Menelik II

Menelik II (Ge'ez: ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ dagmawi mənilək[nb 1]; horse name Abba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ
ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), baptised as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ
ማርያም sahlä maryam) was Emperor of Ethiopia[nb 2] from 1889 to his death in 1913 and King of
Shewa from 1866 to 1889. At the height of his internal power and external prestige, the process
of territorial expansion and creation of the modern empire-state was completed by 1898.[2]
 Menelik II

Emperor of Ethiopia

Reign 10 March 1889 – 12 December 1913

Coronation 3 November 1889

Predecessor Yohannes IV

Successor Lij Iyasu (designated but uncrowned Emperor of

Ethiopia)

Born 17 August 1844

Angolalla, North Shewa, Ethiopian Empire

Died 12 December 1913 (aged 69)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopian Empire[1]

Burial Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery

(now Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret Church)
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Spouse Altash Tewodros (1855–1865)

Bafena Wolde Mikael (1865–1882)
Taytu Betul (1882–1913)

Issue Zewditu I
Shoa Ragad
Wossen Seged

Names
 Sahle Maryam (baptismal name)

Abba Dagnew (horse name)

Dynasty House of Solomon (Shewan Branch)

Father Haile Melekot (King of Shewa)

Mother Woizero Ejigayehu

Religion Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo

This article contains Ethiopic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question
marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Ethiopic characters.

The Ethiopian Empire was transformed under Emperor Menelik: the major signposts of
modernisation were put in place, with the assistance of key ministerial advisors. Externally,
Menelik led Ethiopian troops against Italian invaders in the First Italo-Ethiopian War; following a
decisive victory at the Battle of Adwa, recognition of Ethiopia's independence by external powers
was expressed in terms of diplomatic representation at his court and delineation of Ethiopia's
boundaries with the adjacent colonies.[2] Menelik expanded his realm to the south and east, into
Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or republics,[3][4]: 2 

Later in his reign, Menelik established the first Cabinet of Ministers to help in the administration
of the Empire, appointing trusted and widely respected nobles and retainers to the first
Ministries. These ministers would remain in place long after his death, serving in their posts
through the brief reign of Lij Iyasu (whom they helped depose) and into the reign of Empress
Zewditu.

Today, the Battle of Adwa remains national pride of Ethiopians, celebrated in March annually, and
inspired Pan-African movements around the globe.[5]

Early life …

Menelik is the son of a Shewan Amhara aristocrat, Negus Haile Melekot, and probably of the
palace servant girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.[6] He was born in Angolalla and baptized to the
name Sahle Maryam.[7] His father, at the age of 18 before inheriting the throne, impregnated
Ejigayehu, then left her;[8] he did not recognize that Sahle Maryam was born.[9] The boy enjoyed a
respected position in the royal household and he received a traditional church education.[10]
In 1855 the Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, invaded the then semi-independent kingdom of
Shewa. Early in the subsequent campaigns, Haile Malakot died, and Sahle Miriam was captured
and taken to the emperor’s mountain stronghold, Amba Magdela. Still, Tewodros treated the
young prince well, even offering him his daughter Altash Tewodros in marriage, which Menelik
accepted.

Upon Menelik's imprisonment, his uncle, Haile Mikael, was appointed as Shum[nb 3] of Shewa by
Emperor Tewodros II with the title of Meridazmach.[nb 4] However, Meridazmach Haile Mikael
rebelled against Tewodros, resulting in his being replaced by the non-royal Ato[nb 5] Bezabeh as
Shum. Ato Bezabeh in turn rebelled against the Emperor and proclaimed himself Negus of
Shewa. Although the Shewan royals imprisoned at Magdala had been largely complacent as
long as a member of their family ruled over Shewa, this usurpation by a commoner was not
acceptable to them. They plotted Menelik's escape from Magdala; with the help of Mohammed
Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he escaped from Magdala on the night of 1 July 1865,
abandoning his wife, and returned to Shewa. Enraged, Emperor Tewodros slaughtered 29 Oromo
hostages then had 12 Amhara notables beaten to death with bamboo rods.[11]

King of Shewa …

Menelik, king of Shewa

Bezabeh's attempt to raise an army against Menelik failed; thousands of Shewans rallied to the
flag of the son of Negus Haile Melekot and even Bezabeh's own soldiers deserted him for the
returning prince. Abeto Menelik entered Ankober and proclaimed himself Negus. While Negus
Menelik reclaimed his ancestral Shewan crown, he also laid claim to the Imperial throne, as a
direct descendant male line of Emperor Lebna Dengel. However, he made no overt attempt to
assert this claim at this time; Marcus interprets his lack of decisive action not only to Menelik's
lack of confidence and experience but that "he was emotionally incapable of helping to destroy
the man who had treated him as a son."[12] Not wishing to take part in the 1868 Expedition to
Abyssinia, he allowed his rival Kassai to benefit with gifts of modern weapons and supplies from
the British. When Tewodros committed suicide, Menelik arranged for an official celebration of
his death even though he was personally saddened by the loss. When a British diplomat asked
him why he did this, he replied "to satisfy the passions of the people ... as for me, I should have
gone into a forest to weep over ... [his] untimely death ... I have now lost the one who educated
me, and toward whom I had always cherished filial and sincere affection."[12] Afterwards other
challenges – a revolt amongst the Wollo to the north, the intrigues of his second wife Befana to
replace him with her choice of ruler, military failures against the Arsi Oromo to the southeast –
kept Menelik from directly confronting Kassai until after his rival had brought an Abuna from
Egypt who crowned him Emperor Yohannes IV.

