For the production of speech sounds we need an air-stream mechanism.

The sounds of most

languages in the world are produced with pulmonic egressive air-stream mechanism. The air that we
breath out comes out of the lungs. Before it gets out into the outer atmosphere, various organs in
our body convert it into speech sounds. These are called the organs of speech.

The organs of speech can be divided into three groups: The respiratory system The phonatory
system The articulatory system The respiratory system: Comprises lungs, the muscles of the
chest and the windpipe. The phonatory system: Comprises the larynx. The articulatory system:
Comprises the nose, the teeth, the tongue, the roof of the mouth and the lips.

The respiratory system: There are three air-stream mechanisms. They are: • Pulmonic - Ingressive &
Egressive • Glottalic - Pharyngeal • Velaric – Oral air-stream mechanism The Phonatory System: The
larnyx is situated at the top of the wind pipe and the air from the lungs. The air from the lungs has to
pass through the wind pipe and the larynx. In the larynx there is a lip-like stricture called the vocal
cords . Sounds produced with wide-open glottis are called voiceless sounds Eg: peel, ten, thin etc.
Sounds produced when the vocal cords vibrate are called voiced sounds. Eg: bead, judge, zoo etc.
The articulatory system: The roof of the mouth comprises the teeth-ridge, the hard palate, the soft
palate and the uvula. The Tongue: we divide the tongue into the tip, the blade, the front, the back
and the root of the tongue. Position of the lips: rounded and unrounded Rounded: cot, put fool etc.
Unrounded: seat, sit, set etc.

Q-2

Every language manifests a particular way of combining its sounds to form

meaningful words or parts of words, called syllables. Each language puts
certain restrictions on these possible combinations. For example, in English
we can't have a word which begins with a consonant sequence bfj,
zbf or tzp. When we analyse what restrictions (and regularities) are found in
the language under study, we are studying the syllable structure of that
language. We can divide words into one or more syllables. For
example, tin has one syllable, brother has two, important has three
and computer has four syllables each.
A syllable is a group of one or more sounds. The essential part of a syllable
is a vowel sound (V) which may be preceded and/or followed by a
consonant (C) or a cluster of consonants (CC or CCC) (see below). Some
syllables consist of just one vowel sound (V) as in I and eye/aI /, owe/ə/. In
English, a syllable can consist of a vowel preceded by one consonant (CV)
as in pie/paI /, or by two consonants (CCV) as in try/traI /, or by three
consonants (CCCV) as in spry/spraI /. The vowel of the syllable may also be
followed by one consonant (VC) as in at/æt/, or by two consonants (VCC)
as in its/I ts/, or by three consonants (CVCCC) as in text/tekst/or by four

consonants (CVCCCC) as in texts/teksts/.

Q-3
People and animals have various ways of communication, and this ensures they
bond and identify their members and the needs of each individual.
Communication is the use of words, symbols, and signs to pass messages from
an individual to another (Plec 2012). The variations present in human and animal
communication may be determined by geographical and biological factors, but it
is necessary to explain that most communications amongst individuals of the
same species are similar.

First, animals communicate through instinct, and this means that they do not
control this activity (Crane, Yeager, and Whitman, 1981). For instance, monkeys
chatter and screech when they are happy or afraid, respectively. People learn and
acquire communication skills from other members of society. Animals are born
with the ability to communicate, and this cannot be influenced by their
surrounding. However, the language used by humans to communicate is
determined by the culture and society of an individual. This has lead to the
presence of differences in languages and meanings of words (Widdowson 1996).

Secondly, human communication plays various roles in their relationships, unlike

in animals where they communicate to express anger, shock, or seek assistance
from their owners (Smith 2008). Human communication intends to seek answers,
explanations, develop or strengthen relationships, and inform others about events
in their surroundings. Animal communication is simple and aims at expressing
ordinary issues like seeking the company of others. Widdowson argues that bees
flap their wings and produce the buzz sound even when they are asleep to
protect their territories from intruders (Widdowson 1996). Human communication
takes different forms, including speeches, debates, and arguments.

