Nutritional Value of Fresh Leafy Vegetables as Affected by

Pre-harvest Factors
W.A.P. Weerakkody
Department of Crop Science
Faculty of Agriculture
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya 20400
Sri Lanka
Keywords: Leafy vegetables, fresh market, quality, nutritional value, functional value

Abstract
Leafy or salad vegetables are mainly eaten in fresh from. They are highly
diverse in species, varieties and agro-ecological requirements. Leafy vegetables are
high in water and moderate to high in vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre.
Conventionally, the external qualities and some internal qualities are the price
determinants of fresh leafy vegetables. However the present trend for the demand
for health food has created a substantial demand for internal qualities, especially
which are related to nutritional and functional values. In addition to the direct
nutritional value, the functional properties indirectly improve the human health.
However, the composition of anti-nutritional or toxic compounds sometimes makes
them inferior.
Genetic entity of the crop and the growing environment determine the
composition of nutritionally and functionally valuable compounds in leafy
vegetables. Basically the ontogenic stage and the plant part determine the
composition of vitamins, minerals and some anti-nutritional constituents such as
nitrates and oxalates. Then the environmental factors, predominantly temperature,
light and mineral nutrition at the late stages of crop growth highly influence the
composition of these compounds. Cultural requirements such as mulching,
irrigation, pest management and harvesting play a significant role in determining
the composition of nutritional value, especially in terms of dietary fibre and pesticide
residues.
Hence proper selection and control of environmental conditions and
management practices at pre-harvest stages is primarily needed for achieving the
goal of nutritionally and functionally high quality leafy vegetables.

LEAFY VEGETABLES; AN OVERVIEW

Leafy or salad vegetables or salad greens are vegetables whose leaves and petioles
only are eaten. They are mainly eaten in fresh forms and hence called leafy or salad greens
(Engle and Altoveros, 2000). More than eighty species of leafy vegetables are popularly
grown in the world. Among these leafy brassicas, lettuce and spinach are universally
popular. For examples, the world cultivation of cabbage and cauliflower amount to
1663000 and 396000 ha, respectively (AVRDC, 1990). Leafy vegetables are fast growing
and are short duration crops. They particularly thrive in the tropics and subtropics. Many
leafy vegetables mature in 30-40 days after sowing and therefore are favourable crops for
inclusion into various types of vegetable production systems such as field vegetable
cultivation, protected cropping, home gardening and market gardening. Hence they are
grown under diverse agro-climatic conditions and management practices.
Leafy vegetables are excellent sources of vitamins A and C, minerals and fibres
(Larkcom, 1991). Leafy vegetables are high in water and moderate to high in vitamin and
minerals. They are considered as excellent nutritional sources of vitamins A, B, C and E,
Ca, Fe, P and K. High water and dietary fibre contents of leafy vegetables attribute for
greater digestive properties. The US National Cancer institute reports that foods rich in
Vitamins A and C have been associated with reduced risk of certain cancers. Leafy

Proc. Int. Conf. Quality in Chains

Eds. Tijskens & Vollebregt 511
Acta Hort. 604, ISHS 2003
vegetables are very low in calories and sodium, and are free of fat and cholesterol. Hence,
the need for vegetable green food is being greatly emphasised. However, the composition
of oxalates, nitrates, heavy metals and pesticide residues make them inferior due to anti-
nutritional or toxic effects.
Since leafy vegetables are grown under numerous agro-climatic conditions and
management practices, pre-harvest factors highly influence on the nutritional properties.
Therefore, pre-harvest crop management to obtain quality fresh produce appeared to be is
very much important for ensuring nutritional quality and functional properties in food
chains.
External qualities and some internal qualities of vegetables are conventional price
determinants of fresh leafy vegetables. However the present trend of high popularity for
health food has created a substantial demand for internal qualities, especially which are
related to the nutritional and functional values. Therefore studies on the factors affecting
nutritional value will be highly prospective for the future improvements of fresh market
leafy vegetables.
NUTRITIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
Various aspects of nutritionally important constituents in vegetables have been
studied recently (AVRDC, 1990). However, their significance as quality parameters is not
emphasised. Leafy vegetables share common nutritional characteristics. They are high in
water and fibre contents, lower in carbohydrates and proteins, and moderate to high in
some vitamins and minerals. All are good or excellent sources of vitamins A and C,
calcium, iron, phosphorus and potassium (Engle and Altoveros, 2000).
Ascorbic acid is involved in synthesis of collagen tissue, metabolism of metal
ions, anti-histamine reactions and enhancement of the human immune system (Combs,
1992). In many leafy vegetables, lutein, β-carotine, α-carotenes, riboflavin, thiamine and
niacin that are responsible for healthy skin, bone, gastrointestinal and respiratory systems
are abundant (Kurilich et al., 1999) and the anti-oxidant activity of some of these
compounds has the potential to prevent malignant diseases, especially the reduced risk of
cancer (Byers and Perry, 1992). Vitamin E activity of the tocopherols is important for
maintaining stable cell membranes and preventing oxidative damages to tissues (Combs,
1992). Broccoli and Brussels sprout contain the highest level of γ-tocopherol and α-
tocopherol, respectively among leafy vegetables. Together with vitamins, some fatty
acids, amino acids, polyphenols, flavanoids, anthocyanins, glucosinates, other carotenoids
and several other substances generate various functional properties through anti-oxidant
effects and membrane modifications (Hurst, 2002). Hence they improve the human health
by reducing the risk of cancer, heart failure and various degenerative diseases.
In addition to the nutritional and health promoting attributes of the above
constituents, vitamins and minerals together with sugars, amino acids, organic acids and
lipids, play important roles in the formation of other quality characteristics of vegetables.
For example, the composition of sugars, organic acids and volatile compounds determine
the flavour properties of tomatoes. High sugar and high acid contents generally have a
favourable effect on taste (White & Harris, 1985). Pyruvic acid is responsible for the
pungency while mineral sulphur makes the specifics flavour of onions (Jawaharlal &
Veeraragavaththathm, 1988).
ANTI-NUTRITIONAL SUBSTANCES
Several chemical constituents that are intrinsically synthesised (such as oxalate) or
found as residues of applied agro-chemicals (nitrate and traces of pesticides) have anti-
nutritional properties or toxic effects. Some residues are carcinogenic while others cause
various health hazards especially in respiratory and digestive systems due to toxicity.
(Libert and Franceschi, 1987). Elevated nitrate content in leafy vegetables represents a
potential health hazard (methemoglobinemia), especially for children (Custic, 1994).
Leafy vegetables are important sources of oxalates and nitrates (NO3) (Reinink and Blom-
Zanstra, 1989). Continuous use of pesticides on vegetables and other perishable crops

