4.

31 Concluding Remarks
Haydar Küçük, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize, Turkey
Ibrahim Dincer, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

4.31.1 Introduction 1234

4.31.2 Findings 1237
4.31.3 Closure 1244

4.31.1 Introduction

Energy conversion is the process of changing energy from one form into another form within the constraint of the conservation
law. Energy conversion is important for technological development and modern life because it is essential to convert primitive
energy forms, such as nuclear, solar, and gravitational into more useful energy forms, such as electricity, work, etc. The different
forms of energy include thermal, potential or gravitational, solar, mechanical, electrical, chemical, acoustical, kinetic, elastic,
radiant, nuclear, and light energy. For this purpose, starting from the first ages of humankind, a wide amount of devices and
systems have been designed and developed to convert energy from one form to another. The energy conversion systems have a
large variety including simple applications, such as the basic windmill, which converts wind energy to the kinetic energy, or more
complex systems, such as nuclear power plants, which convert nuclear fuels to thermal and then electrical energy.
Numerous energy conversion processes occur naturally. Humans have invented a large number of additional energy conversion
methods over their history. These energy conversion devices can be classified according to the chemical and physical principles,
and the different forms of energy at the inlet and exit states of the device. A lot of energy conversion devices and processes are
included in this volume. One of them is the heat exchanger (HEX), which is an essential component in various industries,
including aerospace, chemical, food, electronics, health, petroleum, power, and transportation, among others. They allow heat
transfer between two or more fluids for the purpose of heating or cooling in processes, such as refrigeration, residential heating,
electronics cooling, power production, waste water treatment and heat recovery, and combustion.
Heat pipes are one of the most efficient passive heat transfer technologies available. As they are integrated into HEXs and heat
sinks they offer key advantages over conventional heat distribution systems in terms of energy savings, manufacturing cost,
thermal conductivity, temperature distribution, and reliable operation. A heat pipe is a structure with very high thermal con-
ductivity that enables the transportation of heat, while maintaining almost uniform temperature along its heated and cooled
sections. Heat pipes are considered to be “thermal superconductors” due to the high rates they transfer heat across small
temperature difference across the heat pipe. In their simplest form heat pipes are called thermosyphons; their operation relies on
gravity, and heat can only be transferred from the lower to the upper end of the pipe. A condensed fluid at the bottom of the pipe
evaporates, collecting heat, and moves as a vapor to the top of the pipe where it condenses, releasing heat, and then trickles back as
a liquid down to the bottom of the pipe where the cycle repeats.
Heat pumps (HPs) can be considered part of the environmentally friendly technologies using renewable energy sources, while
they indicate a great opportunity for reaching the European Union (EU) target, which states a reliable, affordable, and sustainable
energy supply. They have been utilized in the developed countries for years due to their higher energy utilization efficiencies and
quoted in the European Directives on the use of renewable energy, the energy performance of buildings, energy-related products,
and other relevant directives. At present, HP technology has been quickly developed all over the world as a clean and energy-
efficient heating and air conditioning unit. It has been widely used in a number places, such as apartments, shops, hospitals, and
office buildings. Based on the type of heat source, HP technology includes water-source, air-source, and ground-source HPs.
Heat engines are systems that are designed for the efficient conversion of thermal or chemical energy to mechanical energy or
electric energy. The Rankine and Brayton cycles, or both combined, are considered to be the main power generation cycles used in
industry. The Rankine cycle is a steam-driven cycle, and the Brayton cycle is a gas-driven cycle. Both cycles convert thermal energy
to mechanical energy and electricity.
Gas turbine power systems have been finding applications for commercial purposes in various sectors, ranging from power
generation to propulsion in aircrafts since the early 19th century. Usually, these systems consist of a simple closed or open air
standard Brayton cycle in which a compressor takes the air at the atmospheric conditions and pressurizes it. A combustion
chamber is where the fuel is burned at constant temperature with air and gas turbine, where the air is expanded to generate
electricity. The gas turbine is a useful device to convert heat energy into mechanical energy by rotating shaft with higher capacities
and efficiencies.
The Stirling engines were invented in 1816, by Robert Stirling. The regenerator is considered as an added value of Stirling
engine performances but they are the seat of an important part of thermal losses recorded in such engine. The regenerator is a
porous medium used to economize heat for/from the working fluid. All the exchanged heat energy passes through it and is
proportional to its performances. Stirling engine without a regenerator needs five times more energy to produce the same

