Issues in Diaphragm Forming of Continuous Fiber

Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites

CONCHUR M. O’BRADAIGH and €3. BYRON PIPES

Centerfor Composite Materials

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware 19716
and
PATRICK J. MALLON

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University College Galway
Galway, Ireland

A literature survey is presented on sheet-forming methods and mechanisms for

continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics. The diaphragm forming process is
shown to be one of the more promising fabrication routes for complex-curvature
structures. The primary deformation mechanisms involved in the sheet-forming
processes are identified a n d discussed. Earlier approaches to develop mathemat-
ical models either have been kinematically based or have treated only one of the
primary deformation mechanisms. A promising constitutive model for the highly
anisotropic behavior of the composite a t forming temperature is examined. The
composite sheet is assumed to behave as a transversely isotropic Newtonian fluid
that is both incompressible a n d inextensible in the fiber direction. The second
section of the paper treats the experimental development of the polymeric dia-
phragm forming process for thermoplastic composites. The viscoelastic properties
of the diaphragm material are characterized by dynamic mechanical analysis.
The rate sensitivity of the phenomenon of shear-buckling during forming of
certain cross-ply a n d quasi-isotropic composite laminates is investigated, using a
shallow female mold. Finally, the interface condition between the diaphragm and
the composite during forming is examined.

INTRODUCTION Thermoforming of structural shapes from these

igh performance thermoplastic composites have
H attracted considerable attention in recent years,
not only for their improved mechanical and physical
properties, such as interlaminar toughness and en-
vironmental resistance, but also because their chem-
istry finally makes rapid automated production of
composite structures a possibility. Thermoplastic
matrices with high volume fractions of continuous
carbon fibers may now be heated to the softening
point of the polymer a n d formed into complex-cur-
vature components. However, if the process, known
a s sheet-forming or thermoforming of thermoplastic
composites, is to reach its potential as a repeatable
and cost-efficient fabrication technique, a science
base must be developed in order to accurately predict
the finished part properties as a function of the
processing parameters.
materials can be viable only if the results are pre-
dictable and repeatable. The aim of the current re-
search is to develop a mathematical model of these
processes, which will enable the part designer to
assess the formability of given geometries a n d predict
finished part thickness a n d fiber orientation. The
model will include a method of calculating deforma-
tions and stresses in the material at each step in the
process, from forming initiation to cooling and part
removal. Formed part characteristics such as local
fiber orientation, dimensions, a n d internal state of
stress must be predictable in order for the processor
to have confidence in the ability of the structure to
withstand service conditions. The issue of residual
stress development during cooling of complex-cur-
vature composite shapes is currently a n active area
of research (1-4), as this phenomenon is also found
in other, more traditional, fabrication processes.

