Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Radiographic Testing

    Uploaded by

    gohjh80
    189 views104 pages
    RT

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    RT

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    189 views104 pages

    Radiographic Testing

    Uploaded by

    gohjh80
    RT

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    of 104
    Radiographic Interpretation Ruane - TATI Table of Contents PCN Radiographic Interpretation Welds (Level 2) SYLLABUS. PCN1 Radiographic Interpretation - Overview . . RL Principles of film radiography : Perl Radiographic quality RLL Capabilities auc ti REI Duties of a radiographic interpreter... R12 X and Gamma Radiation .. Properties of x-rays and gamma ra Electromagnetic spectrum Inverse square law Scatter Measuring radiation Gamma ray generation X ray generation .. Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography . Half value thickness Radiographic Film The make up of radiographic film Film types Film speed Intensifying Screens .. General Lead screens Fluorescent screens Fluorometallic screens . 5 Comparison of intensifying screens. Image Formation ... Film Processing Developer ....... Stopbath Fixer . Final wash .. Wetting agent Drying the film ei Radiographic Quality ....... Density Radiographic contrast, Definition Inherent (film) unsharpness Geometric unsharpness (penumbra) Minimum £4. charts from BS 2910 Determination of focal spot size Fog Artifacts Sensitivity liaisons of cadiogiaphy Radiographic Techniques SWSI: source outside, film inside SWSL (panoramic source iiside, film outside. DwsT ae Sandwich technique Parallax technique wees Determination of Exposure ..-- Considerations for exposures... Exposure charts Guideline exposures . Characteristic Curves of Films . RS R81 «R82 R82 RRB Red R84 . RI R91 R93 RO R10 a 1@ONSs A arms saat oy. cHPRON —_—————— Radiographic Interpretation °""; Candidates wil be requiced to attempt two thepry papers. ‘The composite grade must be at least 80% a «General radiographic theory - 40-mullisphoice questions to be answered in a Sentrauim of hour. ‘The minimum pass mazk i 70% (paper + Sector specific theory ofthe appicagigns the radiographic method in ti i sevelde. 20 mullichoice questions covgring she-testing of welds and a furt Mo auli.choice questions covering, weld production, processes and associated aoa onimum time allowed is 45 minutes and the minimum pass mask is “0% (paper 2) i «Sector specific practical examination requiring the candidate to read, ma Sopot vo a lal of 6 radiographs per group. Maxima _Jetadiographsisrhour 38 mates (15 minutes per radiograph) a % —— ck up and jawed For Metal Groups ' Group A: Ferrite steels including clad steels my mechanised fusion welding, oy-8¢q Group B: Austenitic tee and high nigtt ayhys (excluding Monel: manus! eat aes MMIG, TIG and mechagfeed sion welding. Titanium alloys: MIG and TIG welding. fal metal-arc, MIG, TIG and Group: Aluminium and its al (¢,andcTIG welding. Magnesium and is alloys: TIG weldin Geoup D: Copper and its altos aft Monel: rapusl metal are, MIG and T1G welding aw x Written Examination : Paper 1 - General Theory we a. itcoduction y entont tceiMtery of the development of.industil radiography. Philosorhy of pret Qesucive Testing. Radiographic capabilities in relation to other NOT methods. : \ b. Principles of Radiation * Eheoubmagnetic spectrum, significance of wavelength, sources of x-a3s and fama rays, thei characteristics and Key properties. teraction bewwsen Betation aed matter, absorption and scatter Types and sources of casavion clectromagnetic spectrum. ia Nature and Properties of lonising Raidation Mo i. Alltypes briefly x and gamma in dep. ii. Pails, wave properties, electromagnetic wa fundamentals of adition physics daonaran betwoen penetrating radiation and mate, absorption. sate. SF tution, phtoeacric effec, ter secondary emission fnising lls CGosary of tems and units of measurement. ves, electrical theory of matter Ruane & | apenreoe 8 anantace TO UGE FeO hiell | SPT eauasihe ery oboe taal Sources of Radiation for Radiography Seaeferistics and selection of x and gamma, basic pes of Say gonerstor, Characteron and usts; isotope types, specs, activity including self absorption, half lives. Principles of Radiographic Image Formation Principles of opagaton of ays, factors affecting pemumie, werss See Rec see eon 7 lm eed in instil fadiogrsD hy “Types and uses ia ceeene, Geometry of shadow projection. Use of series f._ Radiographic Sensitometry £_ Radiogept eate corves, paint deny curves, gaan foe films, effect of 2 TEOPINS ewaces arrose PCNI-3 a x & 8 ELECTRONS: -Ve Charge NEUTRONS: No Charge PROTONS: +Ve Charge Example of a Helium Atom ‘Atomic number: 2 ‘Atoric mass number: 4 “The atom caries no overall charge, ual amounts of elecvon’ and poten. ATOMIC NUMBER (2) ~ The number of protons this diziaes the element ype the atomic ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A) = The number of proton + neutrons, this canbe alered in order to make artifical isotopes, ‘\ ISOTOPES seat a sn ae O~_ ae THE GREATER Tt AMOUNT THE GREATER @ Mesrrciricacrivny waplO ee ApHIC © NEUTRONS, THERMAL & FAST OEASITY. BETA PARTICLES ¥ EIECTED AS ELECTRONS ‘Ve CHARGE cantnaa rays 4 PRODUCED BY 1H ENERGY CHANGE, THEY. TRAVEL AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT Peo hie! Xradiograph pont ases approsiately 40m ttt Cola 60 (C060) bas very igh panera Short warokongh al ea be thik There proces fy Tata computed Co Peder 1S OF Principles of film radiography» “¢3' + out using x-ray ‘machines or artificial gamma sources Filim radiography is ca (adie isotopes) i X-rays or gamma rays pass through the objeét to be radiographed and record an im: an the opposite sits The quality and macen feaicerere rs PF ; ‘ion reaching the film will be largely determined by the objects thickness and ly, eg a crack in a weld will increase the amount of radiation falling on the film in thar area due toa reduction twthickness8 It is the wavelength of the radiatioa” whieh govems:its:penetrating power. This is governed by the kilovoltage (kV)-setting aifhen ysing x-rays and isotope type with intensity of the radiationiis governed by the milli-amperage (mA? gamma rays. 1 -solting when using x-rays ‘nd by the ‘aczipaepofithe igotope type with gaming rs. Activity is measured in curies‘or... -beeqUehelse When the filo is processed a negative is produced. ThéJhin areas of an object will be darker than the thicker areas, therefore most weld defects will show up dark in elation 10 the surrounding areas, exceptions are excess weld metal, spatter. copper inclusions aid tungsten inclusions. 4 - Radiographic quality, An overall assessment of radiographic quay is made'by the use of image qualiy tndicators (QTD. the commonly used type gonsisis of seven thin wires decreasing in thickness. Atleast one 1QL is pre nl gfoss the weld being examined After expofire, some of the wires resultant radiograph =the snore wires visible the beter the sensiiigt RE. E “The density of an image on a radiograph, ie. ts degre of blackness. is also measured to ensure it ies within a specified range fof optimum quality —————— Capabilities and limitations of radiography ielsinaraspermanent record i produce. testi ‘A major advantage of radiograph i.e. the ridiograph ‘A anajor fimitation of radiography is that will onlyidetect defects which have Senificant depth in relatidn to the-axis of'the'x-ray beamy As a rough guide, the minimum through thickness depth of a def@&t capable of being detected is about 2% of the wall thickness in the same axis ax the'scray beaft, e-g.gadiography will not "usually detect plate laminaionsslack of inigegungusionsageregks pependicular tothe team es X-radiography vs gamma radiography X-radiograply requires bulky and expensive machinery in comparison with tadiography, but x-radiography generally produces berter quality radiographs und is safer. X-ray machineg can be switched on and off. unlike gamma sources, } correctly positioned. RTE ota aa hei CNEL sputiesofieradiographicinterpreter | ree ofa raiogrpiic inert to ensure at a reins er Hee dy aeons, we ceed cnt acrrdance wah he Flea | sing enreiod ow. ‘A radiographic interpreter must hav now where to find and interpret relevant information ete sehen interpreting radiographs of weids are typically as Follows ‘BAK tf any unwanted light on the viewer secs Hes eater specications) re access to the relevant specification(s) and mus’ | sound light ‘each radiograph is correctly identified gab Nagy cations eer ine Fa afar a gaint posite hits ‘Weld it represents.” : AT Egsuce that e'weld locations are identified, e.g has the correct number tape Baie ne i patos te quality f the radiograph: a. Measure radiographic density & Gaiektate 1OL sensitivity - also en asure the IQ's are of the correct type and Assess radiographic contrast: “ckeradiography is permitted”. a. wnceees eaintionarininess: e.g have salt intent Se. aera serene are pnt? Has 2 fa io been sed eg. has gamma been used when only i ‘ ng sereons been uscd gad ofa slow fil? . MBB acifacts interfere with intexpretstion? segue Gucci he radiograph 10 determine if ay obs radiation ‘and the film interferes with interpretation, ¢.g, lead numbers. A Ldearity the type of weld if possible nonnally already known. " Chek the parent material on the radiograph for are strikes. Wi iction between the source of ard stamping. ultrasonic check on Que Ee vat « i loneso, % dye! a | d | ‘ | | | ose, nicer sn offset te, when apoieable {Check the weld on the radiograph fect Cas 1d on the radiograph for defe at Giri sion be mtn, eu wet eat md Sten el nal check gin and vec MIT GS" | orm wg type and region. weld, reshoot, repair. | | 4, ar Peon PETTY |e intonsy of a Rayleigh catering “->#CeVery Loud Ferg) b. Photoelectric effect. > CAH Bres94 & Compton effect. —F every Highs ‘Energy Avseretom (evel 4. Pair production. ea nea ‘The extent of absorption and scattering is governed by the energy of the primary sata ic aiowie aude of the giemurms anaking up tne medium theough which the radiation is travelling, Scattered radiation may seriously effect the quality of a radiographic image and may also increase the radiation dose levels in the working vi lye Abholoclectric effectne z. i eT eee oe The photoelectric effect is an interaction, be{weea a photon and an orbiting elecuon 4 sm ert" | which eauses an clegiton to be FRESGIY The photon is consumed and the excess energy wo, causes) imparts kinetic eneigy othe electron, | seorod. | This process applic’ to "adiation ‘of'relatively low energy, e.g. less than y 100 keV in steel, and also to hishefienergy cafation upto about 2 MeV when passing through materials containing elements of high momic number. LecipaC_Errect | clron @ chon pore tn this proces, photons are deflected zg tnt do not change in energy or 4 cover doctor eles any eles The pon eae btward direction This process accounts for less than'20% lcauation of a radiation beam. | Sei ete! iy low enesics of radiation eee passing through materials consisting i Siomic number. or celese ory ten getect er cuter BEE . phe rotors I] 5 xd Yo jhe ae (gore 7 heck 1 goers i « e = __yeowerct3oy | se paar petition eee ede cers very ih edition ees : EEEBYEPIBLON collides: wil Te ath He At) SS id prodens an cecuon and «poste parweers phetof source 40 obsek RIOT Fok eo cpspck 40. HN pastace? RE Nell Measuring radiation Wavelength 1 The wavelength of xrays apd gammarays is measured in nanomexes to) nid ane sngenuny (A) Pe Hie waveteneth of eatin pve yqeating ai ne woven Ws ae “he penetrating power: Short wavelength radiation has more dangerous to living Radiation exposure the, upit,of sadiationaannsure, high i dselatedJothe Jonisation of ait is she “Coulombilograin. The old unit, the roenigep however is still widely ust 2.58 x 10” coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)- 1 rocatges Absorbed dose V id is the gray. 1 gray (Gy) =1 joulerkilogram Uikg), matter Biological effect ‘he wt sed fer mesg the loi sles oy inion isthe seven. 1 sever Doerr “i Gamma ray generation Gamma rays used in indusfalcadiography ae exited from artifical radioactive ‘soropes, aso known a mdonuctides. A rgdiSactiveisope is an unstable state of 2 chemical element whieh has adifercat nus fo the noagallte of the same clement eaten \ AAS with albsotopes, the different number irons il result in a change in mass, Wherefore the Pmass number or’ line? iffereht to the mass numnber of the Gather isotopes possible for the specific elses, amber or Z number however will be the same for all the iso}gpes‘of ‘the, specific clement, because this numer efers othe mmr of protons in fick wig have not change joative it sponitancoud corpseular and electromagnetic ener alton is» by-produtprediced fp the sinesration of ths radioactive sotope Wa be oot ad heey oso ie rons! ees Co hgncete (Bq) "The highs ti seve he Ser he tsi of ganna fy produce. fos 1 beequerel 3.7.x 10" becquerels = Fewie; °F therefore: 3.7 x 10" disintegrgtions per second \. pao oe indus it is usually more practical 10 Gl “gleabecquerels (GBq): kin teams of Gig 1 gigabecquere! = 107 beequerels. 447 gidahorquerels = 1 ewe. my exiyiyrot aonetive isotope does nt rls eT of the Tr a apy produced: penetrating power depends on hee velength of the gamma pyegpreived an this depends on he specific radons clement involved. For srample, cobalt 60 (Co60) has # very high ‘penetrating power and may be used) om see coiponens up 10 200 mm thick, Peatse the garnma radiation emitted has 2 very shoit wavelength. vFroromne theo main radioactive isotopes used for industria adiograp hy ivi 192 {Gui92), cobalt 60 (Co60) and Yetebium 169 (16) saitadioadlivedisotopes are used taking into: ‘consideration their half-lives: the half-life of sa ree ive isotope isthe time it takes forthe atvity 40 drop te oneshaif ofits initial *| strength. rs 5 tie R2-4 ww Qt - $2 og! r80'0 szo0'0 wugt-t | mu zy ord 002 600 -£S0°0 szvo 691 winiquanA I usu gp - 02 wut 96-9 * os ~ 190-620 er 261 ump 5 uuu ¢2- Sp ‘wu 09T - $2 ose - = 99:0-—= 2e1 wnisae or 4 wu gy = Sp wut oor - £2 008 261," 8P0 480 “swwakey2. ).3 per wmsaey | oe = pear Re | ost-se | wmone-os | 0002 - o00t eT 201 zt wahge rE) | : a j : | ee wu = yo03s v1 Axqwaeanba | aay sorBeus nos e 2duva wnwnde feax-xoaddy | ses-euuen a0) a || 4 5 SHOUNOS AVU-VAWYO dO SOLLSIYALOVYVHO a Peo weil! Ruane X-ray generation ese in in wtocod to ag ray Set tube oF taser yeaa, Pareracustcd glass bulb, enclosing an anode (the positive ‘When the filament is heated wee cans eggect OPS) to veel eaiograghy ace produced for Testa machines wsually retpeing pence from within am 8-10 a filamer’ patience Bt Ke arenas (henegative Glectrode). The cathode contain ethan a curved reflector “or focusing