1234 Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00453-3

 Concluding Remarks 1235

performances as an engine including a regenerator. A performant regenerator needs to have high thermal capacity and con-
ductivity, large surface area, small dead volume with dense matrix, and highly porous matrix with minimum resistance to flow.
Steam turbine power systems have been finding applications for commercial purposes in various sectors, ranging from energy
production to propulsion in marine vessels since the early 19th century. Usually, these systems consist of a simple closed standard
Rankine cycle in which a pump takes the water at the vacuum conditions and pressurizes it; a boiler where the water changes its
phase at constant temperature and is then superheated; and a steam turbine, where the steam is expanded to generate electricity.
The steam turbine is a useful device to convert heat energy into mechanical energy by rotating shaft with higher capacities and
efficiencies. Also, another benefit of the steam turbine systems is that these systems possess the ability to use various types of fuels
in the boiler and also various fluid can be used as the working fluid.
Combined cycles were introduced in order to utilize the part of the rejected heat into a bottoming cycle. The combined cycles
consist of two different systems providing the input energies from the same source and aim to produce same useful output.
Brayton–Rankine combined cycle is the most well-known application of the combined energy conversion systems. A combined
cycle power plant usually uses both a gas and a steam turbine together. Exhaust temperatures of the gas turbines are considerably
higher than the atmosphere temperature. The discharging processes occur at atmospheric pressure for the open Brayton cycle.
Therefore, it is impossible to expand the working fluid below. The high-temperature and low-pressure stream still has high
potential and it can be used by the integration of the waste heat recovery (WHR) units to the Brayton cycle. The high energy can be
recovered if the expelled gases can be utilized in a Rankine cycle.
The integrated energy processes for multigeneration aims generates different beneficial outputs using the same energy input.
The power, fresh water and air, heating and cooling applications, domestic hot water are the great products that provide our life
services. Hydrogen and other synthetic fuels are other beneficial outputs taken into consideration. The integrated gasification
combined cycles have been described as commercially attractive coal or biomass sources to electricity plants, with the improving of
coal or biomass gasification cycles, and also hot gas cleanup systems. On the other hand, the integrated gasification combined
cycles are very complicated processes primarily due to the integration of gasification cycles and the combined processes, and the
presence of various chemical reactions in gasification cycles and in hot gas cleanup systems.
The geothermal resources are plenty and widely used for power generation or space heating applications, clean (effectively no
harmful gas emissions, including CO, CO2, NOx, SOx, etc.), safe and reliable (renewable and sustainable), and they can play an
important role for meeting world energy requirements. The different benefit is that geothermal power processes are easy, safe, and
adaptable. Among the alternative energy technologies, geothermal energy is found in abundance, and a completely free source of
energy, and also is mainly used for electricity production, residential or greenhouse heating and cooling processes, industrial
drying, distillation and desalination, depending on the geofluid source conditions. For this reason, the classification of geothermal
energy has been necessary for a long time since geothermal energy is abundant and an important for source for human beings.
Hydropower generation is significant for energy supply especially in the climate convenient regions of the world, where there
are frequent storm rainfalls that provide support for surface flow, which is the main source of hydroelectric power (HEP)
production. The fundamentals and systems of HP are presented based on historical, climatic, hydrologic, engineering, and
technological points of view. There are four different systems for HP generation, which are impoundment, diversion, pumped
storage, and other types that are extractable from tides, waves, heat, and current flows.
The magnetic cooling system is explained with ferromagnetic or paramagnetic material that exhibits a magnetocaloric effect
using a HEX and a heat transfer fluid, to make the heat exchange from the ambient. A material that bears magnetocaloric effect is
warmed up due to the alignment of magnetic moments in parallel position in the direction of the magnetic field when the
magnetic field is applied. When the magnetic field is removed, the moments of the array are restored and the material tends to cool
down. The terms of magnetic energy and electromagnetic energy are used as an alternative source of magnetic cooling technology
where magnetic field is applied. Magnetic cooling applications near room temperature are important alternatives to the con-
ventional vapor compression cooling systems. That situation is mainly originated from the cooling cycle, which is environmentally
friendly due to not using harmless gas, has a simple design, has low operating cost, has low efficiency because of not using
components (such as conventional cooling systems compressors, etc.) in the system, has high-energy productivity, is noiseless and
reaching the lower pressure, as well. In addition to these advantages, it is possible to reach high yield values by making various
modifications to the system during heat transfer process.
Electromechanical energy conversion devices are the driving force for maintaining a stable and continuous development for the
industry. Electromechanical energy conversion process is the result of the required energy storage for the daily needs of society. The
technology associated with the concept of energy storage, renewable energy sources and electromechanical (or any kind) energy
conversion systems are all interrelated. In terms of the double-conversion chain, which is described as “electricity-storable
intermediary energy-electricity,” the storable intermediary energy is established by sophisticated conversion systems between the
energy sources and the electricity.
Solar cells, which convert sunlight into electricity, can be used to evaluate such an enormous energy. Solar cells have already
been used in the space applications. However, there is a high demand for development of cheap and cost-effective routes for their
widespread use in the photovoltaic (PV) market. In this chapter, we review the different generations of solar cells, engineering
challenges, and the routes for their further improvement.
Solar ponds are defined as integral devices used for collecting and storing solar energy with the help of high salinity water.
Having a built-in thermal energy storage can be used as an advantage irrespective of time and season. Solar ponds offer an
alternative way to collect and store solar energy, which can be used to supply thermal energy for various applications, such as
1236 Concluding Remarks

refrigeration, drying, power generation, and space heating. Thermal energy storage is labeled as an important technique for storing
energy. Regarding these properties solar ponds seem to have a considerable potential in collecting and storing solar energy. The
efficiency of a system can be determined by investigating its manufacturing and maintenance costs and its thermal energy storage
capacity.
Solar tower systems are an emerging renewable energy technology, offering cost-effective storage for daily load cycles. This
enables full decoupling of collection of solar energy and production of electricity. Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems are
based on conventional thermal power cycles. The main difference is that the heat source is not coming from fossil fuels or nuclear
fission processes, but from concentrated solar radiation. Unlike PV power, only direct solar radiation can be used, as only the
limited view angle of the sun disk allows the required concentration of the sunlight. Therefore, solar thermal power plants are
economically most attractive in regions with high direct insolation levels.
CSP can be employed as the only energy source for the renewable production of hydrogen and/or syngas from water/carbon
dioxide. Such a route has in principle the potential to culminate essentially to the synthesis of liquid hydrocarbon fuels using only
renewable/recyclable resources: solar energy, water and captured/recycled CO2. CSP systems can supply high-temperature process
heat as the necessary energy source for the performance of endothermic chemical reactions (similar, but not limited to the
reforming/gasification ones) in the so-called solar thermochemical processes. In this way the solar thermal energy obtained is not
converted into electrical power but to chemical bonds to create chemical substances that can be used downstream in the chemical
industry or stored/transported and used for off-sun electricity production. A “solar fuel” is thus any chemical compound that can
react with oxygen to release energy, and that was initially formed, at least partly, using energy from solar radiation. In the broad
sense this term can contain in addition to “solar hydrogen” syngas, hydrocarbons, and alcohols produced from reactions between
H2 and CO, as well as solid powders that have originated from solar-aided dissociation processes.
Solar energy is the most abundant source of renewables in the world. There are numerous pathways for utilization of solar
energy ranging from solar collectors to concentrated PV applications. PV-based energy conversion systems provide a compre-
hensive introduction and discussion of solar energy systems, primarily focusing on PV-based energy conversion systems, namely,
sole PV, photovoltaic and thermal (PV/T), and concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systems.
Thermoelectric (TE) is the direct conversion of temperature difference between the junctions of two dissimilar materials
(thermocouple) to electricity. This was discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 and is known as the Seebeck effect. A voltage
applied between the junctions of the thermocouple creates a temperature difference between them. The Seebeck effect could be
utilized to generate electricity known as thermoelectric power generation (TEG). The Peltier effect could be utilized to transfer heat
from the cold junction to the hot junction. This application is referred to as thermoelectric cooling (TEC).
Photoelectrochemical (PEC) technology that merges the solar energy collecting and water electrolysis in a stand-alone
mechanism. Fundamentally, once a PEC semiconductor apparatus with the appropriate set of characteristics is submerged in an
aqueous electrolyte and exposed to sunlight, the photon energy is transformed to electrochemical energy, that could dissociate
water into hydrogen and oxygen. As a result, discontinuous solar energy is transformed into a characteristically more storable
energy form.
Electrochemistry provides the essentials involving the presence and flow of electrons, as well as the relations amongst ionics,
microelectronics, semiconductors, photonics, and dielectric materials and their respective fields, such as chemistry, engineering,
biology, materials, and environment. It also renders the reverse possible via the extraction of power from energy intensive
substances by electrolysis. Electrolysis can be a selective and straightforward process, an expedient, and a cost-effective expertise for
synthesis, separation, characterization, and pollution control.
Solar energy can be converted into thermal energy, electricity, and chemical energy. Light interacts with matter mainly in three
ways: (1) it displaces electrons producing PV electricity, (2) it displaces electrons that release vibronic energy that dissipates into
heat, generating heat, and (3) it displaces electrons, which eventually generates electrochemical reactions to produce useful
commodities, such as synthetic fuels, that store chemical energy convertible into power on-demand. Solar thermochemical
applications have not been developed as far as solar thermal electricity generation. However, they principally employ similar solar
concentrating systems, mostly based on the solar tower model capable of accomplishing high process temperatures. Solar chemical
reactors for highly concentrated solar technologies typically feature the usage of a cavity-receiver type arrangement, which is a well-
insulated enclosure with a small aperture to allow concentrated solar radiation.
Hydrogen energy conversion systems are expected to become the choice of the future energy systems. It is possible to produce
hydrogen from sustainable and renewable sources. Therefore, hydrogen has the potential to sustainably meet the growing global
energy requirements. Hydrogen energy conversion options are diverse, and generally more efficient and almost always more
environmentally benign compared to traditional energy systems. Hydrogen energy conversion systems follow production, delivery,
and storage in the overall hydrogen energy system. After the production and delivery of hydrogen to a conversion system, it can
either be utilized in combustion devices or in fuel cells to convert hydrogen energy into chemical, electrical, mechanical, or
thermal energy.
Electrolyzers are treated as the electrochemical devices that primarily use electricity to produce hydrogen as the main com-
modity and oxygen as the side product out of water. In contrast, to all other methods of hydrogen production, electrolyzer is the
only commercially available technology that can produce very high purity hydrogen without involvement of hydrocarbons feed or
carbon emissions. However, regardless of the fact that electrolyzers have been around for more than a century, this technology has
not yet effectively been utilized. This is due to numerous factors among which are the competitive cost of other hydrogen
production technologies and the limited awareness of electrolyzers’ merit among industrial and public communities, especially in
 Concluding Remarks 1237