Thirdly, human language is very complicated and has different forms depending
on the individual and context of communication (Miller 1981). It is possible to
extend and modify the human language, and this means that people can change
the skills, symbols, and techniques used to pass information from one person to
another. However, animal language is static and will never develop due to its
nature. Human language evolves, and some phrases, words, and expressions
can be modified or dropped by individuals. On the other hand, Smith argues that
animals maintain the same language their ancestors used to communicate; for
example, the use of body language by dogs, cats, monkeys, and other domestic
and wild animals shows their identities and emotions (Smith 2008).

Lastly, the effectiveness of human language is determined by various factors,

including the age of individuals, grammar, and other tenets that affect the quality
of information passed from one person to another (Plec 2012). People must know
how to use different vocabularies and apply them incorrectly contexts to ensure
their messages are understood by their audiences. On the other hand, this is not
possible in animals because of the absence of rules that guide communication
amongst members of similar or different species.

q-4

1 Front vowels are produced with the front part of the tongue raised
towards the hard palate. There are four front vowels and they are
largely the same for speakers of both American and British English.

From the chart in Figure 8, it is apparent that the font vowels are
distributed in the vowel space almost equidistantly along the vertical
tongue height axis (from high to low). They are all made with
unrounded lips.

The vowel /i/ (as in the word heed) is the vowel made with the highest
tongue elevation – it is the close vowel. Since it is made with tongue
elevation at the front of the mouth, and is unrounded, it can be labeled
simply as the HIGH FRONT UNROUNDED vowel. It is a long vowel
and so it may also be transcribed as /iː/.

The second vowel /ɪ/ (as in the word hid) is made with the tongue

lowered slightly in the mouth, but not quite to the mid position: it is
nearer the mid-high position. It is, therefore, a mid-high vowel. In
addition, the vowel is made slightly further towards the central part of
the mouth. Having said this, it is fairly close to the front and, as such,
it can be referred to as a fairly-front vowel. This lowered and
centralized unrounded vowel can, therefore, be described as the mid-
high, fairly-front unrounded vowel. Or, given that the dimensions in the
idealized vowel space are not intended to be represented with great
precision, we can simplify the description and label it as the MID-
HIGH FRONT UNROUNDED vowel. It is a short vowel.

The third vowel is /ɛ/ (as in head). This is the MID-LOW FRONT

UNROUNDED vowel. It is also a short vowel.

The fourth, and final, vowel is /æ/ (as in had). Whilst it is not quite fully
open, being articulated in an intermediate position between low and
mid-low, it does have the lowest tongue elevation of all the front
vowels. Consequently, we can refer to it as LOW FRONT
UNROUNDED vowel. Like /ɪ/ and /ɛ/, the low front unrounded vowel is
also short.

2
nasal, in phonetics, speech sound in which the airstream passes
through the nose as a result of the lowering of the soft
palate (velum) at the back of the mouth. In the case of nasal
consonants, such as English m, n, and ng (the final sound in “sing”),
the mouth is occluded at some point by the lips or tongue and the
airstream is expelled entirely through the nose. Sounds in which the
airstream is expelled partly through the nose and partly through the
mouth are classified as nasalized. Nasalized vowels are common in
French (e.g., in vin “wine,” bon “good,” and enfant “child”),
Portuguese, and a number of other languages. There are also
instances of nasalized consonants in which the feature of
nasalization carries over to a typically nonnasal consonant 

q-5
Secondary stress
Secondary stress is the weaker of two degrees of stress in the pronunciation of a
word; the stronger degree of stress is called 'primary'. The International Phonetic
Alphabet symbol for secondary stress is a short vertical line preceding and at the
foot of the stressed syllable: the nun in. Another tradition in English is to assign
acute and grave accents for primary and secondary stress: pronùnciátion. Most
 languages, if they have stress at all, have only one degree of it on the phonemic
level. That is, each syllable has stress or it does not. Many languages have
rhythmic stress; location of the stress may not be predictable, but once the
location of one stressed syllable is known, certain syllables before or after can be
predicted to also be stressed; these may have secondary stress. An example is
Dutch, where the rule is that initial and final syllables take secondary stress, then
every alternate syllable before and after the primary stress, as long as two
stressed syllables are not adjacent and stress does not fall on. See Dutch
phonology: Stress. A similar rule applies in Romanian: secondary stress falls on
every alternate syllable, starting with the first, as long as it does not fall adjacent
to the primary stress. In other languages, secondary stress can be predicted to
fall on heavy syllables.

