The biology of belief –

Exploring the need for meaning, truth and spirituality

Jonathan West

EDUS 604, Dr. Graham

Fall 2008
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 Belief is an essential aspect of the human experience. As we have evolved, beliefs have

allowed our ancestors to make sense out of a complex, mysterious and challenging world. Recent

findings about how emotions, behaviors, thoughts, and memories function in the brain offer a new

way to study the workings of belief (Newberg & Waldman, 2006). While there are many complex

factors that influence how beliefs are formed, technology available is limited in its capacity to peer

into the brain and record every transaction.

Andrew Newberg (Newberg & Waldman, 2006) explores the “biological quest for

meaning, spirituality and truth” and suggests that “if we understand the neuropsychology of the

brain, our beliefs will be able to grow and change when we interact with others who have different

views of the world” (p. 6). Newberg hopes that as we come to appreciate our beliefs, we will feel

more connected to our fellow human beings which would help us to be more tolerant and

compassionate human beings.

Overview of context and content

The power of belief. Beliefs impact and influence almost every aspect of our lives, from

who to trust and who to avoid, how to vote and how to pray, to what the next course of action we

may take. They also shape personal behaviors, ethics and spirituality. Once beliefs are established,

we seldom challenge their accuracy, even if we discover evidence that counters them. If we meet

others with different beliefs, we tend to reject or belittle them (Newberg & Waldman, 2006). We

tend to reject others who are not members of our own group, even if they have similar beliefs. One

study showed that one-third of Americans believes that Christianity, Judaism and Islam worship a

different deity even though they have a similar concept of God. The brain instinctually tends to

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reject any information that doesn’t conform to prior knowledge or experience (Newberg &

Waldman, 2006).

The research of Newberg (Newberg & Waldman, 2006) suggests that every individual has

“an abiding need to construct moral, spiritual and scientific beliefs that explain the workings of the

universe” (p. 8). Newberg proposes that belief is a fundamental aspect of the human brain. Despite

the “inherent prejudice the human brain seems to exhibit, we do have the biological power to

interrupt negative or harmful beliefs and entertain new ideas” (p. 9). New ideas can change the

neural circuitry of the brain that governs how we behave and what we believe.

Newberg says (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 9) that the adult human brain is childlike in

another way: “we automatically assume that what other people tell us is true, particularly if the

idea appeals to our deep-seated fantasies and desires.” He gives the example of how advertising

often takes advantage of this with promises of lost weight, instant beauty, or intimate

communications, and we believe these. There is a natural tendency to trust what others say and it is

practically impossible to question every piece of information that we receive. Due to this

predicament, Newberg (Newberg & Waldman, 2006) suggests that we adopt “an attitude of open-

mindedness, trust and healthy skepticism, especially when it comes to our own beliefs that affect

another person’s life” (p. 10). He proposes that this is especially important when regarding

assumptions we make in medicine and science and also when addressing moral, political and

religious issues.

Newberg’s conviction is that the more we understand the biological foundations of belief,

the easier it will be for a person to find a middle place between blind trust and total rejection of

anything that is foreign or strange. He says that due to our inability to get outside our brains and

directly see reality, we have to live with the inconsistency that there may be no clear line between

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fantasy and truth (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p.12). Science cannot yet prove the existence of

consciousness outside of the brain, but there is evidence that belief or faith in such possibilities can

bring a sense of peace and calmness within the brain – the more one feels connected with the

world, the more empathy one expresses toward others. The sense of connection with others may

even be “neurologically vital for the development of moral ideals” (p.14).

Searching for beliefs in the brain. Although technology and science is progressing, it is

still very difficult to define what’s going on in the brain. A memory can’t be pin downed and ideas,

thoughts, and feelings are “difficult to research because they are end products of complex neural

processes that include perception, emotion, memory and behavioral motivation” (Newberg &

Waldman, 2006, p.17). There are over 100 billion neurons to study in the brain, each having up to

10,000 dendrites to connect with other neuronal structures (Newberg & Waldman, 2006).

A belief is a kind of map created in the brain of an experience that “seems meaningful, real

or true” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p.18). It starts with information coming into the senses

which is then processed by the immense network of neural connections in the brain putting the data

into “categories, concepts, memories, language, thoughts” and reactions (p.18). The brain then

considers the internal map to be reality. For example, we don’t actually “see” the world. The brain

takes the raw data and through neurochemical and neuroelectric impulses makes an image in our

brain (Newberg & Waldman, 2006).