the perspective of environmentally friendly hydrogen production. Electrolyzer technologies have been gaining more interest than
ever, as they provide a convenient hydrogen production method that is capable of producing high purity hydrogen from water and
is able to meet hydrogen demands at various scales.
Plasma coal gasification technologies are characterized by a short residence time of reagents in the reactor and a high rate of
solid fuel conversion. Thermochemical preparation of coal for combustion is performed in a plasma fuel system, consisting of a
coal burner with a plasma torch, while other plasma fuel gasification technologies are performed in a plasma reactor, in which the
area of heat release from the electric arc is combined with the area of solid fuel gasification. Plasma gasification of solid fuels is one
of the most promising technologies for efficient and environmentally friendly solid fuel utilization. In the process of plasma-steam
coal gasification the organic matter of coal can be fully transformed into a high calorific value, sulfur and nitrogen oxides free
syngas with a lower heating value.
Pyrolysis is regarded as a complex thermochemical process for converting biomass into energy and products consisting of bio-
oil, solid biochar, and pyrolytic gas. Pyrolysis temperature significantly influences the properties of products while heating rate
defines the type of biomass pyrolysis (fast, slow, etc.). Biochar can be utilized as solid fuel in boilers and other industrial processes,
pyrolytic gas can be a renewable alternative fuel for internal combustion engines and other processes, whereas bio-oil has the
potential to be used as a fuel oil substitute and transportation fuel. Physical or catalytic upgrading is employed in many cases for
converting the bio-oil into useful biofuels and chemicals. Biomass pyrolysis is generally defined as the thermal decomposition of
the biomass organic matrix in nonoxidizing atmosphere resulting in liquid bio-oil, solid biochar, and noncondensable gas
products.
Fuel cells are recognized as critical electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity with
high electrical efficiency and low environmental impact by electrochemical reactions without combustion. Fuel cells have two
electrodes as positive called anode and negative called cathode and these electrodes are separated by an electrolyte barrier. Fuel
cells are also categorized according to their electrolyte type and fuel used and their performance mainly depends on the materials
of their components and the manufacturing method. The main types of fuel cells are proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC), direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), alkaline fuel cell (AFC), molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and solid oxide fuel cell
(SOFC).
The major energy source in the world is solar energy. Only a small fraction of this energy is absorbed by the plants to produce
starch, for example, a glucose polymer, via photosynthesis. Glucose molecules are employed to produce adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) in energy metabolism, which may be utilized to synthesize new plant cells. Herbivores survive on the plants, carnivores prey
on the herbivores. Both the plant and the animal cells store the chemical energy in their structures in the form of high-energy
molecules. In the biological structures growth and reproduction and the muscle work performance are achieved with ATP
expenditure. In all of these processes substantial amounts of entropy are generated. Hormonal control of the energy uptake and
utilization regulates functioning of anabolism and catabolism; the brain provides the balance between them. Imposing energy
(calorie) restriction to the body may cause substantial changes in numerous body functions.
The district energy conversion systems are defined as the systems doing energy conversion processes that may produce multiple
useful commodities, such as electricity, heating, cooling, and hot water generation, where heating and cooling outputs are
produced at central places and distributed to the immediate surrounding field. The district energy conversion systems have some
important advantages to efficiently, effectively, and economically supply power, heating, cooling, or hot water needs of houses,
buildings, and industrial plants for the surrounding region. The district energy conversion systems are an important technology to
addressing decreases in harmful gaseous, encouraging integrated systems, and providing delivery to the community in a reliable
way. The district energy conversion systems can be integrated with different power conversion techniques, such as conventional gas
or coal combustion chambers, reciprocating engines, Brayton and Rankine cycles, or industrial processes that produce excess heat.
Each chapter included in this volume covers sections, such as (1) introduction highlighting the importance of the topic;
(2) background/fundamentals providing further background information (when applicable) and fundamentals; (3) systems
and/or applications describing the systems and/or applications; (4) analysis and assessment providing the necessary analysis method
(s) for the system(s) and/or application(s) considered and their methods of assessment; (5) illustrative example(s) or case studies to
support the contribution for better understanding, for instance, the benefits, and implementation practices; (6) results and discussion
presenting the results of the contribution when applicable and relevant discussions in depth; (7) future directions discussing the
potential developments and future directions in the area; and (8) closing remarks stating only the key points and/or main findings.

