Force Analysis of Blended Wing Body Aircraft: Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 1

Force Analysis of Blended Wing Body Aircraft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 1

Chapter 1
Introduction
The flight behavior of conventional aircraft configurations has been a long and
continuous process generating a large body of work. In recent years, air transportation has
increased and one of the developments to tackle the problems faced by the conventional
aircraft is the concept of a Blended Wing Body (BWB) aircraft. In the past decade, fuel
efficiency and noise reduction have proved to be the biggest challenges for aircraft
manufacturers. There has been a need to develop a new composite structure to push the
boundaries of current technologies and to breathe new life into civil transportation. BWB
bridges the gap between future requirements.
The BWB configuration is a new concept in aircraft design which provides greater
internal volume, aerodynamics and structural efficiency, noise reduction, and most
importantly significant improvement on cost-per-seat-mile. The design approach of BWB
is to maximize overall efficiency by integrating the propulsion systems, wings, and the
body into a single lifting surface. Wings are the major factor in any design considerations
for an aircraft, as it is the essential parameter which helps the designers for the calculation
of lift generated for that particular design. The wing design has undergone slow but
steady changes throughout the phase development of aircraft designs from the early days
to the present.
1.1 Aerodynamic Forces
The aerodynamic force is the force exerted on a body by the air (or some other
gas) in which the body is immersed, and is due to the relative motion between the body
and the gas. The aerodynamic force arises from two causes:
 The normal force due to the pressure on the surface of the body

 The shear force due to the viscosity of the gas, also known as skin friction
Pressure acts locally, normal to the surface, and shear force acts locally, parallel to
the surface. The net aerodynamic force over the body is due to the pressure and shear
forces integrated over the total exposed area of the body. [1]

When an airfoil (or a wing) is moving relative to the air it generates an aerodynamic

force, in a rearward direction at an angle with the direction of relative motion. This
aerodynamic force is commonly resolved into two components:
 Drag is the force component parallel to the direction of relative motion,

 Lift is the force component perpendicular to the direction of relative motion
The force created by a propeller or a jet engine is called thrust and it is also an

aerodynamic force (since it also acts on the surrounding air). The aerodynamic force on a
powered airplane is commonly represented by three vectors: thrust, lift and drag. [2]
The other force acting on an aircraft during flight is its weight. Weight is a body
force and is not an aerodynamic force.
Fig 1.1: Aerodynamic forces
In addition to these forces, an aircraft experience various aerodynamic moments
The Pitching moment on an airfoil is the moment (or torque) produced by

the aerodynamic force on the airfoil if that aerodynamic force is considered to be applied,
not at the center of pressure, but at the aerodynamic center of the airfoil.The pitching
moment on the wing of an airplane is part of the total moment that must be balanced
using the lift on the horizontal stabilizer.[3] More generally, a pitching moment is any
moment acting on the pitch axis of a moving body.
The Rolling moment is the aerodynamic force applied at a distance from an aircraft's

center of mass that causes the aircraft to undergo angular acceleration about its roll axis.

The roll axis is usually defined as the longitudinal axis, which runs from the nose to
the tail of the aircraft. A roll moment can be the result of wind gusts, control surfaces
such as ailerons, or simply by flying at an angle of sideslip
The Yawing momentis the aerodynamic force acting sideways along the length of the
aircraft i.e., along the yaw axis
Fig 1.2: Aircraft axes

1.2 Stability of an Aircraft
Stability is the tendency of an airplane in flight to remain in straight, level, upright flight
and to return to this attitude, if displaced, without corrective action by the pilot. The axis
system is used in modeling all forces and moments is a modification of body-fixed axis
system (XYZ) called the stability axis system (XSYSZS). [4]
Fig 1.3 (a) shows how the stability system is defined in case initial sideslip is zero.
Fig 1.3 (b) shows how the stability system is defined in case initial sideslip is non-zero

Fig 1.3(a) Definition of stability axis system (zero side slip)
Fig 1.3(b) Definition of stability axis system (non-zero side slip)
1.3 Types of aircraft
Based on conceptual design of the structure of an aircraft, it can be classified into

two types:
Conventional: Aircraft where the body not contribute significantly to the lift.
There is a separate wing to generate the lift namely existing commercial airplanes and
military aircrafts.
Flying wing: Aircrafts where the entire body contributes significantly to the
generation of lift and acts like the wing itself. E.g. BWB

1.4 Blended Wing Body (BWB) Aircraft

Aircraft technologies that could give greater performance include a large
improvement in Lift-to-Drag ratio of a wing coupled to evolutionary improvement in
composite structure and engines, such as Blended Wing Body aircraft configuration. This
next generation airlifter has been researched with a high L/D ratio wing configuration
design, engineered materials, composite fabrication and fastening, and next generation
material for airframe and skin. A Blended-Wing-Body design approach is to maximize
overall efficiency by integrated the propulsion systems, wings, and the body into a single
lifting surface. This BWB configuration is a new concept in aircraft design which expects
to offer great potential to substantially reduce operating costs while improving an
aerodynamic performance and flexibility for both passenger and cargo mission.
Fig 1.4: A BWB Aircraft
The concept of Blended Wing body was introduced almost 30 years ago. The idea
was to build a new type of aircraft that would allow the aircraft to carry more passengers.
The BWB aircraft is not a fully novel concept because it was considered by Horten,
Northrop, and others from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, but was abandoned due to
stability and control issues. In addition, BWB aircraft was previously called “Tailless
[5]
Airplane” and “Flying Wing Aircraft”. BWB is a major advancement in wings from
conventional airplanes which involves a unique tailless single entity where the fuselage is
merged with wing and tail. Blended wing body has flattened and airfoil surface which
contributes higher lift than conventional ones.