Menelik was cunning and strategic in building his power base. He organised extravagant three-
day feasts for locals to win their favour, liberally built friendships with Muslims (such as
Muhammad Ali of Wollo) and struck alliances with the French and Italians who could provide
firearms and political leverage against the Emperor. In 1876, an Italian expedition set out to
Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori who described King Menelik as "very friendly, and a
fanatic for weapons, about whose mechanism he appears to be most intelligent". Another Italian
wrote for Menelik, "he had the curiosity of a boy; the least thing made an impression upon him ...
He showed ... great intelligence and great mechanical ability". Menelik spoke with great
economy and rapidity. He never became upset, Chiarini adds, "listening calmly, judiciously [and]
with good sense ... He is fatalistic and a good soldier, he loves weapons above all else". The
visitors also confirmed that he was popular with his subjects, and made himself available to
them.[12] Menelik had political and military acumen and made key engagements that would later
prove essential as he expanded his Empire.

Succession …
On 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV was killed in a war with the Mahdist State during the
Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).[13] With his dying breath, Yohannes declared his natural son,
Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, to be his heir. On 25 March, upon hearing of the death of
Yohannes, Negus Menelik immediately proclaimed himself as Emperor.[14]

Menelik argued that while the family of Yohannes IV claimed descent from King Solomon and
the Queen of Sheba through females of the dynasty, his own claim was based on uninterrupted
direct male lineage which made the claims of the House of Shewa equal to those of the elder
Gondar line of the dynasty. Menelik, and later his daughter Zewditu, would be the last Ethiopian
monarchs who could claim uninterrupted direct male descent from King Solomon and the Queen
of Sheba (both Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie were in the female line, Iyasu through his
mother Shewarega Menelik, and Haile Selassie through his paternal grandmother, Tenagnework
Sahle Selassie).

In the end, Menelik was able to obtain the allegiance of a large majority of the Ethiopian nobility.
On 3 November 1889, Menelik was consecrated and crowned as Emperor before a glittering
crowd of dignitaries and clergy by Abuna Mattewos, Bishop of Shewa, at the Church of Mary on
Mount Entoto.[15] The newly consecrated and crowned Emperor Menelik II quickly toured the
north in force. He received the submission of the local officials in Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, and
Begemder.

Consolidation of power and defeat of the Italians …

Centralisation
…

Menelik's campaigns 1879–89

Menelik's campaigns 1889–96

Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904

Menelik II is argued to be the founder of modern Ethiopia.[16][17] Before the centralisation

process he completed, Ethiopia had been devastated by numerous wars, the most recent of
which was fought in the 16th century. In the intervening period, military tactics had not changed
much. In the 16th century the Portuguese Bermudes documented depopulation and widespread
atrocities against civilians and combatants (including torture, mass killings and large scale
slavery) during several successive Aba Gedas' Gadaa conquests of territories located north of
Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).[18][19] Warfare in the region essentially involved
acquiring cattle and slaves, winning additional territories, gaining control over trade routes and
carrying out ritual requirements or securing trophies to prove masculinity.[20][21][22][23][24] Wars
were fought between people who might be members of the same linguistic group, religion, and
culture, or between unrelated tribes. Centralisation reduced these continuous wars; minimising
the loss of lives, raids, destruction, and slavery that had previously been the norm.[24][25][26][27][28]

Menelik’s clemency to Ras Mengesha Yohannes, whom he made hereditary Prince of his native
Tigray, was ill repaid by a long series of revolts.[13] In 1898, Menelik crushed a rebellion by Ras
Mengesha Yohannes (who died in 1906).[13] After this, Menelik directed his efforts to the
consolidation of his authority, and to a degree, to the opening up of his country to outside
influences.[13]

Menelik brought together many of the northern territories through political consensus. The
exception was Gojjam, which offered tribute to the Shewan Kingdom following its defeat at the
Battle of Embabo.[29] Most of the western and central territories like Jimma, Welega Province
and Chebo were administered by chiefs who allied their clan's army with the central government
peacefully. Native armed soldiers of Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde,
Balcha Aba Nefso and were allied to Menelik's Shewan army which campaigned to the south to
incorporate more territories.[30][31][32][33][34][35]

Beginning in the 1870s, Menelik set off from the central province of Shewa to reunify 'the lands
and people of the South, East, and West into an empire.[3] This period of expansions has been
referred to by some as the 'Agar Maqnat' - roughly translating to some type of 'Cultivation' of
land.[36] During his battles, he made tactical alliances with different groups and appointed Habte
Giyorgis Dinagde as Minister of Defense, who was of mixed Gurage-Oromo ancestry. The people
incorporated by Menelik through conquest were the southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage,
Wolayta and other groups.[4]: 2  He achieved most of his conquests with the help of Ras Gobana's
Shewan Oromos, who helped Menelik previously during his clashes with Gojjam.[37]

In territories incorporated peacefully like Jimma, Leka, and Wolega the former order was
preserved and there was no interference in their self-government; in areas incorporated after war
the appointed new rulers did not violate the peoples' religious beliefs and they treated them
lawfully and justly.[38][39][40] However, the territories incorporated by military conquest, Menelik's
army carried out atrocities against civilians and combatants including torture, mass killings, and
large scale slavery.[41][42] Large scale atrocities were also committed against the Dizi people and
the people of the Kaficho kingdom.[43][44] Some estimates that the number of people killed as a
result of the conquest from war, famine and atrocities go into the millions.[41][45][46][47] Based on
convergent colonialist approaches, cooperation between Menelik and Belgian king Leopold II
were attempted more than once.[48]