246 POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 1991, Vol. 12, No. 4

 Diaphragm Forming of Continuous Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites
Therefore, our attention will be focused on the actual
forming mechanics, viewed from both experimental
and analytical viewpoints. This paper first presents
a literature review of thermoplastic composite form-
ing process and mechanisms, followed by a discus-
sion of a suitable constitutive equation to describe
the composite behavior during forming. Finally, the
results of a n experimental program in one thermo-
forming process, diaphragm forming, are presented,
and suitable conclusions are drawn.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Forming Techniques
The dominant forming methods currently under
development for thermoplastic composite materials
may be generally classified as sheet-forming proc-
esses. Okine (5)presents a n overview of the various
sheet-forming techniques in use, including rubber
pad forming, matched-metal die forming, hydroform-
ing, vacuum forming, and diaphragm forming. He
concludes that diaphragm forming provides the best
control of fiber placement, although it has somewhat
longer cycle times than the other processes. The type
of process that may be employed for forming ad-
vanced thermoplastic composites is limited by the
fact that the continuous fibers may not be directly
held in tension without limiting formability. This is
often desirable in forming situations to avoid buck-
ling and wrinkling of the material. An innovative
material form consisting of long aligned discontin-
uous fibers has been developed to counter this draw-
back (5, 6). allowing the material to be “stretch-
formed in the fiber direction (7).However, the focus
of this present research is in the area of continuous
fiber reinforcements; therefore we will only consider
forming processes that involve negligible fiber exten-
sions.
Diaphragm forming is a technique in which the
composite laminate, consisting of discrete unidirec-
tional laminae, is held between two deformable
sheets known a s diaphragms, heated, and formed
against a tool by application of hydrostatic pressure.
Only the diaphragms are clamped during forming,
thus allowing for inextensible fibers in the compos-
ite. The authors have developed a method of iso-
thermal diaphragm forming, using polyimide dia-
phragms in an experimental autoclave (8-1 l ) . Form-
ing of a variety of shapes has been carried out with
continuous carbon fiber reinforced PEEK (polyeth-
eretherketone),known as APC-2 [ 13).Figure 1 shows
a trailer geometry, complete with “wheel wells,”
which has been diaphragm formed from a n 8-ply
quasi-isotropic flat composite sheet (12). This exam-
ple illustrates the degree of geometric complexity that
may be achieved by this process. The advantages of
diaphragm forming are the degree of complexity
achievable and the quality of consolidated material.
Drawbacks may include the length of the cycle time
(30 to 60 min) and the permissible deformation in
the diaphragm material.
POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 7991, Vol. 12, No. 4
Fig. 1 . Diaphragmformed 8-ply quasi-isotropic [0”/+45”/
-45”/90”], trailer shape.
A review of the research in thermoplastic compos-
ite forming reveals two other approaches to the prob-
lem. The first, a s exemplified by Gutowski and his
co-workers, has concentrated on the forming of sim-
ple 90” bends, using a matched metal die forming
process. Sol1 and Gutowski (14) found that the at-
tachment of spring-loaded tensioning devices to the
ends of the preforms acted to alleviate localized fiber
wrinkling on the inside of the bends. Trice and
Goolsby (15) have examined the forming of precon-
solidated APC-2 sheet into complex-curvature struc-
tures using a matched metal-die technique and con-
cluded that the quality of finished parts tended to
vary greatly with the processing parameters. How-
ever, temperature variations of 80 to 100°C were
reported in the material prior to forming, substan-
tially outside the recommended 30°C processing win-
dow (13) for APC-2 (360 to 390°C). Mold heating
would be required to maintain a sufficiently uniform
temperature distribution in the material during the
matched-metal die forming process. As typical metal
molds tend to be solid and quite heavy, heating can
add a substantial time penalty to the process cycle.
Another problem with this type of forming is that the
initial contact area of the matching mold halves is
very small, thus causing very high localized stresses
and pressures in the laminate. These problems are
alleviated in the diaphragm forming process, a s the
forming is the result of uniform hydrostatic pressure,
applied prior to mold contact, under isothermal con-
ditions.
The second school of thought has advanced the
idea of “incremental forming” of thermoplastic com-
posites. Miller (16)has proposed a scheme of distrib-
uted point forces and localized heating to induce
curvatures in large laminates. The idea is to move a
localized heating area along the preform and incre-
mentally form a complex shape. However, as the
fibers are essentially inextensible, it is not clear how
a n isolated heated region could exhibit a radius of
curvature without either breaking the fibers in ten-
247
 C. M . O’Brddaigh, R. B. Pipes, a n d P . J . Mallon
sion or causing fiber wrinkling in compression re-
gions. Strong and Hauwiller ( 1 7), who also advocate
a type of “incremental forming,” admit that some
fiber strain will occur. Overall, no data have been
published to date to indicate that parts of any signif-
icant complexity can be formed using this technique.
A recent paper by Thein, et al. (18).gave details of
the diaphragm forming of a n aircraft landing-gear
door. Equipment design was discussed and the con-
clusion was drawn that polymeric diaphragm mate-
rials tended to give better part thickness distribution
than metallic (superplastic aluminum) diaphragms.
A short article by Krone and Walker (19) also dis-
cussed early attempts at stamping unidirectional and
woven thermoplastic composites with limited suc-
cess. A more recent article by Ostrom, et al. (20).
discussed the forming of a n aircraft forward fuselage
structure. Rubber pad forming and both metallic and
polymeric diaphragm forming techniques were used
to produce one section of the fuselage. The conclu-
sion of the work was that the metallic diaphragms
performed well but caused large variations in part
thickness, whereas use of polymeric diaphragms re-
sulted in more uniform thickness profiles a t the ex-
pense of some out-of-plane buckling of the laminate.
Deformation Mechanisms
Theoretical approaches to model the sheet-forming
of continuous fiber thermoplastic composites during