Formulation of the BWB concept
The performance potential implied by the BWB concept provided the incentive for
NASA Langley Research Center to fund the study conducted by McDonnell Douglas to
develop and compare advanced technology subsonic transports for the design mission of
800 passengers and a 7000 mile range at a Mach 0.85.[6]
In the preliminary design the pressurized passenger compartment consisted of
adjacent parallel tubes, a lateral extension of the double-bubble concept.
On comparison with the conventional aircraft design configuration the newly
formulated concept by Douglas was found to be significantly lighter, had a higher lift to
drag ratio and a substantially lower fuel burn. [7]
Advantages of BWB
The major advantages of a BWB aircraft over conventional aircraft are
a) L/D can be up to 50% higher than conventional designs

b) Up to 30% less fuel is used compared to traditional design due to drag
reduction (more fuel efficient)
c) Has a large internal volume for the size of the aircraft
d) Smaller runway lengths are required
Disadvantages
a) High bending stresses resulting fromthe effect of pressure on the box-likeshape
of the BWB
b) High bending stress associatedwith a non-cylindrical pressurevessel.
c) typical aircrafts have a cylindrical shape which requires less strength and
iseasier to pressurize as opposed to the interior shape of a BWB
1.5 Objectives of the project
The objectives of this project are as follows:
 Design and analysis of BWB plane
Any plane will have design characteristics upon which the planes are built. A
study is done on the characteristic properties required to design a blended wing
plane. Most contributing characteristic properties are chosen and planes are
designed, fabricated and tested numerically and physically to study the change in
aerodynamic characteristics with change in their factors.

 Design and fabrication of test rig
To study the characteristics physically, a suitable methodology is chosen

among the available ones further a test rig is physically built to measure the
aerodynamic characteristics of any body in a wind tunnel upon which the design
BWB plane will be tested.
1.6 Methodology
1. Design of BWB aircraft

Numerous parameters affecting the design of BWB aircraft, but the most
important design parameters are considered
A prototype is designed based on the following initial assumptions
 Clark Y Airfoil: It is the most basic airfoil whose aerodynamic properties are well
known and is extensively experimented upon.
 Number of sections: Three sections are considered where the airfoil cross sections
are adopted and are given required twist.
 Chord length: 100mm is considered according to the available wind tunnel.
 Velocity: 7.5m/s air velocity is considered according to the available wind tunnel.
For finalizing the model it is required that the designed airplane generates lift at zero
angle of attack and no flow separation is observed.
2. Numerical Analysis of BWB
The following stepsare to be followed for the numerical analysis of BWB
 Pre-Processing: This step is basically setting up of the flow problem using the
analysis software; geometry of BWB is created and is imported to suitable
meshing module. This meshed model is called as mathematical model.
Appropriate materials and boundary conditions are assigned to the various
domains of the meshed file in this step.
 Solving the mathematical model: The solver of analysis software solves the
mathematical model based on boundary conditions and relevant algorithm is
employed.

 Post-Processing: The air velocity and other desired parameter’s contours are
plotted which would help us in establishing a conclusion. The desired data is
plotted using any mathematical tool.
3. Fabrication of BWB
Suitable material and machining process are chosen based on cost, availability,
weight and ease of machining.
Design and Fabrication of test rig
For the physical testing of BWB a suitable test rig is designed which is also
compactable with the available wind tunnel.
Among the various existingmethods of measuring the aerodynamic characteristics

like forces, moments, pressure etc., a suitable method is adopted which is capable of
measuring the chosen aerodynamic parameters.
Further with suitable materials the designed test rig is fabricated.
Physical analysis of BWB
Using test Rig and wind tunnel the following models are tested for different Angle
of Attack
 BWB with different twist angle

 Conventional plane.
 Flying wing.
Readings are validated by comparing the physical analysis results with numerical
analysis.

Chapter 2
Literature Review

Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Blended wing body
The case study conducted by Pranav Mahamuni, Akhilesh Kulkarni, Yash

Parikh[8], concluded that BWB can fly at very high angle of attack. The maximum lift was
given for α around 34º-39º. However, the wing was installed at α around 8º. Hence the
main contributor of the lift was the aircraft body. The maximum L/D ratio was obtained at
α = 6º (from wind tunnel experiments) which represents the optimum flight configuration
with optimum fuel consumption.
The BWB configuration was compared to the Aerodynamic performance of the

simplified A380 using CFD simulation based on the same flight mission requirements,
and the L/D ratio of the A380 was calculated with the Bernoulli’s equation. The BWB
configuration proved to have the aerodynamic features superior to conventional aircraft,
because the BWB design (21.43 of the L/D) achieved 1.5 times higher L/D ratio than the
A380[9]
The estimation and selection of aircraft design parameters, planform design, reflex
airfoils, and conduct thorough stability investigation of the aircraft requiresa conceptual
design of BWB aircraft after which the design has to be analyzed and refined to achieve
static stability. The CFD analysis of the BWB aircraft done at three different values of
Angle-of-attack (AOA) and the stall AOA can be determined from the computational
results.[10]
2.2 Force balance and test rig
In a test conducted by Miguel A. González, José Miguel Ezquerro, Victoria

Lapuerta,AnaLaverón, and Jacobo Rodríguez,[11]the first test done with a self-designed
and manufactured balance has been on a two dimensional profile. Profile aerodynamic
characteristics were computed using several codes previous to its manufacturing and
testing, because a minimum aerodynamic efficiency of 80 is required in the design
conditions. Experimental results have shown a complete agreement with the expected
ones, including lift curve slope and aerodynamic efficiency, proving that both, balance
capabilities and calibration procedures, are good enough for the requirements: a
maximum error of one drag count for critical design conditions.