cup. flow of a few amperes to a white hot state by a current to sracted towards the anode in a concen ed be no tho anode wh elections are emited and 3 | fpnmba by the focusing CMP. The beam strikes a target set i ‘ye lgase of enerey: hisgnerey consis soproximnately 97 10.99% heat and | a onvetonl ay bes wp © 300 KV: *xeray aube insert , pmuingere, So Bos mousey QUASI Cenc cs Oe anode eger CME SET Se tarteon _ 11-99 IAT CORUBLSET? Because:of the high amoubt of heat nergy Prt iad, ae ance is made (F00 ¢ géndet the heat away But, copper has 8 10%" melting point, so to preve copper trelfing, a slip of ‘etal with a high melting point is “recessed into the a srpoint whichis stick by he electron Death 3 “This slip of metal also serves anor purpos® of he leon struck by ectons ine greater wil reaped THER of nt target, is 08 its igh melting pols gf 3370°C- ‘and its high atomic aunt “The. afga.gn thle target vel is-strek by the electrons called the focal st area a because, the higher the avomie + be the inensity and energy salty axade of tungsten Bee bor of 74 Sn Sto ont En fi Bea tig pm te, fc sn slo sila to provide good definition harpness) on the radiogr=ph ere rooting oq 10 cook te anode: Eo Moped for this purpose The cooting system amt or cree compete unit commonly consi ot fae panel ther a fas dhe cay tube ie insert are contained ( being referred 16 Peo Nel : a A 7 MA Irena al Ganert Hour Ameen Fr ecto _Plectent hetlor , oes erin cxaase x fo. boe retusa ag: dochers colessed paar +t sqantor We Inloosth ip x-rays proccss \ | | hy INceussep Beech ey Hee dlocren {leo gr Goitede Yo we fra iy anctoased - ‘i The kinetic Greg, te Th Incepaged of unis the ile onan LT POM 5 : R2-7 ‘The x-ray equipment control panel Te thrce controls that govern a radiographic exposure ising X-rays are the timer, the 1A conteol and the kV control lnm ek enh Timer * The ter is wully calibrate in minutes, Tifexfosr time for an export is reset Ree eae e tier chant down from te preset vale. The SHES ie partaly gover how mch ations going 10 reach the film Milliamps(mA) ¢ danbty > “The mA controls the intensity or quanti ‘When the mA is increased, the current low through the filanient is iAceeasedy which eabses the filament to get hoer tesulting in an increase in the intensity Of electrons released. The greater the intensity of electrons sikng the tarpetahe greater, jausisy of he Hays produced by “The mA control on conventional x-ray equipment siay oply allow for a maximum of 6 to 12 mA tobe used, the value being etna ose tice, i.e. between the cathode and the anode. “The value required for a.spesifi, exposure is usually preset on the equipment for the purpose of minimizing exposure time |” i purpose eel me | Kilovoltage (kV) CQUBNT YY ps af Tie EV govern’ the wavelength, or @ullighoereauaePeGuoed which practically ovens penetrating power -Whed He KV i joerease. the speed ofthe cectzon flow from the cathode to the aiiddé is increased: s, when the electrons strike the iacget, the kinetic energy is increased, which uli 18° reduction of wavelength. The kV meters on the control panels’for éonveAtional x-ray equipment arc peak KV values measured across the tube, ic. between the cathode and the anode. The TMauimum kV whieh can be used is primarily governed by the tubehend: typical thaximum values ae 200 kV, 250 kV and 300 KV. Thelvalue required for a specific exposure is usually preset onthe panel. °F An increase in KV, ie. a shortening of wavelength, has an‘adverse affect on the contrast and definition ofa radiographic image. Certain standard specifications, e.g. BS 2910 Se ewedl 1g: sapihic examination of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in ‘kV values for this reason. the radiog’ tg maximum MAXIMUM X-RAY TUBE VOLTAGE BS2910 BG ee «| oa 28 penetrated thickness. ore, Toe curves fr volta sf se reyanem aout 400 and 1000 8 trial 25| Comparison of 3\ radiography x and gamma rays for indus Safety. . sprayamachines. is normally, safer Thafivsing. mma SOUS becaus: i ce lightbulb, whereas tere is 2 constant ert sol must always be returned nf Ne cates ' ae miiatiog with a ghmmé Source. Gamma sources nen not in use. a shietinnconsiness (Quality of radiographic images | essaming variables soc as test material thickness, M1 ete, remains ns teat xray equipment, say up 1© 200 KV. prog a scrays produced by CO™ ves than 1192. oF Co60 isotopes. beeause these © quality radiographic ima fonger wavelengths than the gamma sources, Yuerbium 169 (Yb169) may produce cadiographs comparable to those pre using x-rays. FeoHell SEWN EWE COs cee Handling iy j . Gamina souces a ease t handle in ehnjrson wid bulky and faite ay sivipeett Tie she aso slows foe anima sures to be wed Indien indole ares for tay machines cg an ppe a Cost Gamma sources and containers are much sRer than x-ray eeutipment Versatility —— ‘The intensity and wavelengths of x-rays Gaa'be adj The inensity and wavelengths of gam edly Beye ie ee ee mt control pane! be adjusted although the Certain gamma sources have a very high fenetrating power which enables them to be used on very thick material, e.g. 150 nun steel.. Most conventional x-iay wuacianies wul ‘not penetrate more than 50 mm of steel although there are huge x-ray machines, e.g. the linear accelerd{6r aid the betatron which can’ produce radiation of a wavelength which ccan penetrate as much as, and usually more than, gamma radiation. — TR ergack “ap A2C. oc} the aire 7 to the Araie cit (ve ) 7 @ HALF WAVE RECTIFIED. 