The British journalist Augustus B. Wylde wrote after meeting Menelik: "I had found him a man of
great kindness, a remarkably shrewd and clever man and very well informed on most things
except on England and her resources; his information on our country evidently having been
obtained from persons entirely unfriendly to us; and who did not want Englishmen to have any
diplomatic or commercial transactions whatever with Abyssinia [Ethiopia]".[49] After meeting him,
Lord Edward Gleichen wrote: "Menelik's manners are pleasant and dignified; he is courteous and
kindly, and at the same time simple in manner, giving one the impression of a man who wishes
to get at the root of a matter at once, without wasting time in compliments and beating about
the bush, so often the characteristics of Oriental potentates...He also aims at being a popular
sovereign, accessible to his people at all hours, and ready to listen to their complaints. In this, he
appears to be quite successful, for one and all of his subjects seem to bear for him a real
affection."[50]

Foundation of Addis Ababa

…
Prior to the establishment of present-day Addis Ababa the location was called Finfinne in the
Oromo language, which attests the presence of hot springs. The area was inhabited by various
Oromo clans.[51] For a period Ethiopia lacked a permanent capital; instead, the royal
encampment served as a roving capital. For a time Menelik's camp was on Mount Entoto, but in
1886, while Menelik was on campaign in Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camped at a hot spring to
the south of Mount Entoto. She decided to build a house there and from 1887 this was her
permanent base, which she named Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik's Generals were all
allocated land nearby to build their own houses, and in 1889 work began in a new royal
palace.[52] The city grew rapidly, and by 1910 the city had around 70,000 permanent inhabitants,
with up to 50,000 more on a temporary basis.[53] Only in 1917, after Menelik's death, was the city
reached by the railway from Djibouti.[54]

The Great Famine (1888–1892) …

During Menelik's reign, the great famine of 1888 to 1892, which was the worst famine in the
region's history, killed a third of the total population which was then estimated at 12 million.[55]
The famine was caused by rinderpest, an infectious viral cattle disease which wiped out most of
the national livestock, killing over 90% of the cattle. The native cattle population had no prior
exposure and were unable to fight off the disease.[56]
Wuchale Treaty
…

Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in an 1891 map, showing national borders before the Battle of Adwa

On 2 May 1889, while claiming the throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, the "natural son" of
Emperor Yohannes IV, Menelik concluded a treaty with Italy at Wuchale (Uccialli in Italian) in
Wollo province. On the signing of the treaty, Menelik said "The territories north of the Merab
Milesh (i.e. Eritrea) do not belong to Abyssinia nor are under my rule. I am the Emperor of
Abyssinia. The land referred to as Eritrea is not peopled by Abyssinians – they are Adals, Bejaa,
and Tigres. Abyssinia will defend his territories but will not fight for foreign lands, which Eritrea
is to my knowledge."[57] Under the Treaty, Abyssinia and Kingdom of Italy agreed to define the
boundary between Eritrea and Ethiopia. For example, both Ethiopia and Italy agreed that Arafali,
Halai, Segeneiti and Asmara are villages within the Italian border. Also, the Italians agreed not to
harass Ethiopian traders and to allow safe passage for Ethiopian goods, particularly military
weapons.[58] The treaty also guaranteed that the Ethiopian government would have ownership of
the Monastery of Debre Bizen but not use it for military purposes.

However, there were two versions of the treaty, one in Italian and another in Amharic. Unknown
to Menelik the Italian version gave Italy more power than the two had agreed to. The Italians
believed they had "tricked" Menelik into giving allegiance to Italy. To their surprise, upon learning
about the alteration, Emperor Menelik II rejected the treaty. The Italians attempted to bribe him
with two million rounds of ammunition but he refused. Then the Italians approached Ras
Mengesha of Tigray in an attempt to create civil war, however, Ras Mengesha, understanding
that Ethiopia's independence was at stake, refused to be a puppet for the Italians. The Italians,
therefore, prepared to attack Ethiopia with an army led by Baratieri. Subsequently, the Italians
declared war and attempted to invade Ethiopia.

Italo-Ethiopian War
…

Tapestry of the Battle of Adwa.

Menelik's disagreement with Article 17 of the treaty led to the Battle of Adwa. Before Italy could
launch the invasion, Eritreans rebelled in an attempt to push Italy out of Eritrea and prevent its
invasion of Ethiopia.[59] The rebellion was not successful. However, some of the Eritreans
managed to make their way to the Ethiopian camp and jointly fought Italy at the battle of Adwa.

On 17 September 1895, Menelik ordered all of the Ethiopian nobility to call out their banners and
raise their feudal hosts, stating: "An enemy has come across the sea. He has broken through our
frontiers in order to destroy our fatherland and our faith. I allowed him to seize my possessions
and I entered upon lengthy negotiations with him in hopes of obtaining justice without
bloodshed. But the enemy refuses to listen. He undermines our territories and our people like a
mole. Enough! With the help of God I will defend the inheritance of my forefathers and drive back
the invader by force of arms. Let every man who has sufficient strength accompany me. And he
who has not, let him pray for us".[60] Menelik's opponent, General Oreste Baratieri,
underestimated the size of the Ethiopian force, predicating that Menelik could only field 30,000
men.[61]
Menelik II observes the battle of Adwa against the Italian invasion army in 1896. Le Petit Journal, 1898.