4.31.2 Findings

The Role of Energy Conversion chapter presents various energy conversion methods including their importance and applications and
energy conversion methods from energy, economic, and environmental aspects. Illustrative examples include the understanding of
fundamentals of conversion, and different case studies are added to the analyses of the distinct energy conversion methods for
renewable energy-based integrated multigeneration systems. The main findings obtained from this chapter are as follows:

• Energy efficiency of trigeneration system is higher than the cogeneration system but the exergy efficiencies of the cogeneration
and trigeneration systems are almost same because of the exergy losses in the compressor of the heat pump.
• The high initial investment is one of the major challenges in the expansion and commercialization of the renewable-based
integrated multigeneration systems.
1238 Concluding Remarks

• Integrating two renewable energy resources is advantageous to generate multiple outputs with high efficiency. The transpor-
tation and effective utilization of the byproducts, such as hydrogen and other chemicals, are another challenge associated with
such systems.

The Heat Exchangers chapter provides information about the classification and types of HEXs, general information on the HEXs
selection process, design methods, and methodology. Also, this chapter presents general information on gasketed-plate heat
exchangers (GPHEXs) including advantages, utilization, plate geometries, and design. However, details of a GPHEX selection
software coded based on the correlations developed using experimental findings on several types of plates are explained.
Important remarks are given as follows:

• For HEX design, experiments are necessary; however, the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for fluid mechanics and
heat transfer simulations started to play an important role in their design process.
• Nanofluids have been offered as alternative high performance heat transfer fluids, which can be used in HEX
applications.
• Polymer HEXs have recently become popular mainly due to their enhanced resistance to fouling and corrosion, and advantages
related to weight and cost.

The Heat Pipes chapter describes the types and operation of different heat pipe designs, the optimal materials and heat transfer
fluids, their integration into HEXs and heat transfer and recovery systems, and presents a set of case studies of systems applied in
industries worldwide. The main outputs for this chapter are pointed out as follows:

• Each heat pipe acts as an additional buffer between the two fluids, significantly reducing the chance of failure states resulting in
cross contamination between the fluid streams.
• Use of smooth surfaced pipes allows exchangers to be used in high particulate or oily applications.
• Heat pipes eliminate cold corners and condensation, allowing greater energy recovery. Good design practices allow pipes to
freely expand and contract, exerting minimal thermal stress on the overall structure.

The Heat Pumps chapter provides a comprehensive coverage of heat pump systems including historical developments and the
technology classification and backgrounds. Also, some thermodynamic relations to assess their performances in terms of energetic
and exergetic aspects are included. Some important findings obtained from this chapter are as follows:

• Heat pumps are a suitable source of heat when combined with the district heating systems of the fourth generation and in case
of using the electricity from renewable sources. Optimization and technology integration of heat pump water heaters could
increase the coefficient of performance from a typical range of 1.8–2.5 to higher range of 2.8–5.5.
• Phase change material energy storage in heat pumps for space cooling production may be used for enhancing the performance
of heat pumps, shifting energy consumption to off-peak electricity periods, and preventing the oversizing of heat pumps in
periods of high cooling loads.
• Exergy analysis has been widely used as a useful tool for determining the locations, types, and true magnitudes of energy losses
in recent years while helping in the design of more efficient heat pump systems.
The Heat Engines chapter introduces various internal and external combustion engines, and power generation cycles, and
performs thermodynamic analyses and performance assessments with the use of energy and exergy analyses. Also, the historical
and technological evolution of each system is presented and sample problems and case studies are included to illustrate how to
perform the key analysis and performance assessment studies of the considered cycles. Some conclusions are obtained from this
chapter as follows:

• In heat engines, ammonia–water mixture brings a 7% improvement of the exergy efficiency with respect to the case with a
single type of working fluid, such as steam. In the case of cogeneration the cycle effectiveness may go up to 70%. This cycle can
be applied for low power/low temperature heat recovery from geothermal sources, ocean thermal energy conversion, solar
energy or process waste heat, etc.
• Pulse detonation engines can achieve higher thermodynamic limits compared to other internal combustion devices, such as
turbojets and turbofans, because the detonation wave promptly pressurizes the supplied fuel–air mixture causing heat upsurge
at constant volume.
• Wave disk engines have design simplicity and are also predicted to use five times less fuel compared to conventional internal
combustion engines due to their high efficiency. Also, osmotic heat engines are able to convert the low heat temperature
sources 40–1001C into power, which allows a beneficial use of the low temperature geothermal wells and enhanced geothermal
system.

The Gas Turbine Cycles chapter focuses on gas turbine cycles to discuss their historical developments and classifications, to
present their thermodynamic studies through energy and exergy approaches, to compare theoretical versus actual cycles and their
performances, and to develop analyses and assessments for integrated and combined systems. Also, sample problems and case
studies are included to illustrate how to perform the key analysis and performance assessment studies of the considered cycles and
investigate what operating parameters and conditions affect their performances and hence efficiencies. Important findings for this
chapter are pointed out as follows:
 Concluding Remarks 1239

• Besides the improvement on fuel flexibility, thermodynamic cycle technologies like recuperation, aftercooling, intercooling,
and cycle integration can enhance the performance of gas turbine based power plants at feasible costs.
• Integration of the Rankine cycle improves the overall system efficiency and power capacity significantly. Also, energy and exergy
losses at the cavern can be declined by installing more phase change material units.
• The efficiencies can be increased by arranging the configuration of the HEXs and selecting the phase change materials regarding
their melting temperature differences.