processing must simulate the important forming
mechanisms. The dominant characteristic of such a
material is the high stiffness of the carbon fibers in
comparison with that of the viscous matrix. Flow
processes that occur at the polymer melt temperature
will be highly anisotropic, because of the continuous
reinforcements. Experimental studies by the authors
(9, 12) and by Cogswell and Barnes (21, 22) have
shown that in practical forming processes such as
diaphragm forming, the composite layup is essen-
tially inextensible in the fiber direction, with defor-
mations being accommodated by shearing and trans-
verse elongational mechanisms.
Figures 2a and 2b illustrate the primary defor-
mation mechanisms that occur during forming of
complex-curvature components. Figure 2a depicts
the internal mechanisms involved when a single
composite ply is deformed. The first mechanism, in-
traply shearing, is needed when a shearing strain
occurs in the plane of the lamina, thus allowing part
conformity to complex-curvature geometries. Theo-
retically, there is no limit to the amount of shear
deformation in unidirectional laminae that can be
accommodated by this mechanism. Fabrics, by con-
trast, are usually interlocked a t fiber crossover
points, limiting the shear strain to the locking angle
of the unit cell. Rheological studies of APC-2 by Cog-
swell (21)indicate a n initial yield stress for the intra-
ply shearing mode, followed by a n approximately
Newtonian response.
The second mechanism, resin percolation, is nec-
essary for consolidation, but is not usually a s impor-
248
tant in the processing of fully impregnated thermo-
plastic composites a s it is with thermoset composites.
The relatively high thermoplastic matrix viscosity
reduces significant polymer flow transverse to and
along the length of the fibers, although small pools
of resin were observed by the authors (9)at the end
of plies that were diaphragm formed over a 90”bend.
Transverse squeeze flow (22)of matrix and fibers in
a direction perpendicular to the fibers is a very im-
portant forming mechanism, dictating the final
thickness distribution of the formed part, as fibers
and matrix flow transversely in response to pressure
gradients.
Figure 2b illustrates the mechanisms required for
the forming of multi-ply laminates. Interply (or inter-
laminar) shearing occurs when a laminate is de-
formed in a single-curvature manner. As the fibers
are essentially inextensible, the discrete layers are
forced to slip past one another. Cogswell (21) notes
that this shearing action occurs in a thin “resin-rich
layer” (thickness -
10 Km) that migrates to each
lamina surface during consolidation. An apparent
yield stress is also determined for this deformation
mode, followed by a n approximate Newtonian re-
sponse. Furthermore, Muzzy (23)carried out a three-
point flexural loading on a single ply at processing
temperature and discovered a n initial elastic re-
sponse that could correspond to this initial yield
stress. In their analysis of interply slip, Tam and
a 1. lntraply Shearing
- 2. Resin Percolation
7 J
- .. . . - _I
7
7
3. Transverse Squeeze Flow
D
Fig. 2a. Single-lamina deformation mechanisms.
b 4. lnterlaminar Slip
- 5. lnterlaminar
Rotation
F
4 4
Fig. 2b. Laminate deformation mechanisms.
POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 7997, Vol. 72, No. 4
 Diaphragm Forming of Continuous Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites
Gutowski (24)noted the importance of resin-rich lay-
ers at intervals through the thickness in decreasing
the forces needed to deform a stacked elastic/viscous
model. Clearly, this mechanism is essential in prac-
tical forming applications, a n d h a s been observed by
the authors microscopically in a formed 90" bend (9).
The final mechanism, interlaminar rotation, is per-
haps of most importance in carrying out a sheet-
forming analysis. Most complex-curvature parts re-
quire a change of initial fiber orientation between
adjacent plies.
Previous Forming Analysis
Kinematic analysis h a s proven to be useful in pre-
dicting fiber orientation, primarily because of the
inextensibility of the fibers during forming. Smiley
and Pipes (25, 26) carried out orientation studies of
single plies of unidirectional or woven fabrics, draped
over axisymmetric shapes. This approach h a s been
expanded by VanWest, et al. (27, 28) to deal with
arbitrary shapes. However, a purely kinematic analy-
sis cannot be expected to provide a full analysis of
thermoplastic sheet-forming, a process in which the
properties of the finished component a r e highly de-
pendent on factors such as forming rate a n d ply
stacking sequence. For example, experimental work
by several investigators (14, 29) h a s shown that
buckling during forming of certain shapes is sensi-
tive to forming rate. This evidence indicates that a
constitutive approach is needed to predict the
stresses and deformation throughout the process.
Though there h a s been no comprehensive treat-
ment of the forming mechanisms of Fig. 2, individual
mechanisms have been modeled. Smiley and Pipes
(25, 26) carried out a squeeze-flow analysis for the
direction transverse to the fibers, allowing predic-
tions of finished part thickness. Tam and Gutowski
(24) used a linear viscoelastic model to predict the
stresses involved in forming a unidirectional 90"
bend. Individual plies (or fibers) were modeled as
elastic beams separated by viscous layers, and the
analysis was carried out for small deformations using
simple-beam theory. The analysis was limited in that
the results were valid only for three-point bending of
the laminate. This approach was extended by Talbot
and Miller (30)to a n array of point forces, though the
viscous layers were omitted. I t is difficult to see how
this simple beam-bending method can provide the
basis for a general-purpose forming model. The de-
velopment of constitutive equations for materials
with inextensible reinforcements, which can account
for all the important forming mechanisms, is re-
viewed in the next section.
Constitutive Equations
Constitutive relationships for anisotropic materials
reinforced by inextensible fibers have been developed
by Spencer (31). Initially developed for elastic and
plastic materials, this approach h a s been recently
extended to highly anisotropic viscous fluids by Rog-
POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 7991, Vol. 12, No. 4
ers (32.33).The assumptions of material incompres-
sibility and inextensibility in the fiber direction lead
to what is known as the theory of Ideal Fiber Rein-
forced Materials (I.F.R.M.).Several authors have used
the simplified flow equations of the I.F.R.M. theory
to obtain approximate solutions for processing prob-