Despite the dismissive Italian claim that Ethiopia was a "barbaric" African nation whose men
were no match for white troops, the Ethiopians were better armed, being equipped with
thousands of modern French rifles and Hotchkiss artillery guns together with ammunition and
shells which were superior to the Italian rifles and artillery.[61] Menelik had ensured that his
infantry and artillerymen were properly trained in their use, giving the Ethiopians a crucial
advantage as the Hotchkiss artillery could fire more rapidly than the Italian artillery. In 1887 a
British diplomat, Gerald Portal, wrote after seeing the Ethiopian feudal hosts parade before him,
the Ethiopians were "...redeemed by the possession of unbounded courage, by a disregard of
death, and by a national pride, which leads them to look down on every human being who has
not had the good fortune to be born an Abyssinian [Ethiopian]".[61] 

The Emperor personally led his army to attack an Italian force led by Major Toselli on 7
December 1895 at Boota Hill.[60] The Ethiopians attacked a force of 350 Eritrean irregulars on
the left flank, who collapsed under the Ethiopian assault, causing Toselli to send two companies
of Italian infantry who halted the Ethiopian advance.[62] Just as Toselli was rejoicing in his
apparent victory, the main Ethiopian assault came down on his right flank, causing Toselli to
order retreat.[62] The Emperor's best general, Ras Alula, had occupied the road leading back to
Eritrea, and launched a surprise attack, which routed the Italians.[62] The battle of Amba Alagi
ended with an Italian force of 2,150 men losing 1,000 men and 20 officers killed.[62]

Ras Alula followed up that victory by defeating General Arimondi and forcing the Italians to
retreat to the fort at Mekele.[63] Ras Alula laid siege to the fort, and on the morning of 7 January
1896, the defenders of the fort spotted a huge red tent among the besiegers, showing that the
emperor had arrived.[64] On 8 January 1896, the emperor's elite Shoan infantry captured the fort's
well, and then beat off desperate Italian attempts to retake the well.[64] On 19 January 1896, the
fort's commander, Major Galliano, whose men were dying of dehydration, raised the white flag of
surrender.[64] Major Galliano and his men were allowed to march out, surrender their arms and to
go free.[64] Menelik stated he allowed the Italians to go free as "to give proof of my Christian
faith," saying his quarrel was with the Italian government of Prime Minister Francesco Crispi that
was trying to conquer his nation, not the ordinary Italian soldiers who been conscripted against
their will to fight in the war.[64] Menelik's magnanimity to the defenders of Fort Mekele may have
been an act of psychological warfare. Menelik knew from talking to French and Russian
diplomats that the war and Crispi himself were unpopular in Italy, and one of the main points of
Crispi's propaganda were allegations of atrocities against Italian POWs. From Menelik's
viewpoint allowing the Italian POWs to go free and unharmed was the best way of rebutting this
propaganda and undermining public support for Crispi.    

Menelik II in 1899

Crispi sent another 115,000 men to the Horn of Africa and ordered the main Italian commander,
General Oreste Baratieri, to finish off the "barbarians".[65] As Baratieri dithered, Menelik was
forced to pull back on 17 February 1896 as his huge host was running out of food.[66] After Crispi
sent an insulting telegram accusing Baratieri of cowardice, on 28 February 1896 the Italians
decided to seek battle with Menelik.[67] On 1 March 1896, the two armies met at Adwa. The
Ethiopians came out victorious.
Equestrian statue of Emperor Menelik II, the victor of Adwa. The statue was erected by Emperor Haile Selassie and
dedicated on the day before his coronation in 1930, in memory of his predecessor.

With victory at the Battle of Adwa and the Italian colonial army destroyed, Eritrea was Emperor
Menelik's for the taking but no order to occupy was given. It seems that Emperor Menelik II was
wiser than the Europeans had given him credit for. Realising that the Italians would bring all their
force to bear on his country if he attacked,[68] he instead sought to restore the peace that had
been broken by the Italians and their treaty manipulation seven years before. In signing the
treaty, Menelik II again proved his adeptness at politics as he promised each nation something
for what they gave and made sure each would benefit his country and not another nation.
Subsequently, the Treaty of Addis Ababa was reached between the two nations. Italy was forced
to recognise the absolute independence of Ethiopia, as described in Article III of the treaty.

Ethnic makeup of Menelik's government and forces

…
Habtegyorgis Dinagde, from the Oromo-speaking Chebo tribe, was the Prime minister and war minister who was the most
prominent general during Menelik, Lij Iyasu & Zewditu's reign

At the Battle of Adwa, Ethiopian fighters from all parts of the country rallied to the cause and
took up positions on the battlefield that allowed them to come to each other's aid during
combat. Armies who participated in the battle includes Negu Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam's
Amhara infantry and cavalry; Ras Mengesha Yohannes' and Ras Alula's Tigrayan army; Ras
Makonnen Wolde Mikael's Harar army that included Amhara, Oromo and Gurage soldiers;
Fitawrari Tekle's Wallaga Cavalry and infantry; Wag-shum Gwangul's Agaw and Amhara from
Wag and Lasta; and Ras Wolle Bitul's Gondar army. The mehal sefari or central fighting unit
included mostly Shewan Amhara, Mecha-Tulama Oromo cavalry, Gurage as well as Taytu Bitul's
Yejju armies. The Fitawrari's army, normally the leader of the advanced guard, was commanded
by Gebeyehu Gorra. The Ethiopian army at Adwa was, therefore, a mosaic of various ethnic
groups and tribes that marched north for a common, national cause.[69][70][71]