q-6

here is a proverb “Actions speak louder than words.” In essence, this

underscores the importance of non-verbal communication. Non-
verbal communication is especially significant in intercultural
situations. Researchers in communication suggest that many more
feelings and intentions are sent and received non-verbally than
verbally. Mehrabian and wiener following suggested that only 7% of
message is sent through words, with remaining 93% sent non-verbal
expressions (depending on the author, verbal part goes up to 35%). It
has multiple advantages or functions:

Advantages of non-verbal communication:

1. Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by
adding to its meaning. You can pat someone you offended at the back
as you say sorry to him or her.
2. Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-
verbal communication through using visual, audio-visual and silent
means of non-verbal communication.
3. Substituting: Non-verbal messages may substitute for the verbal
message especially if it is blocked by noise, interruption, long-
distance, etc. for example; gestures-finger to lips to indicate need for
quiet, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
4. Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone
indicates the actual meaning of the specific words.
 5. Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction
while stating directions.)
6. Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures,
facial expressions, eye contact, proximity, touching, etc. and without
using any spoken or written word. So, it is very much helpful for
illiterate people.
7. Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication
greatly help in handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf
people exchange messages through the movements of hands, fingers,
eyeballs, etc.
8. Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on
visual, picture, graph, sign, etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
9. Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal
communication reached the receiver very fast. For this reason, it
reduces the wastage of valuable time of the communicator.
10. Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication
like sign and symbol can also communicate some messages very
quickly than written or oral messages.

Disadvantages or limitations of non-verbal

communication:
Despite of advantages of non-verbal communication, it is not free from its
limitations or disadvantages which are:

1. Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague

and imprecise. Since in this communication, there is no use of words
or language which expresses clear meaning to the receiver. No
dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not
only by culture and context but by the degree of intention.
2. Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in verbal communication,
but it is generally not possible to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken
language has a structure that makes it easier to tell when a subject has
changed, for instance, or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not
lend itself to this kind of analysis.
3. Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss
something significant in a hand gesture. Everything is happening at
once and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with
everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
 4. Culture-bound: Non-verbal communication is learned in childhood,
passed on to you by your parents and others with whom you
associate. A few other gestures seem to be universal. Evidence
suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown
when unhappy. However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even
further disconnected from any “essential meaning” than verbal
symbols. Gestures seen as positive in one culture (Like the thumbs-up
gesture in the USA) may be seen as obscene in another culture.
5. Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal
communication, long conversation and necessary explanations are not
possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of the messages.
6. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of
repetitions in non-verbal communication. Since it uses gestures, facial
expressions eye contact, touch, etc. for communicating with others
which may not be understandable for the simple and foolish people.
7. Not everybody prefers: Everybody does not prefer to communicate
through non-verbal communication with others. Sometimes it cannot
create an impression upon people or listeners. It is less influential and
cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a public tool for
communication.
8. Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any
rules, formality or structure like other communication. Most of the
cases, people unconsciously and habitually engaged in non-verbal
communication by moving the various parts of the body.
9. Costly: In some cases, non-verbal communication involves huge
costs. For example, neon signs, powerpoint presentations, cinema, etc
are very much costly compared to other forms of communication.
10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, touch, sign, sound, paralanguage, etc. for
communicating with others, there is a great possibility in distortion of
information in non-verbal communication.

Or

Bibliography in book .

q-7

more in book
What are the stages of note-making?
Ans: Three stages of note-making and they are as follows.
 Before note-making: Prepare by finding out what you need to know and
the purpose of the meeting, reading, or lecture.
 During note-making: Note down the main ideas and keywords. Then
techniques that work for you.
 After note-making: Reflect, review, and then set your notes.
Note making is not just about writing down everything you hear or read. It is
a process of reviewing, connecting and synthesising ideas from your
lectures or reading.