lems with continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics
of the type mentioned in the previous section (34-
36). It is expected that this constitutive model will
provide the capability to model all of the important
deformation mechanisms (except for resin percola-
tion) in forming analysis.
The following assumptions are involved in the
I.F.R.M. theory: Each composite ply is considered to
be a transversely isotropic fluid continuum, with a
single family of reinforcing fibers continuously dis-
tributed throughout, acting only as the strong or
preferred direction in the fluid. The fiber direction is
denoted by the local unit vector a, and the fiber
directions are assumed to rotate as material lines
during deformation. Using standard indicia1 nota-
tion, with indices summed from 1 to 3, the rate of
strain, or deformation rate vector d may be expressed
in terms of the Eulerian velocity vector, v as follows:
;(:; + -
d, =- -
2) ( i , j = 1.2.3)
Furthermore, we assume the material to be incom-
pressible and inextensible in the fiber direction. We
thus have the following constitutive equation (32):
where p T and p,. are the transverse and longitudinal
shear viscosities of the material.
The components of the stress tensor are denoted
b y av and the Kronecker delta is denoted by 6, (6, =
0, i # j a n d 6, = 1, i = j ) . The kinematic constraint
equations of incompressibility and inextensibility in
the fiber direction result in the appearance of two
arbitrary stresses in the constitutive equation, a
hydrostatic pressure p , a n d an arbitrary tension
stress, T,in the fiber direction. These stresses are
arbitrary as they are not found from the deforma-
tions, but rather by solving the boundary-value prob-
lem for the stresses. A more familiar arbitrary stress
is the hydrostatic pressure, which appears in the
constitutive equations of isotropic incompressible
solid or fluid mechanics. The constraints of incom-
pressibility. a n d inextensibility in the fiber direction,
as well as the assumption that fibers rotate as ma-
terial lines, give the following equations (33):
dv,
Continuity: - = 0 (3)
dx,
lnextensibility: a,aJdO= 0 (4)
dai au,
Fiber rotation: - = a k - (51
dt ax,
Assuming the fibers to be initially straight and par-
249
 C. M. O'Bradaigh, R. B. Pipes, and P. J. M a l l o n
allel and to lie in the z-y plane at a n angle 8 to the x-
axis, a = (cos 0, sin 8 , 0 ) ; m = cos 8; n = sin 8; the
constitutive equation (Eq. 2 )may be written in matrix
format a s follows (where we have used engineering
shear strains for convenience):
Tm2 - p -
Tn2 - p
+ -P
0
0
mnT
L2;
cz2= 2pT(1- 2 2 ) + 4pLn2
C33 = 2pT: C44 = pT(1 - n2) + pLn2
C55 = pT(1 - m21 + pLm2;c66 = p L
c16 = c2 6 = 2(pL- pT)mn
C45 = ( p L - ~ ~ l m n
The constraint equations a n d the fiber rotation equa-
tion may also be rewritten as follows:
au av aw
Continuity: -
ax
+-
ag
+ -= 0
au
Inextensibility: cos20 -
ax
ae au av
Fiber rotation: - = - + tan 8 -
at ax dY
where u, u, a n d w are the components of velocity in
the x, y. and z directions respectively.
Equations 6 through 9 form a set of kinematic and
constitutive equations, which may be solved in con-
junction with the relevant equilibration equations to
obtain solutions for processing problems of continu-
ous fiber reinforced thermoplastics. Suitable test
methods to characterize the two material viscosities,
p T and p,,, are currently under development. Attention
has been focused primarily on dynamic measure-
ment of the material parameters in a planar torsional
model (371.Independent testing by Groves (38)a n d
by Scobbo and Nakajima (39) of APC-2 composites
indicates a ratio of longitudinal to transverse shear
viscosities of between 1.5 and 1.7. Cogswell (21) re-
ports values of longitudinal a n d transverse shear
viscosities of 6,000 N-s/m2 and 3,500 N-s/m2. A finite
element formation for the I.F.R.M. Newtonian fluid
model shown above h a s been formulated by O'Bra-
daigh and Pipes (40).The details of the formulation,
however, are beyond the scope of this paper. Finite
element analysis is particularly suited for treatment
of complex shaped domains a n d could provide the
basis for a general-purpose thermoplastic composite
sheet-forming model.
250
EXPERIMENTAL
Diaphragm Forming Process
Diaphragm forming of thermoplastic composite
laminates h a s been developed on the principles of
vacuum forming of thermoplastic sheet. However,
with fiber reinforced composites, up to 700 kPa (100
psi) is required for consolidation a n d complete form-
ing. Therefore, a pressure chamber or autoclave is
generally required for forming. Since the presence of
inextensible fibers precludes any clamping of the
material edges, tension must be maintained on the
lay-up to prevent problems such as wrinkling and
buckling during forming, while accommodating
movement of the fibers. This is achieved by placing
the lay-up between two thin, deformable dia-
phragms, which are clamped around the edges, while
the composite is unrestrained. During forming, the
stretching diaphragms transmit tension into the
composite, as well as maintaining a pressure seal.
Figure 3 illustrates the manner in which the lay-up
is held between the two diaphragms and then at-
tached to a mold.
The polymeric diaphragm forming work reported
here has been carried out in a specially designed
(71 autoclave (8).which is depicted schematically in Fig.
4. The autoclave features independent control of the
primary forming parameters, temperature, pressure,
and pressurization rate. The autoclave h a s internal
dimensions of approximately 12 inches in diameter
by 24 inches in length, and is rated for operation at
450°C and 2 MPa (300 psi). Figure 5 shows the
autoclave, which is gas-pressurized a n d cooled, along
with a personal computer-controlled data acquisition
(9) system with remote-controlled flow meters for auto-
matic control of pressurization rates. Typically, the
autoclave is preheated to forming temperature as the
mold is being attached to the door. Once the vessel
h a s reached temperature, the door is closed and the
cycle begins. A typical temperature-pressure cycle is
shown in Fig. 6; most cycles are completed in 60 min
or less, depending upon the rate of pressurization.
Forming of a variety of APC-2 structural shapes
h a s been carried out in the autoclave with excellent
control of part quality (9, 12). Parts formed have
included the trailer geometry (Fig. 1 ) . a dish-shaped
Clamping Ring
/ 2 2 /
Bottom /
Diaphragm
I a Mold Base
Fig. 3. Tool assembly procedure f o r double-diaphragm
forming.
POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 1991, Vol. 12, No. 4
 D i a p h r a g m Forming of C o n t i n u o u s Fiber Reinforced T h e r m o p l a s t i c C o m p o s i t e s