To enable a way to study belief scientifically, Newberg (Newberg & Waldman, 2006)

defines belief as having four interacting spheres of influence: perception, cognition, emotional

value and social consensus. Each sphere’s intensity level affects the overall strength of the belief.

For example, the intensity of emotional value impacts belief. The “more emotional events tend to

be written into memory more strongly than non-emotional events” (p. 32). Our perception of

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reality can be radically changed by strong emotions. Regarding social consensus, we usually adopt

the beliefs of people around us, otherwise there is confusion and disorder (Newberg & Waldman,

2006). Group consensus is a part of the belief making process that “integrates perceptual

experiences, emotional values, and cognitive abstractions into a socially acceptable whole” (p. 35).

Beliefs are always in flux. The human brain is continually “imagining and intuiting

alternative perspectives on reality” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 43). Intuition allows us to

understand what the senses cannot perceive. Newberg’s research suggests that we can enter into

intuitive states through meditation and prayer. He also posits that “intuition, creativity, and

spiritual practice may all provide better means for apprehending reality and truth more accurately”

(Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 42).

The construction and biology of perceptual beliefs. Neuroscience integrates the objective

and subjective, the external and internal worlds. Newberg and associate D’Aquili (Newberg &

Waldman, 2006) “postulated and found evidence for specific cognitive processes that are not only

essential to formulation of everyday beliefs but also responsible for emergence of spiritual

perceptions, mystical experiences and unitive states of consciousness. These include the

asbstractive function, the quantitative function, the cause-and-effect function, the dualistic or

oppositional function, the reductionist function, and the holistic function, which in essence puts

everything together into a meaningful worldview” (p. 75).

As further explanation of one of these processes, “the dualistic or oppositional function – in

labeling, organizing, quantifying, brain tends to reduce everything to as few components as

possible” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 87). The parietal lobe puts abstract concepts into

dualistic terms or polarized dyads: up versus down, on versus off, in versus out, us versus them.

This neural simplification is a type of biological stereotyping. Once oppositional dyad is created

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brain will attach emotional bias on each part of dyad, thus creating a kind of favoritism or

prejudice (Newberg & Waldman, 2006).

Acknowledging the moral development theories of Piaget, Kohlberg, Fowler, Gilligan and

others, Newberg (Newberg & Waldman, 2006) suggests that, neurologically, the foundation of

morals is formed in childhood. However, part of the difficulty with any development theory is that

once the brain is full-grown, it does not seem to develop in a linear fashion. Therefore stages are

no longer relevant. People make choices, but no meaningful predictions can be made with any

statistical accuracy (Newberg & Waldman, 2006). Further, neural development practically stops

when we reach thirty, and following that “the brain’s metabolic and neurotransmitter activity

begins to decrease and continues to decrease throughout the remainder of life” (p. 128).

“Neurologically, enlightenment and peace are unlikely” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006,

p.128). Even Kohlberg said that only few adults would reach level where their lives are governed

by higher moral principles. Newberg suggests it is possible to reach such a level if one works

conscientiously towards its ideals, although the development could take years of practice and

introspection (Newberg & Waldman, 2006). At any time in life, a person – “through meditation,

prayer, and critical thinking – might be able to transcend ‘narcissistic’ limits of childhood and

change the neural functioning of brain.” (p. 128)

As we age brain looses “neural plasticity” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 128) – the

flexibility to change and adapt and therefore the ability to form new ideas and beliefs diminishes.

Newberg suggests that we need to keep exercising the brain – intellectually, socially, and

spiritually or we will loose whatever capacity we have developed: “social support, higher

education, intellectual stimulation and an optimistic view of health slow decline of moral reasoning

and cognition” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 131).

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 The gap between behavior and moral beliefs. The moral scale is strongly influenced by

how connected we with feel with others– “the more connected we feel, the more we act with

generosity, compassion and fairness” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 135) which then also has

positive effects on our immune system. Studies show the less connected we feel with others, the

more emotional distance there is and the less empathy and less respect we have (Newberg &

Waldman, 2006). Newberg suggests that “connection guides us to manifest our moral ideals” (p.

135).

Newberg suggests that moral beliefs are based on “complex rules of logic, reason, social

consensus and personal reward but these variables can only be applied generally” (Newberg &

Waldman, 2006, p. 140) He considers right and wrong arbitrary when the law isn’t clear. “What if

you found a quarter on the sidewalk. Would you turn it in to the police? Probably not. But what

about $1000?” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 140). Newberg proposes that as the emotional

effect of such a finding increases, there is more likelihood that we will compromise our moral

ideals.