A six-component external balance of the first platform type balance designed and
manufactured in the Military Technical Institute (VTI), RatkaResanovića, and Belgrade,
SERBIA has shown that the balance has provided very good accuracy. Usually, design
and manufacturing of wind tunnel balances are based on very contrasting requirements.
The balance flexure elements should be optimized such that the magnitude of the strain
response is approximately the same for the individual application of each component of
the load. However, the magnitudes of the loads generated on a wind tunnel model in each
balance component are not equivalent; therefore, the flexure elements do not have the
same deflection in all directions.[12]
2.3 Wind Tunnel Testing
A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air

moving past solid objects. A wind tunnel consists of a tubular passage with the object
under test mounted in the middle. Air is made to move past the object by a
powerful fan system or other means. The test object, often called a wind tunnel model, is
instrumented with suitable sensors to measure aerodynamic forces, pressure distribution,
or other aerodynamic-related characteristics.
Wind tunnel experiments are used for:
 Validation of other methods, e.g. Computational Wind Engineering
 Gathering of data to apply in the next generation of guidance and codification
documents.
Three methods which are frequently applied are the methods A, B and C described below:
Method A: Measurement of mean values; quasi-steady approach
Method A requires per wind condition one time trace, with a length which is sufficient to
ensure that a longer time trace will not give another mean value. This method is suited for
the analysis of forces and moments to determine the wind loading on the main structure.
Method A is a safe method to determine the wind loading on the main structure, but is not
suited to determine the local loads.
Method B: Extreme value analysis of pressure coefficients
Method B requires per wind condition more time series with a length T. Each time series
has the same length and the same sample frequency. Method B uses extreme value
analysis of the measurement results applied together with the peak dynamic pressure from
the wind loading codes.

Method C: Extreme-value analysis of wind tunnel data and wind climate statistics
Method C applies an extreme value analysis of the measured extremes. This analysis is
combined with the wind climate statistics. A target probability of the load effect is used as
the basis for the determination of the wind loads.
Since there is a range of demands, often conflicting, when setting up an
experiment, there are still discussions going on about the optimal way to perform wind
tunnel experiments. When wind tunnel experiments are commissioned, expert judgement
of the modeling and analysis of the results is still an important issue. [13]
Various modelling techniques and design methodologies were used to simulate the
performance of a six component stress wave force balance. This variety in the modelling
techniques enabled a variety of design features to be investigated and their effects on the
balance performance quantified which in turn enabled the measurement capability of the
design to be optimized for the loading time histories expected in a reflected wind tunnel.
The performance of the design suggests that it should be capable of measuring three
forces and two moment components, but not suitable for accurate measurement of rolling
moment.[14]
Before 2D airfoil or 3D model wind tunnel tests related with aerodynamic

coefficients (of drag, lift or pitch moment) an estimation should be performed (balance or
pressure tests). The tested object position in the wind tunnel test section should be defined
first. It is a mistake to present the results directly as a function of the mechanical angle of
the model. The test object mounting activity in the wind tunnel test section is connected
with a few stages which aim to ensure the most accurate model positioning. For 3D
model, the convergence of the model inclination angle should be checked first (or angle
of model support mechanism) with a real, measured by calibrated spirit level device (or
another calibrated device which measures angles). The model inclination accuracy should
be possibly high.[15]
There are many different kinds of wind tunnels. They are typically classified by
the range of speeds that are achieved in the test section, as follows:
 Low-speed wind tunnel
 High speed wind tunnel
 Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel
 Supersonic wind tunnel
 Hypersonic wind tunnel

2.4 Summary
 BWB configured aircraft is more fuel efficient and has a higher lift to drag ratio
than conventional aircraft of the same capacity. Therefore it is worth analyzing the
characteristics.
 A BWB section can be of any airfoil profile.
 A low speed wind tunnel can be adopted for the project
 External force balance can be used to effectively measure the forces as far as the
setup is appropriate.

Chapter 3
Design of BWB

Chapter 3
Design and Numerical Analysis of BWB Prototype
The design of BWB model revolves around the aerodynamic properties and
behavior of the entire structure. In this project, several airfoils of the same profile but
different sizes are chosen and these are placed in center body, blending area and outer
wing according to the BWB design requirements. The platform design variables are
defined with the airfoils and geometric constraints.
3.1Airfoil Selection
Clark Y is the name of a particular airfoil profile, widely used in general

purpose aircraft designs, and much studied in aerodynamics over the years. The profile
was designed in 1922 by Virginius E. Clark. The airfoil has a thickness of 11.7 percent
and is flat on the lower surface from 30 percent of chord back. The flat bottom simplifies
angle measurements on propellers, and makes for easy construction of wings on a flat
surface. For many applications the Clark Y has been an adequate airfoil section; it gives
reasonable overall performance in respect of its lift-to-drag ratio, and has gentle and
relatively benign stall characteristics. But the flat lower surface is not optimal from an
aerodynamic perspective, and it is rarely used in modern designs.
Fig 3.1: Clark-Y airfoil [15]
A Clark Y airfoil is chosen not for any particular specialty or properties but
because of the fact that it was very widely used for conventional aircraft design purposes
3.2Airfoil Characteristics
The characteristics of the Clark Y airfoil for a flow Reynolds number of 500,000 are
shown in the graphs below[16]*
*Generated from internet
Max Cl/Cd: 98.66 at α=3.75°

a) Drag coefficient vs Angle of attack b) Lift coefficient vs Angle of attack
c) Lift coefficient vs. Drag coefficient d) Lift-

Drag ratio vs Angle of attack
e) Moment coefficient vs Angle of attack

Fig 3.2: Characteristic curves of a Clark Y airfoil
3.3 Platform optimization
Platform and typical airfoils of BWB configuration are shown in Fig. Three
airfoils are located in span wise direction, where 1 is the center body, 2 is the blended
area and 3 is the outer wing. In this platform optimization design process, each wing
section’s thickness-to-chord ratio is changed so as to satisfy the thickness constraints.
Fig 3.3: Platform and Airfoils of BWB configuration
3.4 Geometric modeling
The geometric model is developed on Solid Works to the required dimensions. In

this Clark Y airfoil is used in full body. The analysis of the airfoil is done at two Angle-
of-Attack, 0° and 10°. 0° in which all the airfoils chord are in same plane and in 10° the
airfoil at the outer wing is angled and hence a twist is generated between 2 nd and 3rd
sections of the airplane . The side and isometric views of the CAD model is shown below
Fig 3.4 (a): Airfoil with 0° Angle-of-Attack
Fig 3.4 (b): Outer wing Airfoil with 10° Angle-of Attack
(a) Sections of Clark Y airfoil
(b)CAD model of BWB
Fig 3.5: Geometric modeling

Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Fabrication

Chapter 4
Fabrication
4.1 Fabrication methods for aircraft models:
The model aircraft needs to have the following properties for the wind tunnel testing:
 The surfaces need to be smooth.