Heated Pressure Vessel ber reinforced thermoplastic shapes under ideal iso-
thermal conditions, which would not generally be
found in a production situation. The major issues
that have been addressed in the development of this
process are the occurrence of instabilities in the com-
posite and the issue of diaphragm elongation and
durability. These issues will be dealt within the re-
mainder of the paper.
Diaphragm Material Characterization
Vacuum
Mechanical properties available for Upilex films
Fig. 4 . Schematic of polymeric diaphragmforming inside are generally for temperatures between 25 and
a n autoclaue. 250°C. Room temperature tensile moduli of 3700
MPa and 8830 MPa are reported (41) for Upilex-R
and Upilex-S, respectively. Upilex-R is reported to
have a glass-transition temperature (Tg)of 285°C and
could thus be expected to behave in a viscoelastic
fashion in some range above this temperature. A s
diaphragm forming of most thermoplastic composites
would occur at temperatures above 250°C (360 to
390°C for APC-2), it was decided to carry out dynamic
studies of the diaphragms at temperatures up to
400°C.
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) of Upilex-R
film of 0.005-in thickness was carried out on a Du
Pont 983 DMA system. With the use of a set of
horizontal clamps, the film was deformed cyclically
in a tensile mode, with a range of frequencies from
0.5 to 2.0 Hz. The experiment was repeated at 5°C
increments between 35°C and 400°C. with results
shown in Fig. 8. A s expected, the transition temper-
Fig. 5. Diaphragmforming autoclaue at the University of ature is approximately 280°C. The initial storage
Delaware.
modulus of 3740 MPa agrees well with the tensile
data (41). and this value drops by two orders of
magnitude to 55 MPa in the region between 340 and
400°C. The loss modulus at forming temperature is
at approximately 10 MPa, which would give a Tan 6
value of about 0.16 to 0.18 (Tan 6 = Loss Modulus/
Storage Modulus). This value of Tan b indicates a
significant viscoelastic response for the Upilex-R di-