Developments during Menelik's reign …

Relations with Russia

…

Portrait of Menelik II
Menelik begun expanding Ethiopia's diplomatic ties, looking to Europe for a major power willing
to enter into a relationship with the Ethiopian government. His sights soon settled on Imperial
Russia, which proved amenable to Ethiopian attempts to establish a diplomatic
relationship.[72][73] During the visit of a Russian diplomatic and military mission in 1893, Menelik
II concluded a Russo-Ethiopian alliance. As a result, from 1893 to 1913, the Russian government
sponsored the visits of thousands of advisers and volunteers from Russia to Ethiopia.[74] Among
those who were sent were the Russian poets Alexander Bulatovich and Nikolay Gumilyov, both
of whom developed close personal ties with Menelik.[72][75][76] Russian support for Ethiopia led to
the advent of a Russian Red Cross mission as medical support for the Ethiopian military. It
arrived in Addis Ababa some three months after Menilek's victory at Adwa,[77] and established
the first hospital in Ethiopia.

Abolition of slave trading

…
By the mid-1890s, Menelik was actively suppressing the slave trade, ordering the destruction of
several slave markets throughout the region and punishing slave traders with amputation.[78]
Both Tewodros II and Yohannes IV had outlawed slave trading, but as not all tribes were against
it and as the country was surrounded on every side by slave raiders and traders, it was not
possible even at the dawn of the 20th century to suppress the trade entirely.[79] According to
apologists, while Menelik actively enforced his prohibition, it was beyond his power to change
the minds of all his people regarding the age-old practice.[80]

Introducing new technology …

After the Treaty of Addis Ababa was signed in 1896, Europeans recognised the sovereignty of Ethiopia. Menelik then
finalised signing treaties with Europeans to demarcate the border of modern Ethiopia by 1904

Menelik II was fascinated by modernity, and like Tewodros II before him, he had a keen ambition
to introduce Western technological and administrative advances into Ethiopia. Following the
rush by the major powers to establish diplomatic relations following the Ethiopian victory at
Adwa, more and more westerners began to travel to Ethiopia looking for trade, farming, hunting,
and mineral exploration concessions.[81] Menelik II founded the first modern bank in Ethiopia, the
Bank of Abyssinia, introduced the first modern postal system, signed the agreement and
initiated work that established the Addis Ababa –Djibouti railway with the French, introduced
electricity to Addis Ababa, as well as the telephone, telegraph, the motor car, and modern
plumbing. He attempted unsuccessfully to introduce coinage to replace the Maria Theresa
thaler.

In 1894, Menelik granted a concession for building Ethio-Djibouti Railways

In 1894, Menelik granted a concession for the building of a railway to his capital from the French
port of Djibouti but, alarmed by a claim made by France in 1902 to control of the line in Ethiopian
territory, he ordered a stop for four years on the extension of the railway beyond Dire Dawa. In
1906 when France, the United Kingdom, and Italy came to an agreement on the subject, granting
control to a joint venture corporation, Menelik officially reaffirmed his full sovereign rights over
the whole of his empire.

According to one persistent tale, Menelik heard about the modern method of executing criminals
using electric chairs during the 1890s, and ordered 3 for his Kingdom. When the chairs arrived,
Menelik learned they would not work, as Ethiopia did not yet have an electric power industry.
Rather than waste his investment, Menelik used one of the chairs as his throne, sending another
to his second (Lique Mekwas) or Abate Ba-Yalew.[82] Recent research, however, has cast
significant doubt on this story, and suggested it was invented by a Canadian journalist during the
1930s.[83]

Personal life and death …

Menelik reportedly spoke French, English and Italian fluently.[84] He read many books and was
educated in finance, getting involved in various investments, including in American railroads and
American securities and French and Belgian mining investments.[85]

Wives
…

Taytu Betul, the third wife of Menelik.

Menelik married three times but he did not have a single legitimate child by any of his wives.
However, he is reputed to have fathered several children by women who were not his wives, and
he recognized three of those children as being his progeny.

In 1864, Menelik married Woizero Altash Tewodros, whom he divorced in 1865; the marriage
produced no children. Altash Tewodros was a daughter of Emperor Tewodros II. She and
Menelik were married during the time that Menelik was held captive by Tewodros. The marriage
ended when Menelik escaped captivity, abandoning her. She was subsequently remarried to
Dejazmatch Bariaw Paulos of Adwa.

In 1865, the same year as divorcing his first wife, Menelik married the much older noblewoman
Woizero Befana Wolde Michael. This marriage was also childless, and they were married for
seventeen years before being divorced in 1882. Menelik was very fond of his wife, but she
apparently did not have a sincere affection for him. Woizero Befana had several children by
previous marriages and was more interested in securing their welfare than in the welfare of her
present husband. For many years, she was widely suspected of being secretly in touch with
Emperor Yohannes IV in her ambition to replace her husband on the throne of Shewa with one of
her sons from a previous marriage. Finally, she was implicated in a plot to overthrow Menelik
when he was King of Shewa. With the failure of her plot, Woizero Befana was separated from
Menelik, but Menelik apparently was still deeply attached to her. An attempt at reconciliation
failed, but when his relatives and courtiers suggested new young wives to the King, he would
sadly say "You ask me to look at these women with the same eyes that once gazed upon
Befana?", paying tribute both to his ex-wife's beauty and his own continuing attachment to her.