The Stirling Engines chapter provides detailed knowledge about Stirling engines and Stirling engine regenerators based on
background information, thermodynamics assessment, classification, applications, numerical and theoretical simulation, and
experimental studies. Also, two case studies are included as CFD simulation of 25 W Beta type Stirling engine and 1 kW double
acting type Stirling engine. Some important concluding remarks are given as follows:

• The maximum losses occur in regenerator in Stirling engines and they depend on the geometrical and physical properties of the
regenerator’s material. The constituting material and the porosity are the most influencing parameters for regenerator perfor-
mances. However, new material, such as graphite and carbon fiber, can give high thermal efficiency.
• The increase of initial charge pressure leads to an increase of working fluid mass, which increases the Stirling engine brake
power. Also, the increase of hot end temperature leads to an increase of the thermal exchanged energy, thus, the increase of
Stirling engine brake power.
• In the automotive applications, a significant part of the losses is in the form of heat evacuated by the cooling circuit and by the
exhaust gases. Several technical devices are possible to recover this energy, such as external combustion engines and Stirling
engines in particular.
The Steam and Organic Rankine Cycles (ORCs) chapter presents steam turbine cycles for power production processes and
applications with details ranging from basics to advanced topics along with the key concepts related to the Rankine cycle, which
are specifically described with fundamental and conceptual background information. Also, this chapter conducts thermodynamic
analyses and performance assessments and includes sample problems and case studies to illustrate how to perform the key
analysis and performance assessment studies of the considered cycles. Concluding remarks obtained from this chapter are as
follows:

• ORCs are mainly used for power production from renewables, such as solar, geothermal, or biomass, and WHR applications.
The simple structure of the Rankine cycle allows high power generation yet with a low thermal efficiency (around 40%). Hence,
to increase the system efficiency reheating, regeneration, and superheating methods are used.
• Alternative organic working fluids are introduced, which have high molecular mass with a boiling point at a lower temperature
than the water–steam phase change because operating range of Rankine cycles is limited by the thermodynamic properties
of water.
• The overall energy efficiency of a power plant can be increased by using a combined cycle. It is possible to reach around 60%
thermal efficiency with combined cycles by using gas–steam combined cycles and ORCs. Also, geothermal based ORCs
contribute the power production by ORC power stations by around 75%.

The Combined Energy Conversion Systems chapter introduces combined energy conversion processes, systems, and applica-
tions with details ranging from basic thermodynamic aspects to advanced applications. Also, this chapter categorizes and
describes the energy conversion systems with some fundamental background information and presents multiple examples and
case studies to show a wide range of systems for various applications. However, it includes numerous case studies to
investigate the analysis and performance for combined energy conversion systems. Important remarks for this chapter are
pointed out as follows:

• The combined energy conversion systems have better efficiency, better cost-effectiveness, better resource use, better environ-
ment, and hence better sustainability. Combined cycles have greater thermal efficiency besides their higher output power when
compared to gas turbine and steam cycles.
• Increasing of turbine inlet temperature and the compression ratio results in a higher rate of exergy destruction of the gas
turbine–solid oxide fuel cell (GT–SOFC) plant. However, increasing the turbine inlet temperature enhances the specific power
obtained from the cycle.
• Electricity generation by the TE generator grows with both the exhaust temperature and exhaust mass flow rate. TE devices are
environmentally friendly and easy to operate. Despite their low efficiencies, they are still useful tools for recovering heat for
individual cases.
The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles chapter covers the integrated coal and biomass gasification cycles for multi-
generation. In this scope the comprehensive introduction and background on energy and environmental issues and literature
background on integrated gasification methods, including gasification processes design, source selection, syngas production, and
integrated systems. Also, application methods on gasification, thermodynamic analysis procedure, overview of basic combined
and integrated gasification combined cycles based on thermodynamic principles, and detailed case studies of the integrated
gasification combined processes to support the contribution for better understanding of gasification based multigeneration are
given. Important findings for this chapter are pointed out as follows:
1240 Concluding Remarks

• Integrated energy systems for multigeneration are a promising technology for power, hydrogen, chemicals, fresh and/or hot
water production, heating and cooling application for rural areas. Capacities and performances of the integrated gasification
combined process depend on the design parameters of components.
• The small-scale gasification technologies for distributed production markets, including hydrogen generation, need to be
developed. Also, at high pressure and temperature ammonia produced from integrated gasification combined cycle must be
investigated for industrial use.
• The gas cleaning, tar cracking, or removal processes remain the largest problem in gasification cycles. The new processes for hot
gas cleaning, ammonia removal, and desulfurization from synthesis gaseous mixture must be investigated for more efficient
system design.
The Geothermal Energy Conversion chapter investigates geothermal energy conversion options, such as thermal, power,
hydrogen alternative fuels, fresh water, other commodities, and health options and application technologies. In the scope of
thermodynamics analysis, mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations of investigated processes are described. In the
case studies section, the possible utilization of energy and exergy assessment methods in different geothermal power systems,
and also geothermal energy-based double effect absorption cooling systems, and geothermal energy-based hydrogen pro-
duction and liquefaction systems are described and analyzed in detail. The following concluding outputs are given for this
chapter:

• Research works should be performed to resolve the lack of a reliable long term energy storage system for the application of
geothermal power systems, such as the liquid hydrogen storage system.
• The largest irreversibility in the geothermal power generation processes are associated with flashing, condenser, and
turbine. However, increasing the geofluid temperature, mass flow rate, and reference temperature increases the power
generation rate.
• The reference temperature increases the exergy efficiency. The geofluid temperature and mass flow rate increase the exergy
efficiency of direct, single flash, double flash, and triple flash geothermal power generation systems whereas they decrease the
exergy efficiency of binary cycle and combined geothermal power generation systems.

The Hydropower Conversion chapter represents the fundamentals and systems of hydropower based on historical,
climatic, hydrologic, engineering, and technological points of view. Also, this chapter supplies the fundamental of such imple-
mentations and provides a general forum for further hydropower plant ingredients and their practical applicability. However,
various technological aspects of HP energy generation are presented in a sequential manner including reservoir impoundments,
run-of-river, pumped storage, and other alternatives, such as tidal and wave powers, oscillating float, paddle, and snake, over-
topping wave systems, Tapchan model and small hydropower plants. Some important remarks from this chapter are pointed out
as follows:

• Renewable energy sources (hydropower, solar irradiation, wind, etc.) as effective energy technologies help tackle climate change
problems. Also, hydropower generation is the most mature, reliable, and cost-effective renewable power generation technology.
• HP energy is renewable, clean, and environment-friendly and it involves no fuel cost, balances energy prices, and has a long life-
span of about 200 years.
• The environmental and social problems can be alleviated by effective energy policies with consideration of renewable energy
sources, such as hydropower, solar, wind, biomass, wave, and geothermal energies, as well as the solar hydrogen energy
possibilities.