Studies have found the left frontal and left temporal lobes activated when making moral

judgments. These areas are “associated with working memory, willful thinking, regulating

emotions, and abstract reasoning” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 141). Research has shown that

frontal lobe activity is essential in slowly down impulsive acts and that emotions are vital for

making moral and ethical choices. “The ability to empathize with others is essential for

establishing moral beliefs, for if we don’t understand how another person feels, we have less

ability to respond in a kindly manner” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 143). Studies show that

when we first feel empathy, we are less likely to react angrily toward another person. Many studies

have shown that “short-term empathy-inducing experiments can instill long-term empathic

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attitudes towards people with AIDS, homeless, homosexuals, and convicts serving life sentences

for murder” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 143).

Moral beliefs depend on wide-ranging networks of interaction – both within the brain and

within society – the degree of interconnection impacts the degree we put into effect our moral

beliefs. Newberg suggests the more we relate to others in positive ways, the more compassion we

will have for them, the more our moral behavior will be enhanced (Newberg & Waldman, 2006).

“This is what religion and education are all about; the more we reflect on social ramification of

behavior and beliefs, the better prepared we will be to encounter situations that would normally

cause us to react selfishly, irrationally, or destructively” (p. 163).

The reality of spiritual beliefs. Studies have shown that pleasant thoughts can lead to a

relaxation response, releasing pleasure chemical dopamine. Likewise, anxious thoughts put the

body in state of readiness and release stress hormones, this is the fight or flight response (Newberg

& Waldman, 2006). Research has found that some forms meditative practices increase releases of

dopamine, up to 65% (Newberg & Waldman, 2006). Intense experiences, if maintained long

enough, can leave lasting changes in neural circuits pertaining to memory and emotion. In such

activity the object of contemplation fuses with a vibrant sense of reality – thus a closely held belief

- personal, political, relational, scientific, or spiritual – will become a personal truth” (p. 183).

Newberg (Newberg & Waldman, 2006) gives examples of people who had transcendent or

mystical experiences of a clear and profound nature which transformed their lives, goals and

beliefs. In such experiences people have had a vision of “an ordered interconnected universe” (p.

169) that had both “an intense arousal or ecstasy and deep calm and tranquility (p182). Newberg

suggests that this is an unusual state of awareness compared to everyday thoughts and activities.

Newberg conducted studies with Buddhist monks meditating, Franciscan nuns praying and an

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atheist meditator and found significant changes in brain activity different from normal states.

Studies show that during spiritual experiences of the subjects the thalamus becomes active and the

orientation area of the brain becomes less active. This is opposite to normal states and even

dreams, where they both increase together (Newberg & Waldman, 2006). The subjects of the

research showed an unusual asymmetry in the thalamus which Newberg could not find any similar

references in healthy individuals. The thalamus is known to be connected with the frontal cortex

and also has direct links with awareness and consciousness. The asymmetry found with the long-

term meditators “suggests that they have a unique perception of reality, which is continuously

active whether meditating or not” (p. 185). “One of the nuns commented that, “I feel God’s

presence every minute of the day”” (p. 185). Since there have been no long term studies, Newberg

(Newberg & Waldman, 2006) does not draw conclusions about whether “intense meditative

practices permanently change the thalamus so as to allow certain states of consciousness to be

experienced as real” (p. 185). Newberg suggests that an asymmetric thalamus might help guide

people “towards more moral and ethical ideals” (p. 230).

Newberg’s “research suggests that transcendent and mystical experiences can be traced to

specific neural processes in the brain, and that they are available – and ultimately valuable – to

anyone who seeks them, including secular people” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 223). William

James describes a mystical experience as being “illuminations, revelations, full of significance and

importance” (p. 223). In the clinical literature, people who practice intense forms of meditation and

prayer sometimes report significant changes in their emotional life – for example, many people

feel they become more perceptive to the suffering of others because they see all life as

interconnected (Newberg & Waldman, 2006).

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 Becoming a better believer. As a result of biological studies of the brain exploring

meaning, spirituality, and truth, Newberg (Newberg & Waldman, 2006) suggests that we consider

the factors that impact our beliefs. He says that interpretations are filled with “assumptions,

generalizations, oversights, and mistakes” (p. 253) and can be considered cognitive biases that are

built into the mechanisms of the brain. He suggests that by recognizing these biases, we can

become better thinkers, researchers and ultimately better believers (Newberg & Waldman, 2006).