iooc
I/ Vacuum

O b 110 $0 3'0 ;o ;o Qo
Time minutes

Fig. 6. Typical temperature-pressure-vacuum cycle for

diaphragmforming .

structure (44). corrugated sections, a n d a series of

male and female hemispherical shapes of varying
depth (12). Figure 7 shows a n APC-2 [0"/90"],, full
hemisphere part formed in a female mold at a pres-
sure of 60 psi. The polymeric diaphragm materials
used in the process have included Upilex-R a n d Upi-
lex-S (4l), two high-temperature polyimide films.
Forming h a s also been carried out using superplastic
aluminum diaphragm materials. Overall, the equip-
ment h a s allowed a systematic investigation of the Fig. 7. Diaphragm formed 16-ply cross-ply [0"/90"],,full
process window for sheet-forming of continuous fi- hemisphere shape.

POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 1991, Yo/. 12, No. 4 25 1

 C. M. O ' B r a d a i g h , R. B. P i p e s , and P. J . Mallon
aphragm material at forming temperature. DMA re-
sults for the Upilex-S material are not yet available.
Shear-Buckling Study
Compressive stresses can occur during diaphragm
forming of certain geometries and may lead to buck-
ling of the entire laminate or localized fiber wrinkling
in the plane of the laminae. Observations (12) of the
forming of cross-ply and quasi-isotropic sheets into
the shallow hemispherical mold in Fig. 9 have shown
that under certain conditions, a series of symmetric
wrinkles form at f 4 5 " to the directions of reinforce-
ment. A cross-ply part is shown in Fig. 10, with
symmetric buckling on the +45" lines. A photograph
of the cross section, taken perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the surface ply, is shown in Fig. 11. This
illustrates the fact that the instability occurs
Fig. 10. 16-ply cross-ply [0°/900]4,
p a r t exhibiting s h e a r -
throughout the thickness, with each ply and both buckling on +45" lines.
diaphragms assuming the same buckled shape.
Preliminary results have shown this buckling to be
a function of the original preform dimensions and
the forming rate. Larger ratios of preform size to
formed hemispherical area and faster forming rates
increase the tendency for shear-buckling to occur
(12, 29). This is explained by a consideration of the
deformation mechanisms involved. A s pressure is
applied on the flat sheet, the central region of the
sheet is forced downwards into the mold, causing a n
increase in its area. However, since no material
Fig. 11. Cross section along surfaceLfiber direction
stretching can occur in a direction of reinforcement, through buckled p a r t i n Fig. 10.
the inextensible fibers are forced to move inwards
from the outer edges of the sheet. This inward dis-
placement of entire fibers is primarily resisted by
intraply shear forces, which can be resolved into
symmetric forces at 45" to the reinforcements, re-
sulting in the shear-buckling. For a given size of
central forming region, a n increase in the preform
size will mean a greater area of resistance to the
moving fibers, and thus greater compressive
stresses. If the composite behaves as a linear viscous
body a t forming temperature, the stresses will be a
function of the shear rates, and reduced forming
rates should lead to a reduction in compressive
stresses and, therefore, instabilities.
Figure 12 shows two 16-ply quasi-isotropic parts
that were formed into the shallow female mold, using
Upilex-R diaphragms, at approximate rates of 12 psi/
min and 6 psi/min. The part formed at the faster rate
exhibits significant shear-buckling, this time with
eight buckles at the appropriate 45" to each direction
Fig. 8. DMA results f o r 0.005-in-thickness Upilex-R.
of reinforcement. In these experiments, nickel-
coated tracer fibers were embedded in the center ply
Clamping Ring of the each lay-up before forming. X-ray examination
of the formed shapes was then carried out to illus-
trate any in-plane fiber buckling that may occur.
Figure 12b shows a n X-ray of the part formed at the
faster rate, with clear indication of shear-buckling.
The part formed at the slower rate exhibited no visi-
ble out-of-plane shear-buckling, but did have some
slight in-plane fiber buckling, as shown in Fig. 12d.
Fig. 9. Shallow f e m a l e hemispherical section mold. These results clearly indicate the dependence of this