The Magnetic Energy Conversion chapter ensures comprehensive knowledge about the effect of magnetocaloric concept, mag-
netocaloric materials, and magnetic cooling principles. Also, basics of thermodynamic approach, comparison with a conventional
vapor compression cooling system, evaluation of advantageous and disadvantages and up to date investigations are examined.
Some concluding remarks relating to magnetic energy conversion are listed out as follows:

• The magnetocaloric system is more efficient and environmentally friendly than the conventional refrigeration cycle system
based on vapor compression. Coefficient of the performance (COP) for the system reaches 30%–60% theoretical efficiency of
Carnot cycle in the magnetic and electromagnetic energy conversion. Also, the efficiency of magnetic cooling system is high
because the system is reversible and has no inefficient parts, such as a compressor.
• Refrigeration systems based on the magnetocaloric effect can be up to 35% more energy-efficient than vapor compression
systems when the theoretical studies are taken into consideration. Also, high-energy density can be achieved in compact devices
in the magnetic cooling system.
• Magnetic materials can be used in magnetic coolers in rooms, for cancer therapy applications, heat pumps, and
microprocessors.

The Electromechanical Energy Conversion chapter presents the electromechanical conversion technologies in terms of the
operation principles of the conversion devices from transducers to rotating machines. Also, this chapter focuses on the description
of the energy sources, especially in renewable energy, energy storage, and associated technologies. Moreover, to provide a
systematics of the evolution of any conversion device to be built this chapter discusses the operation and design of electro-
mechanical energy conversion systems and devices in terms of thermodynamic principles. Also, three case studies are included
 Concluding Remarks 1241

relating with nanostructured systems and superconducting systems. Some important remarks are given for this chapter and are
listed as follows :

• Electromechanical energy conversion and associated devices are the driving force for maintaining a stable and continuous
development for the industry. Lower cost, reduced size, and improved performance have significant impact on renewable
energy systems, specifically in energy generation, conversion, and storage.
• To maximize the electrical energy harvested from the wind energy and to regulate the fluctuating input power converters are
used. Also, PV inverters are applied for efficiently converting the DC voltage for AC applications or integration of the output
energy into electrical grid in PV systems.
• Energy sources (especially renewable) and energy storage methods must be considered all together, while developing the
electromechanical energy conversion technology.

The Solar Cells chapter includes different generations of solar cells, their working principles, advantages and disadvantages,
engineering challenges, and their further improvement. In this scope background/fundamentals, systems, and/or applications are
presented in detail. Also, an illustrative example relating with fabrication and characterization of an inverted type solar cell is
added. Some conclusions are given as follows:

• The first generation solar cells have high power conversion efficiencies but they are rather expensive due to the complex
fabrication procedures. However, the second generation solar cells exhibit lower power conversion efficiencies as compared to
the first one but they are less expensive. On the other hand, third generation solar cells are low cost and are easily processed.
• Power conversion efficiency of hybrid solar cells employing Si/organic heterojunctions are comparable to that of second
generation solar cells. Also, liquid electrolyte based solar cells have high power conversion efficiencies but they technologically
suffer from leakage and evaporation of the electrolyte. However, solid state dye sensitized solar cells are not as efficient as the
liquid based dye sensitized solar cells.
• Among third generation solar cells perovskite solar cells have the highest power conversion efficiency and they are rather
comparable with the second generation solar cells. The only drawback behind their commercialization is their stability.

The Solar Ponds chapter concerns solar ponds, their historical developments, progresses made on solar pond methods, their
classifications, their performance assessment, experimental and theoretical studies, and case studies on various types of those
systems and applications. Thermodynamics analyses of solar ponds are performed and two case studies are presented to illustrate
the concepts, systems, analysis practices, and efficiency evaluations. The following concluding remarks are pointed out as follows:

• The solar pond’s performance is strongly affected by the temperature of the lower convective zone and the temperature profile with
respect to pond depth. The temperature profiles plotted with respect to pond depth for the sunny areas of the lower convective zone
are sensitive to wall shading and the presence of insulation, heat losses from the sides and bottom of the pond are negligibly small.
• Incident solar radiation, shading and reflection, transmission and absorption, as well as heat flows to surroundings and across
zones are labeled as the factors affecting the thermal performance of the solar pond. Also, the incident radiation, zone thicknesses,
shading areas of the zones, and overall heat losses seems to have an effect on the temperature of each layer of the solar pond.
• Heat losses from the upper zone, bottom and side walls, reflection, and shading areas in the nonconvective zone and heat
storage zone should be decreased in order to increase the efficiency for the storage zone of the pond.

The Solar Tower Systems chapter describes the technology of solar tower systems in detail, including specific performance
characteristics and their dependence on external conditions. In this scope, fundamentals, components and systems, analysis, and
assessments of solar tower systems are included. Also, a case study for a solar tower system and some examples of commercial solar
tower plants are presented. Some important conclusions relating to this chapter are pointed out as follows:

• Solar tower systems, like CSP systems in general, are still at a higher cost level than other renewables like PV or wind turbines.
However, with further technological development and deployment of additional plants, costs are expected to come down and
performance to be improved. On the other hand, the increase of the operating temperature of future solar tower systems is
considered one of the major challenges.
• Higher conversion efficiency results in smaller heliostat field size for the same power output and smaller heliostat field size
reduces investment cost.
• Because of the large temperature span of solar tower systems, the storage can be provided at relatively low cost. Battery storage might
provide the same flexibility in power supply to the grid. With actual cost figures solar thermal plants can offer this service at lower cost.

The Solar Fuels chapter presents the evolution and current development status of such CSP-aided hydrogen and/or syngas
production via redox-pair-based, water/carbon dioxide splitting (WS/CDS) thermochemical cycles. Also, various options and
routes with respect both to redox oxide materials chemistry, as well as to solar reactor concepts employed to render the WS/CDS
scheme solar-powered are given. Some important points from this chapter are pointed out as follows:

• Solar fuels production from such solar-aided, WS/CDS thermochemical cycles, even having been already successfully
demonstrated at bench- and pilot-scale, are still facing significant technical challenges.
• Despite the high-energy conversion efficiencies predicted from thermodynamic modeling studies, efficiencies actually achieved
experimentally are lower.
1242 Concluding Remarks

• Electrolysis using solar PV or CSP produced electricity is most likely the best benchmark technology so far for the production of
such solar fuels.
The Photovoltaic-Based Energy Conversion Systems chapter provides a comprehensive introduction and discussion of solar energy
systems, primarily focusing on PV-based energy conversion systems, namely, sole PV, PV/T, and CPV systems. Thermodynamic analyses
of PV-based energy conversion systems are performed and some examples are presented. Some conclusions are given as follows:

• Hydrogen can be produced by using solar energy, which includes solar thermochemical cycles, solar thermolysis, electrolysis,
photoelectrolysis, solar gasification and solar cracking, etc.
• PV systems have succeeded in quite high reductions in the cost, which is affected by three important factors, namely manu-
facturing plant size, the efficiency of the device, and raw silicon cost, with a learning rate of 20% for modules and about 12.5%
of the overall systems.
• Small-scale solar systems decrease the designing time and allow more adaptation and integration opportunities.