29.0.0), ant 5 oe vn 1 R2 eevee 1 ENT R2-9 PEAT Fa FURS WS. HOLE cyLE * cg atta one of he copies i Eno my Vt ane we bgt ve eis tates rere THA PS ee Was yosibe do waver ft mngy the unwanted TEM eye ais prods rot ler ieeicakion end coursnueus VE j;—|l— |e [| —l|—- | cee > sed 19 + -oy et su ave wecuter carats‘ Enown O° cel wnye ee pesere ecdtts |) > care hie cna RECHT _CORCUITT 92 Futbers unpoecoae 67 Ges eul vlave rachieied Circuit waves’ be mioducing OP Lot \sno0tbtpe mling te qqcduce + crown / below \ js . ® yave 7onh + vg ANOIEO - el : rT) cea i e itt , euad ew ys sag / NS ceil eonitont , Folencial CER? weV «s trean 3s the g _ ®: i eSPELIAG : meerpote ac .wte use 9 crrcue igh voltege transpertar pro ducer ee meant og Splatt . and cyeditar | reuit deubte an eapaBeaegahtoge! aro “ah ac form 35 showhy BEER a9 7 Pie. £m iter with the be ee treacgorteer ard qn ane Ne pal Mage i uke eevee at = wpvegcr ss cscitiehog Tt TS al Neck currant aso Abe pork We Y par net eer toned eaean wees VEGENT | Wavelengths Gamma X-Ray cow Cita ey Reiatve Intonsty Mev. tang Wavelength 3 Shot Sanat sn een fa Rete ety se nce eave org 0 a fad pte. A ‘urn of wavelongths, I the erm of ‘ence wb Sid mhtes Meow! wat Radioactive Decay Curies Half lives: XAG R11 Fcapate gor | gee 4 cO-& | node grom | croirnecs steal | } i ‘as 5650-1978 Specyfemion for eppararus | {for gama radivgraphy. The expoture heal willbe a] aform of eollimanan Gamma sources Sealed sources The source of gamma radiation, i.e. the’ radi isotope, which is typically in disc or ‘The sources available range in size and configuration from 0.5 mm diameter disc 1a a 4mm x4 mm cylinder. Example configurations are: ‘= Thin discs: typically up to 3.0. mm digmeter x 1.0 mm thick. These can be stacked together. ‘+ Cylindrical: ypically up to 4 mm in length. + Spherical: 0.6-3.0 mm diameter. The capsule is made from either 316512 grade stainless steel or titanium. ‘Titanium is used for Yt169 capsules and is an alternative to stainless steel for Ir192 and 060. Classification and types of exposure container To comply with BS 5650 (ISO 3999), apparatus for gamma radiography is classified iccording to the mobility of the exposure container. * Class P- A portable exposure container designed to be carried by one man alone * Class M - A mobile but not portable exposure container designed 10 be moved easily by a suitable means provided for the purpose. * Class FA fixed installed exposure container or one with mobility restricted 10 the confines of a particular working area. ‘An exposure container must be provided either with an integral lock or with hasps through which separate padlocks can be fitted. The locks must be either lockable without the key of an integral lock from which the key cannot be removed when the ‘container is in the working position. On all exposure containers the radiation can only be exposed after an unlocking operation, ‘There are a number of different designs for containers, the most common types are * Shutter type (Category 1). + Rotating type (Category 1). + Projection type (Category 1), BS $650 Category I containers are containers from which the scaled source is not removed for exposure. Category iI containers are those from which the sealed source is projected from the container via a projection sheath (guide tube) to an esposure head, hey may operate electrically, mechanically or pneumatically. Another type of container is the torch type. This type of container should no longer be used because of relatively high radiation doses received by the user and the high risk 0 RS2-1 auene 4 Peo Ned Po xores | 195 50 does not cover npmrarus operated DY We rated ource fromthe exposes emaimer By wing © ‘ramus! handling device Pecouse Wr weir fronitited in certain Metin relations S y Torch type handle is fited to sealed so care eres Rotating type ( The container houses the sour narrow beau vi sath ce within a torch assembly and also a short handle. The es ech assembly. this is secured in the main container by a bast Ting, As the torch assembly is withdraven from the eoniinet SPA load plupuer ashes part of the assembly down producing a shilling effect so as to produpe s handle source holder | \ SN Y | aa oe —— iN shielding material Torch type: i ‘Shutter type (Category I type to BS $650) 7 | shutter shielding material Shutter ype Category I type to BS $650) shielding _ material rolates sealed source Rotating type Specification for a basic mboltodenote the actual or petenial pretence of Marking of exposure containers Each exposure container must have a ‘marked by engr tictal plate permanently fixed and indelibly 3g. stamping or other means with the following iafornaon 1. The basic ionising radiation symbol ebmplying wih BS 3510 1SO 361). 