Newberg has collected 27 biases he considers crucial for evaluating our perceptions and

beliefs and as well as information that comes from scientific studies. A few of these are: “family

bias – propensity to automatically believe information given by family or friends; authoritarian

bias – tend to believe people who hold positions of power and status; confirmation bias – tend to

emphasize information that supports our beliefs, while unconsciously rejecting contradictory

information; self-serving bias – tend to maintain beliefs that benefit our own interest; bandwagon

bias – tend to go along with belief system of whatever group we are involved with; expectancy

bias – when looking for information, or conducting research, we have a ‘propensity’ to discover

what we are looking for; and false-memory bias – brain tends to retain false memories longer than

accurate memories. It is easy to implant false memories if circumstances are right and information

is plausible” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 253-256).

In conclusion, Newberg suggests that the first step is to “realize that every perception and

thought includes a degree of bias and thus every belief represents a compromise between the way

the world is and the way we would like it to be” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 258). He suggests

some further tips to help us be better believers: ask questions and double-check supposed facts,

surf for knowledge – go to the internet, recognize the limitations of belief, develop flexible beliefs,

avoid stress – it undermines healthy beliefs, interrupt negative beliefs and diffuse emotions that

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generate destructive beliefs (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 260-269). Newberg believes the world

would be safer if we all took the time to see the universe through the eyes of as many people as

possible. To become a better believer he suggests that we need to temporarily suspend our deepest

beliefs; and that takes courage.

Newberg’s historical background

As a teenager, Newberg (2006) was curious why people believed particular things. For

example, why some believed in God and others not. He often found that conversations about topics

such as “evolution, the origin of the universe, or more captivating topics such as basketball or

girls” resulted in an impasse (Newberg, 2006, p. 6). His questions about what to believe or not

continued throughout school and college and he questioned how anyone could trust their beliefs.

He also wondered about the nature of reality and was struck by thoughts of mystics. Eventually,

this led him to study the human mind. Newberg (2006) reflects that “religious and spiritual beliefs

have had a particularly profound influence over human history, and yet we barely grasp how they

work at the biological, behavioral, or psychological level. As a neuroscientist, I have come to

realize that the study of beliefs may be the single most important quest, both scientifically and

spiritually” (p. 17) Newberg is “an associate professor of Radiology and Psychiatry and adjunct

professor of Religious Studies at the University of Pennsylvania and also director of the Center for

Spirituality and the Mind” (Newberg, 2006, cover).

Critical Analysis

Assumptions, arguments and application. Newberg is transparent about the complex and

uncertain nature of neuroscience and clearly states the challenge of interpreting brain scans. At this

point in time he actually considers neuroscience “more of an art than a science, particularly in the

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way it evaluates complex mental processes” (Newberg & Waldman, 2006, p. 27). He admits it is

filled with conjectures, rationalizations, assumptions, and postulates.

The application of this research seems to be wide-spread. If societies and cultures at large

understood some of the biases and tendencies of the brain, perhaps we could have more genuine

dialogue, compassion and empathy and less rhetoric and hatred.

Description of theory and how it is applied. The description of the theory seems quite

complex although the many examples, illustrations help to illustrate it. Perhaps this is because the

fact that neuroscience itself is still such a nascent field which Newberg readily admits. It is also

clear that the study of beliefs is a very interdisciplinary study involving biology, chemistry,

psychology, philosophy, and ethics.

The application of the theory of belief seems to be a valid one in that beliefs have wide-

ranging impact on the world today with the mixing of diverse cultures and belief systems and the

influence of technology bringing the world so much closer. There is also the potential with

technology of wide-spread destruction with weapons that are available. This makes the importance

of developing understanding and tolerance, one of the goals Newberg often mentions, even more

important.

Continuity, clarity, insights and limitations. Newberg makes clear reference to existing

research and seems to acknowledge opposing viewpoints. Regarding clarity, at times it seemed

difficult to follow the subject, but perhaps this is because I am new to the topic and many terms

and concept were new for me. It was helpful to have the many stories, examples and illustrations to

bring more clarity to the presentation of the subject. Because neuroscience is still so new and the

brain is relatively uncharted regarding the nature of thoughts, beliefs, and consciousness, there is a

limit to the concrete conclusions that can be drawn from Newberg’s research. However, there

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seems to be enough evidence that it is possible to seriously consider the tips and suggestions as to

the nature of the biases and tendencies of the brain to influence our perceptions and beliefs. If we

have a better understanding of the nature our beliefs, I feel it is possible to become more empathic

and compassionate human beings.

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 References

Newberg, A. & Waldman, M. (2006). Why we believe what we believe – Uncovering our

biological need for meaning, spirituality, and truth. New York: Free Press.

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