The Thermoelectric Energy Conversion chapter presents detailed theoretical modeling and characterization relating with TEC and
TEG. Also, two advanced technologies increasing the overall efficiencies of power generation namely two-stage TEG and heat pipe
assisted TEG are included. Moreover, a combined solar energy/heat pipe/thermoelectric hybrid (SHPTE) system providing both
power and hot water simultaneously are given as a case study. Some important key points for this chapter are pointed out as follows:

• In order to enhance the heat transfer rate between the heat source, TEG, and TEG cooling media interfaces, utmost con-
sideration should be given to the optimal design of the HEX/heat sink.
• Combining PV panel with the hot side of the TEG could enhance the PV’s power output and at the same time, additional power
can be generated by the TEG, contributing to the overall performance of the integrated system.
• A two-stage TEG system increases its overall conversion efficiency and power output. For example, heat pipe assisted TEG can
deliver 0.7% of thermal-to-electric efficiency with a temperature limit of 125oC for TEG.

The Photoelectrochemical Conversion chapter covers PEC energy conversion processes, systems, and applications with details
ranging from basics to advanced applications. PEC water splitting and measurement methods for PEC conversion are described
with some fundamental background information. PEC materials, such as membranes and photoelectrodes, are described. Also, a
case study investigating the analysis and performance for electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of a PEC hydrogen production
cell is given. The following concluding remarks for this chapter can be given as follows:

• The choice of suitable photoanode and/or photocathode materials is important for the optimum design of a PEC device.
• Concentrating the solar irradiation causes higher solar harvesting, so, concentrating the light affects the performance of the PEC
cell. Also, operating at higher current densities decreases the activation resistance but increases the effect of the mass transfer in
the PEC cells.
• The space charge width decreases in case of concentrated light of the semiconductor–electrolyte interface because of excitation
of charge carriers from the valence band to the conduction band.

The Electrochemical Energy Conversion chapter explains the electrochemical energy conversion systems, such as batteries, fuel
cells, and supercapacitors, in the scope of fundamental theory, background information, classification, analysis, and performance
assessment. The types of supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells are included for various applications and thermodynamic
analyses of fuel cell systems are performed. Also, a case study including the performance of a MCFC stack and illustrative example
covering the energy and exergy analyses of a PEM fuel cell power system are presented. The following remarks for this chapter are
pointed out as follows:

• When the operating temperature increases the energy and exergy efficiencies increase and activation and ohmic overpotentials
decrease significantly by rising temperature for PEM fuel cells. So, higher operation temperatures are preferred in the fuel cell
stack for higher efficiency and lower overpotentials.
• The direct energy conversion path eliminates the need for intermediate thermodynamic processes and results in higher con-
version efficiencies in comparison to traditional electric power generation systems.
• Supercapacitors represent a significant device to realize the power/energy gap between dielectric capacitors and batteries/fuel cells.
Also, supercapacitors have ultrahigh charge and discharge rate, outstanding stability, long cycle life, and very high power density.

The Solar Thermochemical Energy Conversion chapter presents detailed information on solar energy systems utilized for thermochemical
energy conversing processes from fundamentals to advanced cycles and from applications to case studies. Analysis and performance
assessment of different thermochemical cycles, such as sulfur iodine, copper chlorine, and magnesium chlorine, are performed. Four-
and five-step CuCl thermochemical cycles are given as an illustrative example and two case studies as solar-driven MgCl thermochemical
cycle and solar-driven CuCl thermochemical cycle are presented. Some important remarks for this chapter are given as follows:

• In order to reach the required temperature levels for thermochemical reactions, concentrated solar energy systems, namely
parabolic trough, parabolic dish, and central tower are commonly used for solar thermochemical applications.
• Concentrated solar energy can also be used for solar reforming, solar gasification, and solar cracking applications to convert
fossil fuels into clean and environmentally benign products.
 Concluding Remarks 1243

• The equivalent electrical requirement of the all configurations of the copper–chlorine cycle is nearly half of the required
electrical energy of the electrolysis process.

The Hydrogen Energy Conversion Systems chapter supply details knowledge about traditional and novel hydrogen energy con-
version systems from physical conversion to all chemical energy conversion options covering combustion and electrochemical
conversion. Some key points are given as follows:

• Better temperature management in hydrogen energy conversion systems enhance multigeneration potential, such as combined
heat and power.
• It is often possible to find another technology that may be either better, or less expensive, or more efficient, or more convenient,
but there is no other energy system (at least not based on presently known technologies) that can compare with the benefits
that the hydrogen energy system offers.
• Hydrogen energy system is a coherent, comprehensive, and permanent solution to global energy/economic/environmental
problems.

The Electrolyzers chapter provides different water electrolysis technologies for hydrogen production including the historical
development, theoretical thermodynamic and electrochemical principles, the electrode and electrolyte materials. Also, various
types of electrolyzers, and the current state-of-the-art applications and technologies, numerous illustrative examples covering
critical concepts and providing deeper understanding are given. A case study is also presented to demonstrate how the thermo-
dynamic and electrochemical models can be used to predict and evaluate the performance of a high-temperature solid oxide
electrolyzer. Moreover, the environmental impact and economics of electrolyzers are discussed in detail. The following remarks for
this chapter are pointed out as follows:

• Electrolysis is a well-established alternative that can produce hydrogen with zero or near-zero carbon emission.
• PEM electrolyzers having competitively high efficiency with much lower catalyst loading, which led to significant
reduction in the units’ cost. Also, the PEM electrolyzer has more potential to be exploited before it gains further
commercialization especially considering the high pressure operating flexibility and the high level of produced hydrogen
purity.
• High-temperature electrolyzers have high-energy conversion efficiency of this technology and high operating temperature
reduces the required electrical energy and eliminates the need for expensive catalysts. Also, high operating temperature creates
challenges associated with meeting the thermal energy requirement at high operating temperatures as well as the material
limitations and cell durability.