 The dimensions should be accurate
 The model should be considerably stiff
 The method should be easily done with minimum expenses, with the available
resources.
The following fabrication methods are considered in order to achieve the properties
listed above:
 3D printing: Dimensional accuracy is high, process is easy and available. But the
expenses are too high
 CNC Foam machining: Process is very accurate. Machining complexity and
expenses are high.
 Mold and cast: Process is inexpensive but is considerably difficult and time
consuming. Accuracy is considerable
 Foam hot wire cutting: XPS Pink foam is cut using a hot nichrome wire. The
nichrome wire is heated by a regulated power supply. This process is cheaper and
materials are easily available. Hence this process was selected.
4.2 Blended wing body aircraft model
The patterns of airfoils at the sections of the aircraft were laser cut on plastic plate
to the required scale. Then patterns are attached on the XPS Pink foam and are cut to loft
shape through hot wire cutting. The roughness of the surface is smoothened by sand
paper. The finished model is then accommodated on the fabricated test rig to test it on a
wind tunnel.
The Blended Wing Body prototype is fabricated using XPS Pink foam in the
following steps:
 Generation of Clark-Y airfoil for various lateral sections of the BWB to the
required scales and dimensions.

Each section of the BWB is an airfoil, three sections were chosen and the
exact dimensions of these sections are laser cut to scale on plastic plate.
 Hot wire cutting of the XPS Pink foam to the lofted shape of two airfoils for four
sections. Using two airfoils at a time, these airfoil plates are temporarily fixed to
two opposite faces of rectangular prismatic foam. The foam is cut into the lofted
shape of the two airfoil shapes. The rough surface of the wire cut model is
smoothened to the desired shape using a flat file and sand paper. This is done for
all the sections i.e. two symmetrical pairs for one model.
 The sections plane are then joined using suitable adhesive to form a fully
developed model of a blended wing body aircraft
 The assembly forming a BWB model is then surface finished by sand paper.
Fig 4.1: Fabricated Model of BWB

Chapter 5
Design and Fabrication
of Test Rig

Chapter 5
Design of Test Rig
5.1 Methods of Experimental analysis
Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft and engine
components. During a test, the model is placed in the test section of the tunnel and air is
made to flow past the model. Various types of instrumentation are used to determine the
forces on the model. They are as follows:
 Directly measure forces and moments- Force balance: In some wind tunnel
tests, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the model are measured directly.
The model is mounted in the tunnel on a special machine called a force balance.
The output from the balance is a signal that is related to the forces and moments
on the model. Balances can be used to measure both the lift and drag forces. The
balance must be calibrated against a known value of the force before, and
sometimes during, the test. Force measurements usually require some data
reduction or post-test processing to account for Reynolds number or Mach number
effects on the model during testing. It is very important in data reports to always
specify the reference value of variables used in data reduction.
 Measure pressure and derive performance: n some wind tunnel tests, the model
are instrumented with pressure taps and the component performance is calculated
from the pressure data. Total pressure measurement is the normal procedure for
determining aircraft inlet performance. Theoretically, the aerodynamic force on an
aircraft model could be obtained using pressure instrumentation by integrating the
pressure times an incremental area around the entire surface of the model. But, in
practice, pressure integration is not used because of the large number of taps
necessary to accurately resolve pressure variations. Airfoil drag can be determined
by integrating the total pressure deficit in the wake created by a wing model.
 Measure pressures or velocity for diagnostic purpose: In some wind tunnel
tests, the model is instrumented to provide diagnostic information about the flow
of air around the model. Diagnostic instrumentation includes static pressure taps,
total pressure rakes, laser Doppler velocimetry, and hot-wire velocity probes. A
diagnostic test does not provide overall aircraft performance, but helps the
engineer to better understand how the fluid moves around and through the model.

There are a variety of flow control devices that are employed to improve
performance of the aircraft, if the local flow conditions are known. Depending on
the type of instrumentation used in the experiment, steady state flow or unsteady,
time-varying, flow information can be obtained. The engineer must use some
experience when employing flow diagnostic instrumentation to properly place the
instruments in regions of flow gradients or separations.
 Flow visualization for diagnosis: In some wind tunnel tests, flow visualization
techniques are used to provide diagnostic information. Visualization techniques
include free stream smoke, laser sheet, or surface oil flow. The assumption is
made that the flow visualization medium moves exactly with the flow.
Shadowgraphs or schlierin systems are used to visualize the shape and location of
shock waves in compressible flows. For low speed flows, tufts or surface oil
indicate the flow direction along the surface of a model.
Finally, force balance was chosen as it involves less expensive parts and easy to
fabricate. Force balance can measure the all the moments and forces on the body placed
inside the wind tunnel.
5.2 Six component external Force balance

It is a powerful tool aiding engineers to expedite the design process, allowing
understanding the true nature of aerodynamic loads. In many cases however, without a
proper instrumentation and data acquisition system, it becomes useless. One of the key
measuring systems in wind tunnel testing is the multi component force and moment
measure instrumentation - more than70% of the tests in a wind tunnel require some kind
of load measuring system, in Tropea et al. [2007]. Early on, these devices were purely
mechanical and their mechanism resembles balances for weighting, hence its name.
Today, these balances are often based on force transducers and may assume many
different types of configurations.[12]
There are several types of multiple axis weighting devices available on the market
but these products are usually very expensive since they are highly customized and there
are very few generic solutions, a direct effect from its short demand. It has a very specific
application, being employed mainly by research and development organizations, fluid
mechanics consultancy companies and at universities for post graduate research work or
undergraduate teaching.