252 POLYMER COMPOSITES,AUGUST 1991, Vol. 12, No. 4

 D i a p h r a g m Forming of C o n t i n u o u s Fiber Reinforced T h e r m o p l a s t i c C o m p o s i t e s
Fig. 12a. 16-ply quasi-isotropic [0"/+45"/-45"/90"], part
formed at approximately 12 psilmin, exhibiting eight
shear-buckling sites. Severity of buckling would be rated
as a 10 on a scale of 0 to 10.
Fig. 12b. X-ray of 16-ply quasi-isotropic [0"/+45"/-45"/
90"]. part shown in Fig. 12a. Nickel tracer fibers were
embedded in the center ply prior toforming.
instability mode on forming rate, a n experimental
result that cannot be explained by purely kinematic
analysis of the process.
A s mentioned, the processing equipment includes
remote-controlled flow devices, designed to give ac-
curate control of the pressure ramp. This method of
flow control was used to form a series of cross-ply
laminates of varying thicknesses at precise pressur-
ization rates. The severity of the shear-buckling was
rated qualitatively on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1
denoting very little buckling a n d 10 denoting the
most severe case, i.e., sharp wrinkles extending from
the forming area to the outer edge of the sheet. Figure
13 shows the results of this study, and illustrates the
increased buckling found at faster rates a n d thicker
laminates. However, laminates of different thick-
nesses will behave with different displacement rates
for the same pressure history. Therefore, if the shear
POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 1991, Vol. 12, No. 4
Fig. 12c. 16-ply quasi-isotropic [Oo/+45a/-450/900]s part
formed at approximately 6 psilmin, exhibiting some
slight in-plane instability. Severity of buckling would be
rated as a 1 on a scale of 0 to 10.
Fig. 12d. X-ray of 16-ply quasi-isotropic [0"/+45"/-45"/
90"]hpart shown in Fig. 12c. Nickel tracer fibers were
embedded in the center p l y prior toforming.
rates are assumed to be lower in thicker laminates
formed at the same pressurization rates as thinner
laminates the results of Fig. 13 are even more strik-
ing. One method of ensuring constant shear rates in
parts of different lay-up and thickness would be to
control the forming displacement rate directly. This
technique h a s been employed by Monaghan and Mal-
Ion (42, 43). with related results being present by
Monaghan, et al. (44).
The final factor in determining the stress level in
the composite during forming is the stiffness of the
diaphragm material. Figure 14 shows two quasi-
isotropic laminates formed at 19 psi/min. The spec-
imen on the left was formed with Upilex-R, which
h a s a storage modulus of approximately 55 MPa a t
380°C and exhibits significant laminate buckling,
whereas the specimen on the right, formed with Up-
ilex-S, is completely free of any buckling or wrin-
253
 ing. Figure 16 shows the same specimen directly
16-ply - 4 5 6
after forming and removal from the chamber. Figure
17 shows a photograph of this hemisphere compared
-

;/
with a similar part that was consolidated as a flat
...
10 severely buckled
panel. The circular grid h a s been deformed into a n
12-ply 1 4 5 S.....significant buckling elliptical one, with the minor axis of the ellipses
Buckling O.....no buckling occurring in the fiber direction.
Increases
8-PlY 1 2

Fig. 15. 8-ply unidirectional [O0l8 part and diaphragms.

each inscribed with polar grids, shown attached to full
hemispherical female mold, prior toforming.

Fig. 14. Effect of diaphragm stqfness on shear-buckling.

