Introduction to the module and the Carnot Cycle

• Summary
• Module content
• Revision of the Carnot cycle

Thermodynamics: an engineering approach

Cengel, Yunus A. & Boles, Michael A.
7th or 8th ed EAT223 Thermofluids and Engines
EAT223 Summary
Module title: Thermofluids and Engines
Module size: 20 credits
Lead Teacher: Dr Kevin Burn, Room DG231 David Goldman Informatics Centre, St. Peter’s
Campus. Tel: 0191 515 2778. Email: kevin.burn@sunderland.ac.uk
Teacher: Dr Panagiotis Karagiannidis, Room 113F David Goldman Informatics Centre, St.
Peter’s Campus. Tel: 0191 515 2292. Email: Panagiotis Karagiannidis@sunderland.ac.uk

Learning time: 200 hours

Lectures & Tutorials: 60 hours; Laboratories 15 hours
Self Directed study 125 hours

Assessment methods
Formal Unseen Examination worth 70% of the total mark.
This will comprise two exams of 1.5 hour each.
One will be held in January, the other in May
Coursework, which in total will be worth 30 % of the total mark
Air standard cycles
The working substance in almost all power plants (other than those employing steam
turbines) tends to be a mixture of air and fuel

The presence of fuel greatly complicates the analysis

Also, since different types of engine use different fuels, it can make a true comparison
between various engine types difficult

An effective method of comparing different cycle types is to assume that the working
substance comprises air (ideal gas) only

Hence the term AIR STANDARD CYCLES

We will look at number of these. First, however, we will revise the “perfect heat engine”
cycle studied at Level 1: the Carnot cycle
Air standard cycles

 Don’t waste any work: so make sure engine operates

reversibly (always equilibrium conditions, and no
friction).
 Don’t waste any heat: so make sure no heat is used up
changing the temperature of the engine or working
substance
 i.e. ensure heat input/output takes place isothermally

Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) Four totally reversible processes:

 a-b: Isothermal expansion/heat acceptance
 b-c: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) temperature decrease
 c-d: Isothermal compression/heat rejection
 d-a: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) temperature increase
a-b: isothermal expansion
The working substance (gas) expands isothermally at temperature T1, absorbing heat Q1
from a hot source
b-c: adiabatic expansion
The gas, isolated from hot source, expands adiabatically (and hence isentropically),
and the temperature falls from T1 to T2.
c-d: isothermal expansion
Gas is compressed isothermally at temperature T2, expelling heat Q2 to a cold sink.
d-a: adiabatic compression

Gas is compressed adiabatically, the temperature rises from T2 to T1 and the piston is returned
to its original position

Total work done = shaded area on both the p-V and T-s diagram

This is equivalent to the net heat transfer

Efficiency of ideal gas Carnot engine

W Q1  Q2 Q2
   1
Q1 Q1 Q1
1st law of thermodynamics
1st law of thermodynamics. This convention considers all net energy transfers to the system
as positive and all net energy transfers from the system as negative

Q  U  W

ΔU is the change in internal energy, Q denotes the net quantity of heat supplied to the system
by its surroundings and W denotes the net work done by the system

where
Vf

W    PdV
Vi

Vf
W  mRT ln
Vi
Thermodynamic processes and the 1st law
Isothermal (T=constant)

U  0 Q  W PV  constant

Adiabatic

Q0 U  W PV   constant
TV  1  constant
γ = Cp / Cv (C: specific heat capacities)
Isochoric (V= constant)

W 0 Q  U  mC V  P
 constant
T

Isobaric (P=constant)

V
Q  U  PV Q  mC P   constant
T
Carnot cycle - Summary

Since ΔU=0 Q  U  W  Q  W

V4
Q1  mRT1 ln  0
V3
V2
Q2  mRT2 ln  0
V1

V2 Q2
Q2  mRT2 ln   1
V1 Q1

Q2 T2
  1       1 
Q 1
T1
Example I

An idealised reciprocating engine operates on a Carnot cycle, with air as the working fluid.
The volume varies between 0.15 litres and 1 litre, and at the maximum volume the pressure
and temperature are 1 bar and 25 oC. The isothermal heat rejection, ends when the volume
is 0.5 litres.

Calculate p, V and T at all four points of the cycle P (bar) V (litre) T (oK)
a 10.79 0.15 482.4
Calculate the thermal efficiency of the cycle b 5.39 0.3 482.4
 = 1.4 c 1 1 298
d 2 0.5 298

Hints: [n=38%]
A-B, C-D are isothermal and B-C, D-A are adiabatic processes
Start by drawing the p-V diagram and write down all known data.

Q2 T2
  1  1 Valid only for Carnot cycle
Q1 T1
Example II

A carnot engine is working with heat source of T1=700oK and

heat sink of T2=500oK. In every cycle a mechanical work of 1500
Joule is produced. T1
A second carnot engine is connected in series taking 80% of the Q1
heat rejection from the first engine. The second engine works
with a heat sink of 400oK. Calculate the work produced by the 1 W1
second engine and the thermal efficiency of each engine and of
the system.
Q2
n1=28.6% T2 = T3
n2=20%
W2=599 Joule Q3
ntotal=40%
2 W2

Q4

T4
Vapour power cycles

Vapour power cycles are external combustion systems in which the working fluid
is alternatively vaporized and condensed.

The main objectives are to convert the energy present in the fuels into mechanical
energy and then to electrical energy

Water/steam is easily available, is economical, chemically stable and physiologically

harmless
Carnot Cycle – Vapour cycle
We assume steam to be the working fluid; predominantly used in vapour power cycles

high P Carnot conditions:

Boiler o Reversible processes
o No friction losses
Pump o No heat transfer in
Turbine
the pipelines

Condenser
Low P

1-2 constant T formation of the steam in the boiler

2-3 frictionless adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of the steam in the engine or turbine
3-4 constant T condensation of the steam in the condenser
4-1 frictionless adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the steam in the feed pump back to
water at boiler pressure
The Carnot Cycle in practice
• The isothermal processes 1-2 and 3-4 can be approached closely in actual boilers and
condensers. Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems, however,
severely limits the maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (less than
374oC for water) limiting the thermal efficiency.

• The isentropic expansion process (process 2-3) can be approximated closely by a well-
designed turbine. However, the quality of the steam decreases during this process. Thus
the turbine has to handle steam with low quality, that is, steam with a high moisture
content. The impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causes erosion and is
a major source of wear. Thus steam with qualities less than about 90 percent cannot be
tolerated in the operation of power plants.

• The isentropic compression process (process 4-1) involves the compression of a liquid–
vapor mixture to a saturated liquid. There are two difficulties associated with this
process. First, it is not easy to control the condensation process so precisely as to end up
with the desired quality at state 4. Second, it is not practical to design a compressor that
handles two phases.

The impracticalities of the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by Rankine cycle (soon)