It would be then a major asset if an affordable and flexible wind tunnel balance
was developed, that could still achieve an accurate estimation of the aerodynamic loads.
This way it would be possible to spread its use allowing smaller institutions or
organizations to take advantage of this kind of technology. This work is within the scope
of the rehabilitation project of the fluid mechanics laboratory of Instituto Superior
Técnico (IST). Based on past experience, the quality of the data acquisition, the reliability
of the equipment, and ease of use and maintenance has been privileged.
Fig 5.1: Force balance
A test is conducted in the following manner.
With the tunnel turned off and no air passing through the test section, the weight(W)
of the model and mounting system is determined as the sum of the forces from gages A,
B, and C. The tunnel is then turned on and air flows over the model. The model generates
aerodynamic forces and moments that changes the readings on the strain gages.
The lift (L) is given by:

L=A+B+C-W
The drag (Dr) is given by:
Dr = E + D
The side force Y is:
Y=F

If there is no rolling moment, the values of A and B are equal. If there is a rolling
moment (RM), the value is given by:
RM = (A - B) * a / 2
Similarly, the yawing moment, (YM) is:
YM = (D - E) * c / 2
And the pitching moment, (PM) is:
PM = C * b
6.3 Load cell

A load cell consists of a metal element that is introduced to a change through
tension (pulling apart) or compression (pushing together) forces, and interior strain gages
that sense this change, which is sometimes referred to as deflection. Strain gages consist
of a thin, continuous, compact, metallic foil pattern, insulated and mounted to the interior
of the load cell with proprietary adhesives. This foil wire has a specific resistance that is
directly proportional to its length and width. As the load cell bends or stretches, the strain
gages move with it. When a strain gage is stretched, the path the current must travel
lengthens, while its cross section narrows, increasing the resistance. The opposite occurs
when the strain gage is compressed.
Fig 5.2: Load cell
A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. Invented

by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, the most common type of strain
gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern.
The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. As the
object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change.

This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to

the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical

conductance and its dependence on the conductor's geometry. When an electrical
conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or
permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that increase its
electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it
does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten changes that decrease its electrical resistance
end-to-end. From the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of
induced stress may be inferred. A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive
strip in a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines. This does not increase the sensitivity, since the
percentage change in resistance for a given strain for the entire zig-zag is the same as for
any single trace. However, a single linear trace would have to be extremely thin and
hence liable to overheating (which would both change its resistance and cause it to
expand), or would have to be operated at a much lower voltage, making it harder to
measure resistance changes accurately.
Fig 5.3: Strain gauge

5.4 Modeling of the test rig

In order to conduct any experimental analysis, an experimental setup is required
on which the specimen (model) will be tested. So the objective here is to build a test rig
that will hold an aerodynamic model and in our case, a BWB configured aircraft
prototype and measure the forces acting on it when air flow is provided through a wind
tunnel.A mathematical model which is a description of systemusing
mathematicalconcepts and language isdone.
Computer aided designing of the models

Part for all the components of the test rig is developed and the assembly of this
part is done using Dassault systems, Solid Works.
Fig 5.4: Assembled CAD model of the test rig

5.5 Materials and components selection

Components and parts required are assessed as per our requirement and budget
and materials are selected based on their machinability, strength and other physical
properties.
Material used for the base: Tubes and bars of mild steel
Material used for the mount: An acrylic floating plate is used onto which M8 threaded
rods made of mild steel are mounted as shown in the figure above. The threaded rods
enable easy articulation of the plane inside the wind tunnel. The load cells are connected
to the base using arms made out of mild steel bars. All the components are fastened using
M6 stainless steel bolts.
Fig 5.5: Fabricated test rig

Chapter 6
Numerical Analysis

Chapter 6
Numerical Analysis
With the increased power of the computer, much improved computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) computations can be performed with higher flexibility and accuracy. In
the present work, laminar flow is provided in the entrance region of the BWB aircraft. A
finite volume approach is employed to obtain the lift and drag on BWB plane
6.1 Model Description
The BWB plane designed in the design stage of the project is used as model and
an enclosure of 500mm length, 200×200 mm2 is considered. The face in front of the nose
is considered as air inlet and face opposite to it is considered as air outlet. Different
angles of attack are attained by tilting the enclosure around the airplane.
Analysis is done for the angles of attack of 0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°and 25°. The same is done
for flying and conventional plane.
6.2 Governing Equations

The following assumptions are made to analyze the lift and drag forces on the BWB plane
1. Steady state
2. Incompressible flow
3. Laminar flow
4. Single phase flow
The computational Domain is as shown below
Fig 6.1: BWB plane with enclosure

The continuity, momentum and energy equation for the problem can be written as:
Continuity Equation:
∂u ∂ v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂ y ∂z
X-Momentum Equation:
∂U ∂U ∂ U −dP 1 ∂2 U ∂2 U ∂ 2 U
( U
∂X
+V
∂Y
+W
∂Z
= + ) + + (
dX Re ∂ X 2 ∂ Y 2 ∂ Z 2 )
Y-Momentum Equation:
∂V ∂V ∂ V −dP 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V ∂ 2 V
( U
∂X
+V
∂Y
+W
∂Z
= +) + + (
dY Re ∂ X 2 ∂ Y 2 ∂ Z2 )
Z-Momentum Equation:
∂W ∂W ∂ W −dP 1 ∂2 W ∂2 W ∂2 W
( U
∂X
+V
∂Y
+W
∂Z
= + )
+ +
dY Re ∂ X 2 ∂ Y 2 ∂ Z 2( )
Energy Equation:
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ 1 ∂2 θ ∂2 θ ∂ 2 θ
( U
∂X
+V
∂Y
+W
∂Z
= ) + ( +
R e Pr ∂ X 2 ∂ Y 2 ∂ Z 2 )
x y z u v w
Where X =
Dh
, Y = Dh
, Z = Dh
, U = , V = , W = .
u¿ u¿ u¿
Lift and Drag are found out for the above mentioned values of Angles of Attack
2l
C l=
ρV 2 A
2D
C d=
ρV2 A
6.3 Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions for all boundaries are specified for this simplified
computational domain. At the entrance of the wind tunnel air velocity of 7.5m/s is
provided. The gauge pressure at the outlet is zero.