2 RADIOACTIVE !n leters no less than 10 mm in height 3. The maximum rating of the container forthe type of source to be used, 4. BS 5650 (150 3999), 5. The manufacturer's type and serial number. Class M and F containers shall be mazked with the mass of the container. Identification of the sealed source inthe exposure container ‘The user must ensure that the following information is displayed in a durable form, atlached to the exposure container, usually in the form of a brass disc: oer 2. Activity andthe dt on which this activity was mesure 3. Identcation number ofthe seated ce Source exchangers Source exchange type containers or sourée exchangeri are used to safely transfer sources to and from the exposure containers so that the user can reccive new sources ‘and return old sources to the supplier. ‘There are a number of proprietary source exchangers available, thecefore the specific ‘manufacturer's instructions must be read and understood before source exchanges are attempted. pereerevey RS2-3 Half value layer (HE) is , The tenth value thicknesses Wr) ofa material wilt reduce the radiation intensity W008 tenth “The half value thickness (HVT) of a material may be used as a guide for determining the thickness of a material to be used for shielding from radiation, e.g. for the construction of a radiation work bay in a factory. ‘The HVT of a specific material is the thickness which cuts down the radiation intensity by one half If the initial intensity of radiation increases, e.g. by increasing the mA when using x-ray | cquipment, the HVT will remain the same. However, if the wavelength (penetrating pele matrilwl ae The flowing able shows examples of the HVT forte, ene and tect — tant] St] toe HVT (mm) HYT (mm) HVT (mm) 150 kV, 03 4 22 | | T200nv 04s oe 76 i *| 250 KV 10 De 2 300kV is is 30 | 1s? BS 3 a C060 u 20 63 = fae & ET The HVT of a material ean also be used to explain subject contrast in relation to wavelength (kV): Figure 1 shows that side A of the specimen has four times the intensity of radiation emerging from it in comparison with side B. | Figure 2 shows that side A of the specimen has two times the intensity of radiation ‘emerging from it in comparison with side B. Figure 1 200 KY sect Figure 2-250 KY" steel wl bh bye d bt a is ae eee) |e A aN te tk & pest eesut toon PEST the resultant aograph fom the specimen in figure I will display higher contrast (because ofan increase in subject contrast) compared tothe radiograph produced in igure 2. +] Vine lower the KV (longer the wavelengi thebigher the eubiect contrast and therefore the higher the radiographic edit Note: The radiograph density produced in igure 1 willbe lower than figure 2 ifthe exponucs are ieneal,s0 ts assumed thatthe exposuee time for figure 1s highe ompensite in order to give the same density on either side Aor side B. | a Oe Rig By bt bans Buane & | TPONeIN | peer The nse Ee onal tne lacs wil therefore 15, possess some dont £6 the bans of fi en oa tannin «| « ieee BU cond ele wade from yest 4 Cello le FNULSIOA first of sth ver fe crsitat eed Evo lhoR SUB AG LATER Coup strate) fWotine plus a fase Oluen+ The make-up of a radiographic film i Radiographic film is usually made up ofyseyen Jayersifa central base layer and thee coatings on either side cons — vecgatll: Base The physical charactesies of nis ee. be used by ist witout support, therefore itis applied to a subsyatg. known ag yhe,base. The base must be transparent, chemically inert and must “not SSepible to expansion and confrection. Glass is an ideal substra I these requirements, but fer applications where the objects to be raiggraphed are curved, e.g..on pipes. it is nvedbyary for a flexible base 10 be used. Palyester and cellulose wriscctate,atihovgh not quite as stable as glass. wre widely emg Syed fot such 'ajiplications. Zot ansedeB Reh d ¢ Subbing layer (substratum) 2 The subbing layers adhere the emulsion to gelatine plus a base solvent. ig 4, Emulsion trad ‘The layers of primary importance are the fi mulsion Lape. hese layers consist of ‘pillions oF silver halide crystals (usp AIL ASAARRADRDUUARR the sizes of the crystals are sally bewwieén 0.1 and 1.0 micrometres (am) and-are suspended in a goatine binging median sedating | Fila» emulsion is produced by mixing selina sitver nitrate and salts, such as Potassiunn bromide, with a solution of gelatin’. The raie and temperature of mixing goveris the grain size: rapid mixing at loyifleriperalure produces the finest grain Sructure, whereas slow mixing at high, §@mperaiure pfaduces emulsions with larger rains. When