Making notes helps you to:

 stay active and engaged during your lectures, reading and revision
 understand what you are learning and clarify your thinking
 be selective and identify key ideas
 remember the material
 organise your ideas and make connections
 plan and structure written assignments
 review and revise before exams.

Or

Communication can be of various types depending on the pattern of expression and

the signs or symbols used. One of these types is Verbal Communication.

Verbal Communication is a sort of vocal Communication through which a specific

message gets transmitted by spoken words to the listener. In this type of
communication, the sender gives a verbal form to their personal feelings, opinions,
ideas and thoughts and displays them in a speech, conversation, etc.

The successful effect of Verbal Communication depends primarily on the speaker’s

tone. Other factors include precision of speech, speed, volume, body language and
words utilised in the specific conversation.

Verbal Communication includes an immediate feedback mechanism since both the

speaker and listener have a synchronous transmission and reception of the original
message.
Advantages of Verbal Communication

1. Time-Saver: With the method of verbal communication, tasks can be efficiently dealt

with. Verbal communication saves time and helps us complete jobs within a few
minutes by avoiding other lengthy procedures. Through Verbal communication, you
can convey your thoughts or instructions at your regulated speed and not wait on such
tasks that are to be completed. This method can help you communicate better with
others as well as understand what they have to say.
2. Quick Feedback: Feedbacks are necessary for any social scenario where
communication is involved. By utilising verbal communication, you will be able to
produce quick feedback to the hosts’ original message. In the case of doubts or
questions, verbal communication helps clarify them much faster than any other
method of communication.
3. Convenient: Verbal communication is the most widely accepted method of
communication. Individuals worldwide prefer verbal communication over other
variance of communication due to its convenience. Verbal communication makes
language and oral comprehensions more straightforward and understandable.
4. Ease preparation: Any individuals who know how to convey their thoughts into
words need to prepare the least in the case of verbal communication. It is one of the
most simple types of communication which does not involve any material to convey
the intended message and are the easiest to conduct.
5. Privacy: Verbal communication ensures privacy to individuals to maintain the
secrecy of certain events. It is easier to convey specific urgent thoughts through the
way of verbal communication than using symbols or other methods. Verbal
communication can also prove to be of use in emergencies.
6. Improved clarity: Verbal communication occurs in either oral or written form; hence,
the speaker or writer and the listener or reader can clearly understand the subject or
context of the message. Therefore, it improves clarity.

Disadvantages of Verbal Communication

1. Distorted meaning: Sometimes, the meaning of intended messages can change

during verbal communication and drift far from the actual point. These are the barriers
that come in the way of effective communication. If instructions are not conveyed
properly or are not appropriately understood due to lack of clarity, it can delay work or
result in something unexpected.
2. Inconvenient for long messages: Verbal communication is inconvenient when
conveying long paragraphs since it can miss important points and become very
lengthy, causing misinterpretation or effective communication. If used for writing long
passages, the written form of verbal communication can cause problems for other
people to understand the meaning behind it efficiently.
3. Unnecessary information: When it comes to conveying your thoughts and opinions
ideas orally, it can include unnecessary or irrelevant information, leading to a gap in
communication and delaying effectiveness.
4. Misunderstanding: If the message through verbal communication is not conveyed
well and with precision, it can create misunderstandings for a communication gap.
Putting your ideas or thoughts across to the audience is a critical factor in any kind of
communication; hence, sometimes verbal communication can cause
misunderstandings if not taken into consideration.
5. Communication expense: Verbal Communication can be expensive sometimes.
Suppose the conversation being held is not in your native language or a language. In
that case, you understand the cost of translation and other such factors can be way
more expensive than any other form of communication, making it inconvenient.
6. No place for rectification: While interacting verbally, if an individual says a writes
something they did not wish to, it can lead to ruining their reputation tour or the
primary intention of the interaction. Therefore, due to no space for rectification,
speakers or writers must avoid any kind of errors.