6.4 Ansys Fluent Results
Fig 6.2: Velocity Streamline for 0° Angle-of-twist BWB

6.5 Numerical Analysis Readings:

The following lift and drag values are obtained from the numerical analysis of the plane
on ANSYS. The values are rounded off to 2 decimal places
Table 6.1 Numerical Lift and drag values for Zero angle of
twist
Angle of
Speed Lift Drag
Attack(degrees
(m/s) (kgf)×10-3 (kgf)×10-3
)
0 7.5 12.31 3.64
5 7.5 18.23 4.43
10 7.5 23.62 5.11
15 7.5 35.56 8.52
20 7.5 24.54 12.51
Table 6.2 Numerical Lift and drag values Ten degree angle of
twist
Angle of
Speed Lift Drag
Attack(degrees
(m/s) (kgf)×10-3 (kgf)×10-3
)
0 7.5 26.82 3.95
5 7.5 23.34 5.78
10 7.5 20.84 7.79
15 7.5 18.08 13.51
20 7.5 40.52 16.67

Chapter 7
Physical
Experimentation

Chapter 7
Physical Experimentation
Objective:
To determine the lift and drag forces acting on a BWB aircraft for various values
of Angles of attack
Setup
A wind tunnel of the following specification is used to measure the forces on the
model planes.
• Cross-sectional area: □ 200×200mm
• Max wind velocity: 7 m/s at 10000 RPM
• Length: 500 mm
• Motor: 1000 KV
The following parameters can be altered to achieve different lift and moment values.
 Angle of attack: airfoils are twisted with respect to other airfoil sections to
change the angle of attack and thus lift
 Downward force can be generated at the trailing part of the airfoil to
account for the tail which is absent
 Different airfoils can be used at different sections
 For this project, the lift at different sections cannot be measured with the
available set up. Thus the overall lift and drag will be determined and
compared with conventional configuration of airplane and flying wing
configuration
The plane is mounted in the wind tunnel on the 3 probes of the force balance. The
following steps are followed to perform the test
 The plane is mounted at zero degree angle of attack. Lift force and drag force is
measured for varying air velocities.
 To measure the drag force, the three load cells in the lower part are removed the
readings are taken from the upper 2 load cells. The 2 readings are added to get the
value of force in grams

 To measure the lift force, the upper 2 load cells are removed. The readings are
taken on the other three load cells and are added to get the lift force in grams.
Fig 7.1: 0O Angle of attack
Fig 7.2: 5⁰ Angle of attack


Fig 7.6: Force balance placed in wind tunnel

Experimentation Readings:
Table 7.1: Zero angle of twist, 0⁰ AOA Table 7.2: Zero angle of twist, 5⁰ AOA
Speed Lift Drag Speed Lift Drag

(m/s) (kgf)×10-3 (kgf)×10-3 (m/s) (kgf)×10-3 (kgf)×10-3
3.4 1 1 2.8 6 0
4 8 2
4.5 3 1
5.5 9 3
5.6 6 2
7.7 18 11
6.3 8 2
7 10 3 8.8 21 12
Table 7.3: Zero angle of twist, 10⁰ AOA Table 7.4: Zero angle of twist, 15⁰ AOA

2.7 6 1 2.6 7 1
4 8 3 3.8 10 4
4.9 9 5 4.7 12 6
5.5 11 5 5.3 17 6
6 14 5 5.8 19 7
Table 7.5: Zero angle of twist, 20⁰ AOA
Speed Lift Drag

(m/s) (kgf)×10-3 (kgf)×10-3
2.5 2 1
3.8 8 5
4.6 11 7
5.3 13 7
5.8 15 9

Table 7.6: 10° angle of twist, 0⁰ AOA Table 7.7: 10° angle of twist, 5⁰ AOA

2.6 2 0 2.6 4 1
3.8 6 0 3.9 5 1
4.6 12 1 4.8 8 2
5.3 14 1 5.5 11 3
5.6 15 2 6 13 4
Table 7.8: 10° angle of twist, 10⁰ AOA Table 7.9: 10° of twist, 15⁰ AOA

2.7 3 0 2.5 2 1
3.9 5 1 3.8 5 1
4.6 9 2 4.6 11 3
5.2 11 3 5.1 11 4
5.5 12 5 5.5 12 5
Table 7.10: 10° angle of twist, 20⁰ AOA
Speed Lift Drag

(m/s) (kgf)×10-3 (kgf)×10-3
2.3 5 1
3.6 7 2
4.4 10 3
5.1 14 6
5.5 17 7

Chapter 8
Results and Inference

Chapter 8
Results and Inference
Comparison of BWB airplanes with different twist values
Table 8.1: For zero degree twist plane, the Lift and Drag at 7.5 m/s and different values of
angles of attack are as follows
Angle of attack (degree) Lift (kgf)×10-3 Drag (kgf)×10-3
0 11.76 3.51
5 16.16 8.95
10 21.81 4.68
15 33.6 6.85
20 18.76 9.58
Table 8.2: For ten degree twist plane, the Lift and Drag at 7.5 m/s and different values of
angles of attack are as follows
Angle of attack (degree) Lift (kgf)×10-3 Drag (kgf)×10-3
0 24.24 5.34
5 23.18 8.23
10 24.9 13.98
15 19.54 14.5
20 36.83 18.31

Angle of attack vs Lift of both Zero and Ten degree twist

40
35
30
Lift(kgf) × 10-3
25
20 zero degree AOA
15 Ten degree AOA
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Angle of attack (deg)
GRAPH 8.1: Angle of attack vs Lift of both 0 and 10 twist
Angle of attack vs Drag Zero and Ten twist

20
18
16
14
Drag (kgf) × 10-3
12
10 Zero degree AOA
8 Ten degree AOA
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Graph 8.2: Angle of attack vs Drag0 and 10 twist

