INTRODUCTION

Geert H. Hofstede was born on October 2, 1928 in Haarlem, the Netherlands. He

received his M.Sc. from the Delft Institute of Technology in 1953, his Ph.D. (cum laude)
from Groningen University in 1967. Hofstede served in the Netherlands Army from 1953
to 1955. In 1955, he married Maaike A. Van den Hoek.

Hofstede is most
well known for his work on five dimensions of cultural variability,
commonly referred to as "Hofstede's Dimensions." These include:

‫٭‬ Uncertainty Avoidance

‫٭‬ Power Distance
‫٭‬ Masculinity-Femininity
‫٭‬ Individualism-Collectivism
‫٭‬ Confucian Dynamism.

CULTURE

Culture can be defined as the norm, values and beliefs shared by

a group. Commonly held beliefs and values influence a society to act in
a given manners and colour their view on the world around them. It
can also be desribed as an indoctrination by the society onto each
member of its group. There are many ways that people have tried to
compare cultures. At the top of the iceberg that's very easy: Japanese
bow in greeting, we shake hands. Drinking age in Finland is 18, in the
States it's 21. Competitive entrance exams vs. less competitive
system, extensive social security system vs. ever less comprehensive
one.

At more basic, hidden levels it is far more difficult to

compare one culture with another. You can sometimes
identify specific PRACTICES, e.g. friendship styles or
conversational practices (do these people give commands
and those people give suggestions? do these people
interrupt a lot and those hardly ever?) but to identify the
differences in underlying assumptions, beliefs, premises
etc. is more difficult to do.

One very famous attempt to do that was a study

conducted by Geert Hofstede. He and a (presumably large)
number of associates administed a survey to more than
100,000 employees in 72 different countries, from a single
multinational organization, thinly disguised as IBM. The
questions were things like:

How important is it to you to

have challenging work to do from which you can get a

personal sense of accomplishment

have an opportunity for high earnings

have good fringe benefits

have the security that you will be able to work for your
company as long as you want to

(and the ratings were choices like "most important, of little

importance," etc.

Other questions:

How often do you feel nervous or tense at work?

If an employee took a complaint to higher management, do

you think s/he would suffer later on for doing this (a
smaller raise, less desirable jobs in the dept., etc.)

And agree/disagree:

Competition among employees usually does more harm

than good.

Employees lose respect for a manager who asks them for

their advice before s/he makes a final decision.

Employees in industry should participate more in the

decisions made by management.

And so forth. On the basis of years of questionnaires

Hofstede developed DIMENSIONS OF CULTURAL
DIFFERENCE. These dimensions are reflections of cultural
premises more generally (not just work).

4 Dimensions:

1. Power distance: In every culture, people vary in the

amount of power and status they have. Those differences
are an inevitable, universal aspect of human life. Where
cultures DO differ greatly is in how they deal with those
differences: do they minimize them, encouraging people to
question or challenge authority figures and using power
only for legitimate purposes? (however that's defined) or
do they enshrine them, assuming that each person has a
rightful place in the social order, that authorities must not
be questioned, and that those with higher social status
have the right to use their power for whatever purposes
and whatever ways they deem desirable?

Attributes of the Power Distance dimension include (just a

few examples):

Large Small
A few people should be independent; All people should be
most should be dependent. interdependent.
Superiors consider subordinates to be
Superiors consider subordinates
a different kind of people than
to be "people like me."
themselves.
Power-holders are entitled to special All people should have equal
privileges. rights.
Hidden conflict exists between the Hidden harmony exists between
powerful and the powerless. the powerful and the powerless.
Parents place high value on the Parents place high value on the
obedience of their children. originality of their children.

2. Uncertainty Avoidance: How a culture adapts to changes

and copes with unpredictability: through rules and belief in
absolute truths, refusing to tolerate deviance? or getting
along with few rules, tolerating uncertainty and ambiguity,
accepting and encouraging disagreement among members
of the culture, taking risks and trying new things?

Strong Uncertainty Avoidance Weak Uncertainty Avoidance

Time is money Time is free
There is an inner urge to work
Hard work, as such, is not a virtue
hard
More showing of emotion is
Less showing of emotion is preferred
preferred
There is great concern with There is a willingness to take risks in
security in life life
People feel a need for written People feel that there should be as
rules and regulations few rules as possible

3. Individualism/collectivism: A third concern of all cultures

involves peoples' relationships to the larger social groups
of which they are a part. All cultures must develop ways of
relating that strike a balance between showing concern for
themselves and concern for others. Cultures differ in the
extent to which individual autonomy is regarded favorably
or unfavorably. Thus, cultures vary in their tendency to
encourage people to be unique and independent or
conforming and interdependent.

Individualism Collectivism
Each person is supposed to take People are born into extended families
care of him/herself and his/her or clans who protect them in exchange
immediate family. for their absolute loyalty.
Identity is based on individual Identity is based on the attributes of
attributes. one's in-group.
One's private life is invaded by
Everyone has a right to his/her
organizations, clans, and other in-
own private life and opinion.
groups; opinions are predetermined.
People feel a need to establish
Friendships are predetermined by
friendships with others who
stable in-group relationships.
have similar interests.
Belief is placed in individual Belief is placed in group decision-
decision-making. making.

4. Masculinity/femininity: Essentially, preferences for

achievement and assertiveness or nurturance and social
support. This dimension suggests the degree to which a
culture values such behaviors as assertiveness and the
acquisition of wealth, as opposed to caring for others and
the quality of life.

Masculinity Femininity
Sex roles in society are clearly Sex roles in society are more flexible
differentiated. and fluid.
Performance is what counts most. Quality of life is a high priority.
One lives in order to work. One works in order to live.
One admires the successful One sympathizes with the
achiever. unfortunate.
 Trying to be better than others is
Trying to be better than others is
neither socially nor materially
rewarded by wealth and status.
rewarded.

If you're interested in reading more about Hofstede's

dimensions, and seeing how several specific countries
(including, naturally, the U.S.) ranked on these dimensions
compared to each other, it's in Lustig and Koester, pp.126-
141.
It's easy enough to say, in general terms, "my culture
belongs on this side of the scale." A more interesting
challenge is to find evidence for claims of that kind. If you
believe that in your culture, "trying to be better than
others is rewarded by wealth and status," for example,
what is a concrete situation (an event? a story someone
told you? a conversation you overheard or were part of?) in
which that value was reflected in talk? That will be the
subject of our next class discussion, details to be
announced later this week.