Finally, Menelik divorced his treasonous wife in 1882, and in 1883, he married Taytu Betul.
Menelik's new wife had been married four times previously, and he became her fifth husband.
They were married in a full communion church service and the marriage was thus fully canonical
and indissoluble, which had not been the case with either of Menelik's previous wives. The
marriage, which proved childless, would last until his death. Taytu Betul would become Empress
consort upon her husband's succession, and would become the most powerful consort of an
Ethiopian monarch since Empress Mentewab. She enjoyed considerable influence on Menelik
and his court until the end, something which was aided by her own family background. Empress
Taytu Betul was a noblewoman of Imperial blood and a member of one of the leading families of
the regions of Semien, Yejju in modern Wollo, and Begemder. Her paternal uncle, Dejazmatch
Wube Haile Maryam of Semien, had been the ruler of Tigray and much of northern Ethiopia. She
and her uncle Ras Wube were two of the most powerful people among descendants of Ras
Gugsa Mursa, a ruler of Oromo descent from the house of was Sheik of Wollo. Emperor
Yohannes was able to broaden his power base in northern Ethiopia through Taytu's family
connections in Begemider, Semien and Yejju; she also served him as his close adviser, and went
to the battle of Adwa with 5,000 troops of her own.[86][87] From 1906, for all intents and purposes,
Taytu Betul ruled in Menelik's stead during his infirmity. Menelik II and Taytu Betul personally
owned 70,000 slaves.[88] Abba Jifar II also is said to have more than 10,000 slaves and allowed
his armies to enslave the captives during a battle with all his neighboring clans.[89] This practice
was common between various tribes and clans of Ethiopia for thousands of years.[22][26][90]
Taytu arranged political marriages between her Yejju and Semien relatives and key Shewan
aristocrates like Ras Woldegyorgis Aboye, who was Governor of Kaffa, Ras Mekonen who was
governor of Harar, and Menelik's eldest daughter Zewditu Menelik who became Nigeste
Negestat of the empire after the overthrow of Lij Iyasu.[91] Taytu's step daughter, Zewditu, was
married to her nephew Ras Gugsa Welle who administered Begemider up to the 1930s.[91]

Natural children
…

The emperor caricatured by Glick for Vanity Fair (1897)

Previous to his marriage to Taytu Betul, Menelik fathered several natural children. Among them,
he chose to recognise three specific children (two daughters and one son) as being his progeny.
These were:

1. A daughter, Woizero Shoaregga Menelik, born 1867.[nb 6] She would marry twice and
become the mother of:
A son, Abeto Wossen Seged Wodajo, born of the first marriage; never considered for
the succession due to dwarfism

A daughter, Woizero Zenebework Mikael, who was married at age twelve and died in
childbirth one year later
 A son, the purported Emperor Iyasu V. He nominally succeeded upon Menelik's death
in 1913, but was never crowned; he was deposed in 1916 by powerful nobles.

2. A daughter, Woizero (later Empress) Zewditu Menelik, born 1876, died 1930.[nb 7] She
married four times and had some children, but none of them survived to adulthood. She
was proclaimed Empress in her own right in 1916, but was a figurehead, with ruling power
in the hands of regent Ras Tafari Makonnen, who succeeded her in 1930 as Emperor Haile
Selassie.

3. A son, Abeto Asfa Wossen Menelik, born 1873. He died unwed and childless when he was
about fifteen years of age.

Menelik's only recognised son, Abeto Asfa Wossen Menelik, died unwed and childless when he
was about fifteen years of age, leaving him with only two daughters. The elder daughter, Woizero
Shoaregga, was first married to Dejazmatch Wodajo Gobena, the son of Ras Gobena Dachi. They
had a son, Abeto Wossen Seged Wodajo, but this grandson of Menelik II was eliminated from the
succession due to dwarfism. In 1892, twenty-five-year-old Woizero Shoaregga was married for a
second time to forty-two-year-old Ras Mikael of Wollo. They had two children, namely a
daughter, Woizero Zenebework Mikael, who would be married at the age of twelve to the much
older Ras Bezabih Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, and would die in childbirth a year later; and a son,
Lij[nb 8] Iyasu, who would nominally succeed as Emperor after Menelik's death in 1913, but would
never be crowned, and would be deposed by powerful nobles in favour of Menelik's younger
daughter Zewditu in 1916.

Menelik's younger daughter, Zewditu Menelik, had a long and chequered life. She was married
four times, and eventually became Empress in her own right, the first woman to hold that
position in Ethiopia since the Queen of Sheba. She was only ten years old when Menelik got her
married to Ras Araya Selassie Yohannes, the fifteen-year-old son of Emperor Yohannes IV, in
1886. In May 1888, Ras Araya Selassie died and Zewditu became a widow at age twelve. She
was married two more times for brief periods to Gwangul Zegeye and Wube Atnaf Seged before
marrying Gugsa Welle in 1900 CE. Gugsa Welle was the nephew of Empress Taytu Betul,
Menelik's third wife. Zewditu had some children, but none of them survived to adulthood.
Menelik died in 1913, and his grandson Iyasu claimed the throne on principle of seniority.
However, it was suspected that Iyasu was a secret convert to Islam, which was the religion of his
paternal ancestors, and having a Muslim on the throne would have grave implications for
Ethiopia in future generations. Therefore, Iyasu was never crowned; he was deposed by nobles in
1916, in favour of his aunt, Zewditu. However, Zewditu (aged 40 at that time) had no surviving
children (all her children had died young) and the nobles did not want her husband and his family
to exercise power and eventually occupy the throne. Therefore, Zewditu's cousin Ras Tafari
Makonnen was named both heir to the throne and regent of the empire. Zewditu had ceremonial
duties to perform and wielded powers of arbitration and moral influence, but ruling power was
vested in the hands of regent Ras Tafari Makonnen, who succeeded her as Emperor Haile
Selassie in 1930.

