centripetal Acceleration is similarly to dynamic loading without the case of shear stresses being applied, VON M 2 jor art io Qui¥y Sux (0)=0 Gx (Ly, Ol?) ae a= Vion? = WYER, ull) = VIP May Quill?) DISPLACEMENT Applying the displacement derivation from previous assignments we know that we are zero by initial assumption. Alongside the value vg will also be equal to zero for centripetal acceleration. only acts on the x-direction, ¢ centripetalPoungsangehaun 27 ‘Now we must solve tg . In order to solve for up we must find the force P, which is noted as zero in previous sections. We know that we can rearrange oy can be rearranged in terms of the force P and Area (A). In order to find P, we must use Gyr as a centripetal stress Bait P=o,,(centripetal)A + Oy* 2) Now applying the displacement formula: by = Saltillo ee y= Be 6°) But for maximum we use x=L to achieve. Sait (os Vor Wa) HSE HO ML"), 0,0) ANGLE OF TWIST The angle of twist per unit length will also equal zero as there are no shears acting within centripetal acceleration. Shear only accounts in the axial loading therefore 8=( o-0 OMEGA DOT YIELD Using our force yield equation that was previously derived in section A, we can isolate omega dot in terms of the yielding lift to find a value in which centripetal acceleration will occur. L Ft = | uA ° “hog 2 CC PQ viet Fred) = Ayia F yield 34yietale Fryuta= HC iCPQ IE?Poungsangehaun 28 As a result the centripetal acceleration at yield equation is noted as the following from the tip of the blade: co vio Meco? 2, We can use this to plug in for our displacement in the u0 direction. WHERE WILL YIELDING INITIATE To find where the derivative equal to zero we can go back to the derivative of ry and set that equal to zero FE Dag Ont Because this is a function of x, and derivative has to equal to zero we know that x = 0 Referring back to ox _to where we integrated from 0 to L, we can replace that form with the form of ox =o P=o,, (centripetal) A = S08 y atass Density « (L?) P= ore centripetal) A = 0*A. ty Finding the derivative of uO, we have both the left and right hand side equal to zero, Therefore yielding will initiate at x =0 (the root of the blade) A8) COMBINED LOADING For this section we are combining both the dynamic and aerodynamic load. We can use the principle of superposition Applying data from previous sections at our Qo, yield) = 222.54632 M(L)=08 Similarly to A6, we calculated the force lift that will yield: (code Fae” Ha 1x) = CA pV @Y = eyC4p 04,22 = ax?, where a= C)C4pQ 44."Poungsangehaun 29 Bid) = Ayia Maer. 24 TT ayia = $01) LYM snd ytd = 0.05 COPY APY sand) We now obtain a fully simplified equation that demonstrates where yielding will initiate L ie f el ua Lads = F ytd 3 F yiadA6) 2 HO0SCOPY APY sane?) )L? ADEE iif AT= Y(O.0SCOO% jo?) L? Because of superposition, the Force yield will sum up Combined F = F yfA6)+F yjeiglAT) ‘combined = 66,201,274 N WHERE WILL YIELDING INITIATE: Yielding will not change since it initiated at the root of x=0 for both A6-A7 DISPLACEMENT We can combined the displacement of both AG-A7 to get the combined displacement of the loads in respect to dynamic and aerodynamic loading (Saye Farinutoae 4 (rpm) asl toss Density yee), Sears Al OF TWIsT The angle of twist per unit length is combining the angle of both A6-A7. For A6 there was an angle of twist; however, A7 shows no angle of twist since it is acting along the centripetal force. This is, technically the maximum as itis solved from x= L. You can find the change by replacing all x for any value 0 < x< 7.2m, o- 7 Combined 0 =8 46+ 045 845 = approx 360 (degs) By) = O(deg) Combined 0= $= approx 360 (degs)Poungsangehaun 30 HEIGHT OF YIELD As stated previously, yield of a helicopter rotor would occur approximatel Therefore the altitude of yield would be at sea level of h=Om, y near takeoff or landing, ‘MAX VON MISES, DISPLACEMENT, ANGLE OF TWIST Hovering @ = 0 Maximum occurs @ x=L Where we only have values of oz, we can account for the Gx, (centripetal) for this equation allowing us to obtain the max von mises of the combined loading 8) = $[(Ga— Sy)" + (Gy ~ 02) + (Guo) 6(0,.? 1a: + Oy,?)] = 277,063,062 Nim“2 The displacement will now be in respects to x=L instead of 0 LETs =o we WET, ~ TET, a 360ETz; ~ 24LET: Now plug in x = L to account for the wing tip and substitute a in terms of yield = at We 0 S608, ~ 24ET, y, Symbolically, we achieve a displacement in which we can achieve maximum at x=L, at *\cos0,0) Boo yn Few), Gee — ME (up, Vos Wo) Because we account for the blade weight and combined loading, the angle of twist will differ. 2 o- 7 (0= 0.0036 rad = 0.2086 degs COMPARISON In comparison to section A8, we had to calculate all new distributed external loads and internal force and moment resultants, with the weight of the blade being subtracted from the lift. This results in lower load values and less force in the positive y’ direction overall Al0) RIVET FAILURE ‘Normally, The displacements (4, vp, 5) Due to centripetal acceleration in a homogenous body