The Plasma Gasification Energy Conversion Systems chapter presents plasma thermal and chemical preparation of fuel to com-
bustion, plasma gasification of solid fuel, plasma gasification of coal of varied ranks, and plasma gasification of coal with different
oxidants based on the thermodynamics assessment and numerical and experimental studies. The following key points for this
chapter are pointed out as follows:

• Plasma technology for coal gasification allows the more efficient and environmentally acceptable use of coal. Also, plasma-
steam gasification is a promising method for hydrogen production through steam decomposition by carbon of a solid fuel.
• Plasma gasification energy conversion systems with a further development can be used for processing of municipal solid waste,
biomedical and toxic waste, solid radioactive waste and biomass, and waste of deep processing of oil.
• Complete plasma coal gasification converts the organic matter of coal to syngas. This syngas may be obtained with
a high calorific value by using steam as a plasma gas. Syngas produced by this technology can be used as a high potential
reducing agent in metallurgy, for synthesis of synthetic engine fuels, and high reactive combustible gas in heat-and-power
engineering.

The Pyrolysis Energy Conversion Systems chapter provides detailed information about the pyrolysis mechanism, critical parameters
in biomass pyrolysis, types of pyrolysis reactors, pyrolysis products, and torrefaction from fundamentals to advanced. The different
concluding outputs can be drawn from this chapter are as follows:

• Biochar can be utilized in various industrial processes whereas syngas from biomass pyrolysis could be a renewable alternative
fuel for internal combustion engines and industrial combustion processes. Also, bio-oil has the potential to be used as a fuel oil
substitute and as a transportation fuel replacing the conventional diesel fuel.
• Reaction atmosphere, temperature, heating rate, and vapor residence time are critical parameters in the biomass pyrolysis.
However, the type and the size of the reactor are determined depending on raw material (size, type), circumstances, time of the
pyrolysis, and final products.
• Pyrolysis process has a lower energy efficiency ratio, while additional energy is consumed during transportation and additional
bio-oil gasification stage. On the other hand, the products from the synthesis process include kerosene, diesel, gasoline,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and methane (synthetic natural gas (SNG)). These fuels present less environmental impact and
can be mixed with conventional fuels.

The Fundamentals of Fuel Cell Technologies chapter presents detailed information about various aspects of fuel cells, particularly
focusing on their types, materials, manufacturing methods and characterization techniques, system integration, examples, and
1244 Concluding Remarks

applications. The basic concepts and fundamental equations for thermodynamic and electrochemical aspects of fuel cells are
included with examples. Furthermore, the principles of fuel cell stack design including the calculations of pressure drop within a
flow field are discussed. Also, several illustrative examples and a case study on the mathematical modeling of fuel cells are
provided and discussed from various viewpoints. Some important concluding remarks may be listed as follows:

• Fuel cells are now ready for commercialization in various sectors, primarily including auto sector.
• Highly conductive, water insoluble, and chemically and mechanically stable membranes should be produced to enhance
durability, reduce cost, and improve performance of membranes.
Although the current polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells use the platinum group metals as the catalysts which are quite
costly, there is an intensive research on future fuel cells with low-cost catalysts.
The Bioenergy Conversion chapter includes conversion of solar radiation to internal energy (carbohydrate synthesis with pho-
tosynthesis), and then conversion of one form of internal energy (as stored in the glucose) to another form of internal energy (as
stored in fat), muscle work performance and entropy generation accompanying all of these activities based on background
information, systems, and thermodynamics assessment. Also, a lot of illustrative examples and case studies are given for better
understanding of bioenergy conversion. The following remarks from this chapter are pointed out as follows:

• Bioenergy conversion research has potential to contribute to the treatment of health problems and to improvement of the crop
yields in agriculture. Recent bioenergy conversion studies contribute to delay the symptoms of aging and heart attacks
depending on the comfort of the body.
• Energy uptake and allocation for variety of biological activities is controlled in numerous activities ranging between the cells to
whole body level with hormones.
• Imposing energy (calorie) restriction to the body may cause a slowing down of growth, decline of body fat, reduction of
immunologic and hormonal variations, increased damage/repair function, variations in gene expression, increased autophagy
and apoptosis, reduction in the body temperature/metabolic rate, and decreased reactive oxygen species.

The District Energy Conversion Systems chapter supplies detailed knowledge about various combined heat and power plants and
integrated district energy conversion systems and includes thermodynamic analysis and environmental impact analysis. Numerous
combined heat and power plants and integrated district energy conversion systems and their components are analyzed as detailed.
Also, three different integrated district energy conversion systems are described, modeled, and analyzed as case studies. Some
important remarks from this chapter are pointed out as follows:

• The district energy conversion systems are an important technology to address decreases in harmful gaseous, encouraging
integrated systems, and providing community needs delivery in a reliable way.
• The district energy conversion systems are generally designed to increase energetic performance and decrease energy con-
sumption. The capacities and efficiencies of the district energy conversion system depend on the design indicators of system
components.
• Waste heat must be used to maximize the energy efficiency of the power production system in the integrated district energy
conversion systems.

4.31.3 Closure

The Energy Conversion volume included within Comprehensive Energy Systems book series will be a unique source of information on
energy conversion systems, from traditional to novel, covering theory and applications. This volume covers a broad range of topics
on systems, processes, devices, and applications of energy conversion, such as HEXs, heat pipes, heat pumps, heat engines, gas
turbine cycles, Stirling engines, steam and ORCs, combined energy conversion systems, integrated gasification combined cycles,
geothermal energy, hydropower, magnetic energy, electromechanical energy, solar cells, solar ponds, solar tower, solar fuels, PV-
based energy conversion systems, TE, PEC, electrochemical, solar thermochemical, hydrogen, electrolyzers, plasma gasification,
pyrolysis, fuel cells, bioenergy, and district energy conversion systems. Each chapter of this volume includes introduction, back-
ground/fundamentals, systems and/or applications, analysis and assessment illustrative examples, practical applications, and case
studies to put theory into practice. Also, each chapter is prepared in an easy-to-follow style, starting from the fundamental concepts
and working to advanced systems and their applications making it suitable for use in the classroom. Moreover, each chapter
provides many study problems that foster critical thinking and skills development, with a wide range of applications, from basic to
integrated.