Apart from the three recognised natural children, Menelik was rumoured to be the father of some
other children also. These include Ras Birru Wolde Gabriel[92][93] and Dejazmach Kebede
Tessema.[94] The latter, in turn, was later rumoured to be the natural grandfather of Colonel
Mengistu Haile Mariam,[95][94] the communist leader of the Derg, who eventually deposed the
monarchy and assumed power in Ethiopia from 1977 to 1991.

Illness, death and succession

…
On 27 October 1909, Menelik II suffered a massive stroke and his "mind and spirit died". After
that, Menelik was no longer able to reign, and the office was taken over by Empress Taytu,[96] as
de facto ruler, until Ras Bitwaddad Tesemma was publicly appointed regent.[97] However, he died
within a year, and a council of regency – from which the empress was excluded – was formed in
March 1910.

Menelik's mausoleum.[nb 9]

In the early morning hours of 12 December 1913, Emperor Menelik II died. He was buried quickly
without announcement or ceremony[96] at the Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret Church, on the grounds
of the Imperial Palace. In 1916 Menelik II was reburied in the specially built church at Ba'eta Le
Mariam Monastery in Addis Ababa.
After the death of Menelik II, the council of regency continued to rule Ethiopia. Lij Iyasu was
never crowned Emperor of Ethiopia, and eventually, Empress Zewditu I succeeded Menelik II on
27 September 1916.

In popular culture …

Menelik was featured as the leader of the Ethiopian civilization in the New Frontier season
pass of the 4X video game Civilization VI. His ability, Council of Ministers, grants sizeable
benefits to cities founded on hills, and units fighting in hills.

Notable quotes …

“Ethiopia has been for fourteen centuries a Christian island in a sea of pagans” - Menelik
Letter to European powers

“This country is mine and no other nation can have it” - Menelik response to Italian
protectorate over Ethiopia claim

“When united, the victory is ours as many small pieces of Bark can conquer an elephant” -
Menelik using Tullama's traditional saying

“There was never a time when united that Ethiopians lost to an enemy in history” - speaking to
war messengers

See also

Ilemi Triangle

Paul Merab

1890s African rinderpest epizootic

First Italo-Ethiopian War

References

Footnotes
1. Dagmawi means "the second".

2. Nəgusä Nägäst.

3. Roughly equivalent to Governor.

 4. Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.

5. Equivalent to Sir or Mr.

. Also spelled "Shoaregga" and "Shewa Regga".

7. Eventually Empress of Ethiopia.

. Roughly equivalent to Child.

9. The crypts of Menilek (center), Taytu Betul (left), and Zewditu (right).

Citations
1. Nielsen, Euell A. (6 May 2019). "Emperor Menelik II (Sahle Miriam) (1844-1913) •" (https://www.blackpast.
org/global-african-history/emperor-menelik-ii-sahle-miriam-1844-1913/) . Retrieved 27 June 2020.

2. Zewde, Bahru. A history of Ethiopia: 1855–1991. 2nd ed. Eastern African studies. 2001

3. John Young (1998). "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia". Third World Quarterly. 19 (2): 192.
doi:10.1080/01436599814415 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436599814415) . JSTOR 3993156 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/3993156) .

4. "Ethiopia: ethnic federalism and its discontents" (https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/153-ethiopia-eth

nic-federalism-and-its-discontents.pdf) (PDF). International Crisis Group. 4 September 2009. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20210528100056/https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/153-ethiopia-eth
nic-federalism-and-its-discontents.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2021. Retrieved 17 October
2021.

5. "The Legacy of the Battle of Adwa" (https://www.ezega.com/News/NewsDetails/3232/The-Legacy-of-the

-Battle-of-Adwa) . www.ezega.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.

. Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.

7. T. Etefa, Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation (https://books.google.com/b
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Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.

. Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2

9. Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19

10. Paul B. Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.

11. Marcus, Harold G. (1995). The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913. Lawrenceville: Red Sea
Press. pp. 24ff. ISBN 1-56902-010-8.

12. Marcus, Harold (1975). The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
p. 57.
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15. Mockler, p. 90

1 . By Michael B. Lentakis Ethiopia: A View from Within (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=mCqtpPyZP

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s%20the%20actual%20founder%20of%20the%20modern%20Ethopian%20Empire.%22&f=false) . Janus
Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books

17. Joel Augustus Rogers The Real Facts about Ethiopia (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=d3wMAQA
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1 . Richard Pankhurst The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End
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4&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+ol
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1997. p. 284.