The following inferences can be made about the zero degree angle of twist BWB aircraft
by the above results
 It can be observed that the angle of attack is increased, the lift force increases till a
certain point and then decreases. The decrease may be due to the flow separation
on the surface of the plane and high angles
 It can also be noticed that with the increase in the speed of the aircraft, the lift
force increases constantly with the velocity, until the flow separation starts. As
flow separation decreases the total wetted area, the lift force generated may be less
compared to when the wetted area is high which might be the cause of decrease in
the lift force
 We can see that the drag force increases with increase in speed. It increases
significantly at higher speeds as the drag is a function of square of speed. So the
drag opposition is very high as the speed increases.
 We can also see that the drag increases with the increases in angle of attack. This
may be because of the following reason. Though the skin friction drag remains
same for a constant speed, the pressure drag increases as the cross sectional area
increases with increase of angle of attack.
The following inferences can be made about the ten degree angle of twist BWB
aircraftas compared with the one with zero twist, by seeing the above results
 At zero angle of attack, the 10° AOA plane generates more lift as compared to
the 0° AOA plane. This extra lift is generated from the twisted sections of the
airplane as they will have some angle of attack even when the angle of attack
of the plane is zero.
 It can be observed that the drag force is more in the 10° AOA plane than the
latter. This may be because the twist results in the increased cross-sectional
area of the plane, increasing the pressure drag.
 It can be observed that the lift at angle of attack of 20°, the lift force increases
significantly. This may be because at high angles, a vertical component of
pressure drag adds to the lift. This phenomenon can be seen in planes when
they are landing.

 With increase in speed, the lift starts to decrease after a point. This may be due
to the flow separation at the high twist zones of the airplane.
Comparison of Numerical and experimental results

To compare the numerical and experimental results, the experimental values of lift
and drag is to be found at the velocity of 7.5 m/s at which the numerical analysis was
done. In order to do that, the readings taken are put in a best fit polynomial curve, further
the obtained polynomial is used to find the lift value at 7.5 m/s. Finding the best fit curve
polynomial is done using Microsoft excel, scatter graph function.
Zero degree twist

40
35
30
Lift(kgf) × 10-3
25
20 Experimental
Numerical analysis
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Graph 8.3: Numerical readings and Experimental readings of Lift vs

Angle of{attack
}[0 degree twist]
for zero degree twist
Zero degree twist

14
12
Drag (kgf) × 10-3
10
8 Experimental
6 Nuerical analysis
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Graph 8.4: Numerical readings and Experimental readings of Drag vs

Angle of attack for zero degree twist

Ten degree twist

45
40
35
30
Lift(kgf) × 10-3
25 Experimental
20 Numerical analysis
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Graph 8.5: Numerical readings and Experimental readings of Lift vs

Angle of attack for ten degree twist
Ten degree twist

20
18
16
14
Drag(kgf) × 10-3
12
Experiental
10
8 Numerical analysis
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Graph 8.6: Numerical readings and Experimental readings of Drag vs

Angle of attack for ten degree twist
From the above graphs, it can be observed that the natures of the graphs of numerical
and experimental are similar. Still, there exist a deviation in the values of lift and drag.
The following may be the reasons for the errors observed

 Calibration errors: The method used to calibrate the force balance is by

calibrating each load cell using standard weight. Then the moment arm length is
measured and the force multiplication factor is used to find the actual weight.
This methods involves lots of inaccuracies and is not the perfect way to calibrate.
Known forces must be applied at the probes of the force balance and then the load
cells must be calibrated.
 Wind tunnel errors: There are a number of errors that can occur in a wind tunnel.
Non uniform wind speed, losses at the plane mount, resistances at the exit causing
a change in gauge pressure, boundary layer effects on the wall, etc. which were
not considered in the numerical analysis
 Curve fitting errors: The round off values and inaccuracies in the Microsoft Excel
Curve fitting function may be the cause of the errors that are seen in the
comparison of above graphs
 Plane modeling errors: Surface roughness, boundary layer effect on the airplane
surface, dimensional inaccuracies is not considered in the numerical analysis and
may add to the deviation seen in the readings

Chapter 9
Conclusion

Chapter 9
Conclusion
9.1 Conclusion:
Two characteristic factors that affect the design a BWB aircraft, choice of airfoil
and angle of twist, are studied and its influence on the aerodynamics of the airplane
observed using numerical and experimental approaches. Desirable properties of different
airfoil can be incorporated in a single aircraft by making a blend of those 2 airfoil at
different sections of the airplane. Different angles of twist can be given as per the lifting
and loading requirements. Lift and drag forces are observed for different angles of twist
and the variation of the same with change in speed of the aircraft. A Numerical approach
using ANSYS is used to find the lift and drag values of the aircraft at different angles of
attack. This numerical method is validated by an experimental approach.
A force balance is also designed to measure the aerodynamic forces and moments
of any body with a suitable wind tunnel. This force balance is capable of detecting the
forces at a resolution of 1 gram force. Different bodies can be adjusted by changing the
placement of the 3 probes on the force balance. An experimental procedure is also
defined to measure all the forces and moments. The results of the experimental approach
show a close correlation to the numerical analysis. The variations from the norm can be
attributed to the nascent stage of both the force balance and the wind tunnel used.
9.2 Future Work:
 More experiments need to be carried out in order to refine the test rig so that the
variation in the numerical & experimental results is reduced.
 The test rig designed is limited with respect to the physical & flight behaviour
characteristics of the wind tunnel and the aircraft. Modifications need to be done for
larger aircraft and/or wind tunnel.