large grain structures are required, to préduce @ fast emulsion, some silver iodide is uswally included inthe form yg. 4b ‘The izes of ese crysis he material employed for this is Various shapes of crystals exist, but thesa shapes ‘have Virtually no effect on the final The aio proven ee ‘with & Taser of Hardon Although the supercoat offers some protectibn against chemical attack, es oil from the skin during handling, it must allow fog,chemical retions 10 take place in the aks. ” R31 Ruane & Peo Nel Film types Raidiographic film may be graded in terms of grain size or speed: Te seominolograned for very stow speed icrcecnispeatconte "| © Ultrafine grain - exceptional radiographic quality bu ming Te roms wed es sent ei 6 fncennin mabe” | Meum grain median speed See ele being | * __Coaise grain - poor radiographic quality but fast speed 5 fp re also divided into two types: direct-type or salt scree type © Fine grain - slow speed. Sared agetst a . Psi lms are intended for direct exposure to gamma or X-ray’ or for expose Tete Tend imieisitying screens. Some of these films may be suitable for use with | aucesigiatic or salt (huorescen) intensifying sereens salt (fluorescent) Fpe.films.are designed to-be sed exclusively Tenbfyigg'seeens. Tey are able to produce radiographs with wsiniowum exposure | 1 and ace widely used in medical radiography 4) Film speed ‘ol 4 timstactor is a number sich relates fo the speed of @ particu film and is sol Exathple 10 the SCRATA scale: pion 8 30, ‘This means to say of the film with a factor of 20 took four minutes 10 exposes = then the film with a factor of 10 wi “Types of ihn with theircomesponding SCRATA fil factors Manufacturer [Name Speed Gain | Film Factory ‘Agfa Gevaert RCE Fast Coarse | Dupont * NoT9t Fast Coarse _|~ vel | Depont noT7s |. Me Fine Kodo cx ine Kedak AX ne Agfa Gevacrt v7 Medium Fine Dogoat NDT 55 Stow Vary Fine Aufa Gevaert bs Slow Very fine | |. Kodak Mx Slow very fine | Agfa Gevacrt be Vey sow | _Ulrafine t | x| ba i - 16 |e Peano ution mss) «of tanger nelegeh ne se arimry boa fon wc} 7 rived therfore. 7 S pesca a tor _ 4 lLedd Somers intense = fhesmege bx e784 ye reaiston Calen fons? Font core oF 1 Joss tre peta ONS lion white ctoprTD oy tach oF the CO auts dow 2 Ug back se attaree! dia hon | RY General ‘A radiographic (ilm is normally sandwiched between 470 intensifying screens wh exposed to x-rays or gamima rays. Intensifying sereens have an extra photographic leet on the emulsion thereby reducing thé exposure needed to attain the required There are three iain types of intensifying sereens: 1, Lead sereens, : 2, Fluorescent (salt) screens. 3, Fluorometallic screens. Close contact between screens and film is essential in order to obtain sharp imazes. ‘Screens must be kept free from dust and scratches, if this is not done they may’ be seen as light indications on the radiographic image = especially if using fuoromerallic or fluorescent ‘ i Lead sereens* Lead soreens consist ofa thin lead foil of uniform thickness, uswally stuck onto a thin base ead in the ease of reusable screens, or stuck onto a thin sheet of paper when used with pre-packed file, aa Load screens intensify the image by emitife{itta radiation (eloctrons) when struck by rays or ganuma rays of sufficient engrEp88The intensification action is only achieved Win scays above approsimately 120 KV and gamma rays above similar energy lev Lea sercons will also improve the radiographic image by partly filtering owt seater radio. : Two lead screens are used fo sandwich the filin; the thickness of th tho imatchied to the wavelength of radiation being used, so that i will pass the pri eeuiorion while stopping es much of the secondary radiation as possible. The rear Scvcen cuts down the effect of back scattered radiation. Tri is gechncally feasible, itis bener to use serognsof the same thickness, thus {voiding the problem of accidently loading Wit eadsee with the ear sercen atthe iront, Sereen thicknesses are usually betWefer 0.02 mim yh 0.15 mm. Lead sercens are pliable and should be handiét- with Gare i buckling is to be avoided ir tne tend sereens are to be used more than once, ein cassettes as opposcd (0 lis or prespacke film, shey become dusty and should! be Frequently dusted with a Tine brush, Tf sergens become too dirty or splashed With iguid, they may be cleaned svi cotton woot damped with a weak detergent solution. When the sercens become doo sertched or diy causing the radiographic quality 10 be impaired, they should be tepluced by new screens. seas a Fluorescent (salt) screens ave made up from micro erystals ofa suitable wsctallic sal, ¢swally in base ead Fluor Calciun tungstate, applied 10 a supporting ration 10 which These sereens. when subjected fo x-rays oF ganna ¢ he film is seusitive. This light radiation,js.in directyproportion to the received Fdhotion and results mn a hirge increase of effective radiation. R41 Peo Nell F tuereccaut Coat) SEEN fee gem wpe cous! OF sumabie metelire solr feaiteie tung state? shoe cereene eras lege recianion 7s in deer perertrom te Hoe jeeare® Ramion 4 sully fea tacge th Ces oF vediakon - al cpeuit © CRsany ae two types of fMuorescent screen: 1): High definition (Fine grain) screens. 