19. J. Bermudez The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google
Books" (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229&dq=neighbours+%22only+to
+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+
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22slay%20all%20the%20men%22%20%22kill%20the%20old%20women%22%20%20%22keep%20the%20y
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20. Donald N. Levine Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society (https://books.google.com.et/b
ooks?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA43&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations
+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%2
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0%22trade%20routes%22%20%22ritual%20requirements%22%20%22virtually%20all%22%20%22hostile%
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red+by+conquering+other+peoples,+by+taking+captives+in+war,+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&hl
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e%20slaves%20of%20Amhara%22%20%22slaves%20were%20acquired%20by%20conquering%20other%2
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0part%20of%20the%20increased%20slave%20trade%22%20%22nineteenth%20century%20%22%20%22G
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2 . Donald N. Levine Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society (https://books.google.com.et/b

ooks?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA136&dq=%22Galla%27s+most+esteemed+adversaries+in+war+have+in+
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2 . Donald N. Levine Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society (https://books.google.com.et/b

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29. Kevin Shillington Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=u

myHqvAErOAC&pg=PA506&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&hl=en&
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30. Paul B. Henze Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=gzwoedwOk

QMC&pg=PA196&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUK
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31. Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910 (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=
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32. Paul B. Henze Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=gzwoedwOk

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33. Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu
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35. Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–
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3 . Tibebu, The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974, p.40

37. Edward C. Keefer (1973). "Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire". International
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1. See: Mikael Muehlbauer,“The Rhinoceros Horn Beakers of Menelik II of Ethiopia: Materiality, Ritual and
Kingship,” West 86th 26 no. 1, 61-
79.https://www.academia.edu/38449640/_The_Rhinoceros_Horn_Beakers_of_Menelik_II_of_Ethiopia_Ma
teriality_Ritual_and_Kingship_

2. Wallechinsky, David, Irving Wallace, and Amy Wallace. "The People's Almanac's 15 Favourite Oddities of
All Time." The People's Almanac Presents the Book of Lists. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1977. pp.
463–67.

3. "The Emperor's electric chair" (http://mikedashhistory.com/2010/09/09/the-emperors-electric-chair/) .

mikedashhistory.com. 9 September 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
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5. Menelik invested in western stocks (http://www.zehabesha.com/emperor-menelik-ii-abyssinias-ruler-said

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. Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910 (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=
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7. Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910 (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=
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91. Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910 (https://books.google.com.et/books?id=
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92. British Documents on Foreign Affairs: reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print. Part
II, from the First to the Second World War. Series G, Africa, University Publications of America 1997 p.
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93. David Shireff, Bare Feet and Bandoliers, Pen and Sword Military 2009, p. 293

94. Paul B. Henze, Ethiopia in Mengistu's Final Years: Until the Last Bullet, Shama Books, 2007 p. 84

95. Stephen Spector, Operation Solomon: The Daring Rescue of the Ethiopian Jews, OUP 2005 p. 32

9 . ( Chris Prouty, 1986, Empress Taytu and Menelik II)

97. Marcus, Menelik II, p. 241.

References

Lewis, David Levering (1987). The Race to Fashoda: Pawns of Pawns (https://archive.org/detail
s/racetofashodaeur0000lewi) . New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 1-55584-058-2.

Henze, Paul B. (2000). "Yohannes IV and Menelik II: The Empire Restored, Expanded, and
Defended". Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia. New York: Palgrave. ISBN 0-312-22719-1.

Mockler, Anthony (2002). Haile Sellassie's War. New York: Olive Branch Press. ISBN 978-1-
56656-473-1.

Chris Prouty. Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia 1883–1910. Trenton: The Red Sea Press,
1986. ISBN 0-932415-11-3

A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by

Richard Seltzer, 2000

With the Armies of Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia at www.samizdat.com A.K. Bulatovich With
the Armies of Menelik II translated by Richard Seltzer

Harold G. Marcus (January 1995). The life and times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=TAUwAQAAIAAJ&q=menelik+II+of+ethiopia) . Red Sea
Press. ISBN 978-1-56902-009-8.

Tibebu, Teshale (1995). The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974. New Jersey: The Red Sea
Press. ISBN 978-1569020012.

External links …

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Menelik II of Ethiopia.

Imperial Ethiopia Homepages – Emperor Menelik II the Early Years (http://www.angelfire.com/

ny/ethiocrown/menelik.html)

Imperial Ethiopia Homepages – Emperor Menelik II the Later Years (http://www.angelfire.co

m/ny/ethiocrown/menelikII.html)

Ethiopian Treasures – Emperor Menelik II (https://web.archive.org/web/20131002072821/htt

p://www.ethiopiantreasures.toucansurf.com/pages/menelik.htm)
 'The Emperor's electric chair' – Critical re-examination of a popular legend concerning Menelik
II (https://web.archive.org/web/20101023192813/http://blogs.forteana.org/node/123)

A recorded message from Menelik II to Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom (https://www.yo
utube.com/watch?v=7qV27-OT5IE) on YouTube (In Amharic, from 4 June 1899; The British
Library (search phrase "Menelik II") (http://cadensa.bl.uk/uhtbin/cgisirsi/x/x/0/49/%20;%20ch
arset=UTF-8) ).

Newspaper clippings about Menelik II (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/019783) in

the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

Menelik II
House of Solomon
Born: 17 August 1844  Died: 12 December 1913

Regnal titles

Emperor of Ethiopia
Preceded by Succeeded by
1889–1913
Yohannes IV Iyasu V
with Taytu Betul (1906–1913)

Preceded by Succeeded by
King of Shewa
Haile Melekot Haile Mikael
1865–1889
Preceded by Joined to Ethiopian
1855–1856
Bezabeh crown

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Menelik_II&oldid=1058628060"

Last edited 2 days ago by Dawit S Gondaria

Wikipedia