Left: 16-ply quasi-isotropic [O"/+45°/-450/90"], female A
part formed with Upilex-R at 19 psilmin. Severity of
buckling would be rated as a 9 on a scale of 0 to 10. Right:
16-ply quasi-isotropic (O'/+450/-450/900],female A part
-formed with Upilex-S at 19 psilmin. Severity of buckling
would be rated as a 0 on a scale of 0 to 10.

kling. The published data on Upilex-S properties to

date (41, 44) would suggest that this material is ap-
proximately 10 times stiffer t h a n the Upilex-R a t
forming temperature. This experimental result indi-
cates that increasing the stiffness of the diaphragm
material can serve to alleviate shear-buckling sub-
stantially.
Fig. 16. 8-ply unidirectional [O0I8 part and diaphragm,
each inscribed with polar g ri d s, shown afterforming into
Diaphragm/Composite Interface Conditions full hemisphericalfemale mold.
A s stated earlier, the purpose of the diaphragm is
to keep the composite material in tension during
forming. Little attention h a s been paid to the manner
in which this tension is transmitted from the dia-
phragm to the laminate. In his analysis of superplas-
tic aluminum diaphragm forming, Smiley (25) as-
sumed that the diaphragm and composite behave
independently. However, this would assume a fully
lubricated condition at the interface. To investigate
this condition, a high temperature metallic marker
(Berol 0Prismacolor) was used to inscribe a series of
polar grids and radial lines on the surface ply of a
unidirectional 8-ply lay-up. Identical lines were in-
scribed on the top surface of the top diaphragm, Fig. 17. Left: 8-ply unidirectional (Oo/8 part, inscribed
which is used to form the part. The lay-up with the with polar grids prior to processing, consolidated as a
f l a t laminate. Right: &ply unidirectional [O0lx part in-
polar grids inscribed, shown in Fig. 15, is attached scribed with polar grids prior to processing,formed into
to the full female hemispherical mold prior to form- .full hemispherical female mold.

254 POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 1997, Vol. 12, No. 4

 D i a p h r a g m Forming of C o n t i n u o u s Fiber Reinforced T h e r m o p l a s t i c C o m p o s i t e s
More surprisingly, Fig. 18 shows the same lines
that were inscribed on the diaphragm, and it is clear
the pattern is identical to that of the part. The dia-
phragm on the left, by contrast, was formed on its
own into the same mold, resulting in a n axisymmet-
ric pattern. Therefore, even though a release agent
(Frekote-FRP) had been applied to the diaphragm
before forming, the composite and diaphragm defor-
mations are seen to be strongly coupled with a sub-
stantial no-slip condition at the interface. It is be-
lieved that this coupling occurs through shear in the
resin-rich layer between the surface ply and the di-
aphragm.
CONCLUSIONS
Sheet-forming processes for fabrication of ad-
vanced thermoplastic composite structures are the
subject of much interest. Processes under consider-
ation include diaphragm forming, matched metal-die
forming, and rubber-pad forming. Methods of analy-
sis to date have been primarily kinematic, or have
modeled only single deformation mechanisms. Con-
stitutive equations exist to treat the forming of ani-
sotropic polymeric fluids with inextensible reinforce-
ments, and test methods are being developed to char-
acterize the material parameters. General-purpose
numerical models of the forming process are being
developed with a view to predicting the finished part
properties as a function of the processing parame-
ters. Diaphragm forming of complex-curvature ther-
moplastic composite shapes has been successfully
carried out in a n experimental autoclave, with good
control of finished part quality. This facility has
enabled a systematic investigation of the important
forming parameters, temperature, pressure, and
forming rate. Important issues in the process include
the durability and elongation of the diaphragm ma-
terials and the occurrence of instabilities in the com-
posite. Upilex-R diaphragms were characterized dy-
Fig. 18. Left: Upilex-R diaphragm inscribed with polar
grids prior to processing, formed on its own into full
hemispherical female mold. Right: Upilex-R diaphragm
inscribed with polar grids prior to processing, used to
f o r m 8-ply unidirectional part, shown on right in Fig. 17,
into full hemispherical female mold D.
POLYMER COMPOSITES, AUGUST 1997, Vol. 12, No. 4
namically and found to behave in a viscoelastic fash-
ion a t processing temperature. A n instability
phenomenon in the composite, known as “shear-
buckling,” was investigated and found to depend not
only upon geometrical factors, but also upon forming
rate, diaphragm stiffness, and part thickness. Fi-
nally, the deformations of diaphragm and composite
were seen experimentally to be strongly coupled,
even in the presence of a release agent.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge I.C.I. PLC,
who have supported this research through a graduate
Composite Sheet Forming Fellowship. We are grate-
ful to the following students for their experimental
assistance: Martin Fleming, Basil Regan, Michael
Louderback, and Russell Brill. Our thanks are also
due to Joe Sosnowik of Hercules Inc. for carrying out
the DMA studies.
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