References
[1] Anderson, J.D. Jr Aircraft performance and design. Section 2.2
[2] Hurt, H. H. Jr. Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators
[3] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics
[4] wpage.unina.it/agodemar/MS2011/2_ForzeMom_Aerod.pdf
[5] T. Ikeda, C. Bil, 2006, “Aerodynamic Performance of a Blended Wing Body

Configuration Aircraft,” 25th International Congress of the Aeronautical Sciences, 06
[6] R.H. Liebeck, design of the blended wing body subsonic transport, Journal of
Aircraft, 41, 2004, 10-25
[7] N. Qin, A. Vavalle, A.L. Moigne, Aerodynamic studies for blended wing aircraft,
Proc. Of 9th AIAA/ISSMO Symposium on Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization, 4-
6 September 2002
[8] Pranav Mahamuni, Akhilesh Kulkarni, YashParikhAerodynamic Study of Blended

Wing Body International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562
Volume 9, Number 24 (2014) pp. 29247-29255 © Research India Publications
http://www.ripublication.com
[9] Toshihiro Ikeda Aerodynamic Analysis of a Blended-Wing-Body Aircraft

configuration, School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Science,
Engineering and Technology Portfolio RMIT University 2016; 4(4): 143-151
[10] SanjivPaudel, Shailendra Rana, SaugatGhimire, Kshitiz Kumar Subedi,

SudipBhattraiAerodynamic and Stability Analysis of Blended Wing Body Aircraft
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Applications
[11] Miguel A. González, José Miguel Ezquerro, Victoria Lapuerta,AnaLaverón, and

Jacobo Rodríguez; Components of a Wind Tunnel Balance-Design and
CalibrationEscuelaTécnica Superior de IngenierosAeronáuticos Universidad Politécnica
de Madrid Spain
[12]Manuel Aguiar Ferreira; Design of a Six-component External Wind Tunnel Balance
Scientific Area of Thermofluids and Energy Conversion Technologies, Instituto Superior
Técnico (IST) Av. RoviscoPais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
[13] C.P.W. GeurtsThe use of Wind tunnel experiments for wind loads on structures.
TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands.

[14] A L Smith, D J Mee, W J T Daniel, T ShimodaDesign, modelling and analysis of a

six component force balance for hypervelocity wind tunnel testing; Computers and
Structures 79 (2001) 1077-1088
[15] Robert Placek“Errors and problems while conducting research studies in a wind
tunnel”,Transactions of the Institute of Aviation No. 4 (245), pp. 169-177, Warsaw
2016Doi: 10.5604/05096669.1226885
[16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Y
[17] http://airfoiltools.com/polar/details?polar=xf-clarky-il-500000

Appendix
Connections:
Fig A1: Circuit connections for calibration of load cell using HX711 Amplifier
Programme to calibrate load cell using Arduino programming
#include "HX711.h"
HX711 scale1(3, 2);
HX711 scale2(6, 5);
HX711 scale3(9, 8);
float calibration_factor_1 = 260;
float units;
float ounces;
float Rx1;
float Rx2;
float Rx3;
intFx,Fy, Fz;
float a = 0.04;

float h = 0.104;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(19200);
Serial.println("HX711 weighing");
scale1.set_scale(calibration_factor_1);
scale1.tare();
scale2.tare();
scale3.tare();
Serial.println("Readings:");
}
void loop()
{
float sum1=0, sum2=0, sum3=0;
int j=5;
for(inti=0; i<j; i++)
{
Rx1 = scale1.get_units(),10;
ounces = Rx1 * 0.035274;
sum1+=Rx1;
ounces = Rx2 * 0.035274;
sum2+=Rx2;
ounces = Rx3 * 0.035274;
sum3+=Rx3;
}
float R1=sum1/j;
float R2=sum2/j;
float R3=sum3/j;

Fz = -(R1+R2+R3);
Fy = ((a/2)*(R3-R1))/h;
Fx = ((R2)*a*0.8660)/h;
Serial.print("Fx = ");
Serial.print(Fx);
Serial.print("\t\t");
Serial.print("R1 = ");
Serial.println(R1);
Serial.print("Fy = ");
Serial.print(Fy);
Serial.println(R2);
Serial.print("Fz = ");
Serial.print(Fz);
Serial.println(R3);
Serial.println(" ");
delay(1000);
}

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Force Analysis of Blended Wing Body Aircraft

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 1

1.1 Aerodynamic Forces

 The normal force due to the pressure on the surface of the body

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 2

When an airfoil (or a wing) is moving relative to the air it generates an aerodynamic

 Drag is the force component parallel to the direction of relative motion,

The force created by a propeller or a jet engine is called thrust and it is also an

Fig 1.1: Aerodynamic forces

In addition to these forces, an aircraft experience various aerodynamic moments

The Pitching moment on an airfoil is the moment (or torque) produced by

The Rolling moment is the aerodynamic force applied at a distance from an aircraft's

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 3

Fig 1.2: Aircraft axes

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 4

Fig 1.3(a) Definition of stability axis system (zero side slip)

Fig 1.3(b) Definition of stability axis system (non-zero side slip)

1.3 Types of aircraft

Based on conceptual design of the structure of an aircraft, it can be classified into

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 5

1.4 Blended Wing Body (BWB) Aircraft

Fig 1.4: A BWB Aircraft

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 6

Formulation of the BWB concept

a) L/D can be up to 50% higher than conventional designs

The objectives of this project are as follows:

 Design and analysis of BWB plane

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 7

 Design and fabrication of test rig

To study the characteristics physically, a suitable methodology is chosen

1. Design of BWB aircraft

2. Numerical Analysis of BWB

The following stepsare to be followed for the numerical analysis of BWB

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 8

Design and Fabrication of test rig

Among the various existingmethods of measuring the aerodynamic characteristics

Further with suitable materials the designed test rig is fabricated.

Physical analysis of BWB

 BWB with different twist angle

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 9

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 10

2.1 Blended wing body

The case study conducted by Pranav Mahamuni, Akhilesh Kulkarni, Yash

The BWB configuration was compared to the Aerodynamic performance of the

2.2 Force balance and test rig

In a test conducted by Miguel A. González, José Miguel Ezquerro, Victoria

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 11

2.3 Wind Tunnel Testing

A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 12

Before 2D airfoil or 3D model wind tunnel tests related with aerodynamic

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 13

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 14

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 15

Design and Numerical Analysis of BWB Prototype

Clark Y is the name of a particular airfoil profile, widely used in general

Fig 3.1: Clark-Y airfoil [15]

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE 16