22°" High speed or rapid screens. ‘The, intgpsification action of high speed screens is at least rwice that of the high definition screens. “A:radioggaph obtained using fluorescent sercens will have a grainy appearance duc to ag; salt grains resulting in low definition compared to a radiograph taken she Sige led screens or no screens at all Berasegf the resulting lost of image quay, furesen ecens ae oly wet avd exively Tong exposure ines, eon very thick specimens. * Fluordimetallic screens Fluorometallic screens are a combination of a salt screen and a lead screen; they are made of fram a base card, 9 lead Iayer, a salt layer (alum tangstre anda thin protective layer. “There is inore than one type of fluoremetallic sree Type I - for x-rays up to 300 kV. © Type 2- for x-rays 300-1000 kV. Ir 192. © Type 3- for Co60. Providing the correct type of fluorometallic sereer radiation being used, substantial reductions in exposure time or KV can be achieved ‘Becgusguheyens layer will potily filter out seater radiation, the image produced on iiseredlazraphyxll, be. better than one obtained using fluorescent sercens, but the image will still retain a grainy appearance due to the salt crystals, “Those soreens are not commonly used duc to high cost. Their application is similar those applications where fluorescent screens may be used. ic. on thick specimens. t y ; * Order of | Order of How eon co Image quality | speed intensification sj cyromime can achieved favitt H y 23+ | Bota partieles and : esr ae characteristi x-ray of Fluorescent 4 __ 815 Light radiation Fluorometalic am | so Light radiation J None 1 NA wa Ra foment te tha cena When radiation passes through an object itis differentially absorbed depending upor the thickness and any differing material densities. The radiation finally emerging the film side of the object will largely determine the final characteristics of thy radiogeaph. The portions of radiographic film which receive sufficient quamities of actinic radiation undergo minute changes. These changes are so small they ace invisible +s the naked eye and also invisible when using conventional microscopes; this hidden image is known as the ferent inacs. The latent eam be deine hae te dawn nage on a radiographic film. after..exposure 10 actinic radiation but befoce development. : ‘Therefore, radiation alone does not convert a radiographic film into a visible readable ‘mage. The sequence of processes to attain a radiographic image are as follows 1. The sitver halide crystals which have absorbed a sufficient quantity of radiation are partially converied into metallic silver - this is the latent image 2. The affected crystals are then essentially amplified by the doveloper; the developer completely converts the affected crystal (0 metallic silver 53. The aliograph atans its final appeaiaee by fain: the fiver ramoves the ssexponel an Bertone sndevloea mae , R35-1 UNIT R6® FILM PROCESSING Frm processing may be eased out manually or by using atomati film proessees Mana im processing takes plce in a diktbom under te iumination of sfeighs Mi usually cones of ordinary light bulls behind orange filters. Other colours for Tar ihe colour chocon must emit ight of a wavelength sich docs wot aoc he ems “The darkroom should preferably be divided into two sides, a dry side for loading and untoading of cassettes and a wet side for processing; this is so the films are not 1. Developer tank | 2° Stopbath or rinse tank . | 32 Fixer tank 4. Final wash tank | Wetting agent tank. | \When the expose film has bien unloaded from is cassette, iis placed ino a rune (orspirat if itsa long film) and placed ino the developer. i «| Developer Developer is an alkali and is usually supplied as a liquid concentrate and is twit water ata ratio governed by the manufacgurers instnctions, e.g. 1 part developer | 4 10-4 parts waice, ! q Developer tempernture and development time’ should be in accordance with the i | so} ynanufacuers recommendations or specification, but for manual processing is thptealy 20°21°C for to 3 mites, eth time should be taken from shen the tim thts the doveloper witha suitable darkroom timer. ‘Once the tila is in the developer it is agitated for approximately 20 seconds and then for appronimately 10 seconds every minutey\gization allows for fresh developcr to” Now ver the fin and prevents the POESbIlpyLof*bromide streaking: agitation also * us down development time? The frames:oe spirals should be tapped against the tanks to prevents any aie bubbles setlng of the fli which ean cause light spots on he Finished radiogra ‘aad the Finished eadiograph "alee \ a

    You might also like