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leads to the retention of residues exceeding maximum permissible limits (Van Assche,
1988).
FACTORS AFFECTING THE NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES
Vitamin content in leafy vegetables could be variable with the intra-species genetic
nature, position of the plant and the ontogenic stage of crop. For example, the leaf
ascorbic acid of spinach increases up to 5th week (Weerakkody, 1994) while the
composition of carotenoids increases with maturity in foliage and fruits and decreases in
plant parts distal to the apex of the shoot (Hopp et al., 1960; Bauernfeind, 1972). However
in lettuce and spinach, β carotene content decreases with increasing fresh weight (Oyama et
al., 1999). Furthermore, Ca and Mg composition of spinach leaves are higher than the
petioles (Weerakkody, 1994)
Regarding the pre-harvest climatic factors, leaf Ca and Mg and ascorbic acid
(vitamin C) compositions of spinach (Spinacea oleracea) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
increases with minor reductions in temperature and high light intensities due to climatic or
weather changes. (Weerakkody, 1994; Oyama et al., 1999). Alfa tocopherol composition in
green vegetables is also influenced by light where an UV stress for five minutes increases
the composition (Higashio et al., 1999). Meanwhile the composition of P and Fe in spinach
foliage increases under relatively warm and dry weather (Weerakkody, 1994).
The leaf vitamin C concentrations of cauliflower, lettuce and spinach show a
negative relationship with the increasing N fertilisation (Sorensen, 1984; Muller & Hippe,
1987). Meanwhile, nitrogen depletion shortly before harvesting improves vitamin C
content in lettuce (Mozafar, 1996). In contrast, in some varieties, with higher nitrate
contents, more vitamin C and β carotene are accumulated as a protection against possible
contamination by nitrates (Lazic et al., 1997). In kale and white cabbage, dietary fibre
content increases under high N fertilisation mulching and irrigation (Chewya, 1984;
Sorensen, 1984; Elkner and Kaniszewski, 1995). K nutrition positively influences ascorbic
acid content in cauliflower and spinach (Muller and Hippe, 1987). Regarding the sources
of plant nutrients, plants grown in organic fertilisers often contain higher concentrations of
vitamin B such as thiamine and cyanocobalamine in spinach leaves (Mosafer, 1996).
FACTORS AFFECTING ANTI-NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES
Primarily nitrate accumulation in leaves is genetically determined. For example,
the nitrate composition in spinach leaves is greater than petioles (Weerakkody, 1994). The
factors such as leaf age and the position of the leaf also influence this. The concentration
of nitrate is lower in very young leaves as compared to the older leaves (Mozafar, 1996;
Greenwood and Hunt, 1986).
The response of light on nitrate composition is highly variable with different
species. Generally low light intensity (high shade) results in high levels of nitrates in the
foliage but spinach, harvested under sunny conditions contains more nitrates (Wu and
Wang, 1995). High light intensity or night illumination of the plants reduces the nitrate
content of lettuce (Steingrover et al., 1993; Roorda van Eysinga, 1984). Oxalates in spinach
leaves are variable with diurnal weather conditions where low oxalate composition can be
found in leaves harvested in the evening (Weerakkody 1994). However, there are reports
on positive influence of day length on water soluble and total oxalates of spinach,
Sengbush et al., (1965).
With regard to the influence of plant nutrition, oxalate accumulation is accelerated
under increased K and Ca nutrition. However, the ratio of calcium oxalate to other water-
soluble oxalates decreases under high K nutrition in plants (Liberty and Franceschi,
1987). Excessive nitrogen supply leads to the accumulation of nitrates in foliage of
vegetables such as lettuce and parsley (Roorda van Eysinga, 1984; Muller & Hippe, 1987;
Huett, 1989). At the same time split fertilisation of N as pre-plant and side-dressing
results in lower nitrate composition in parsley as compared to side dressings only (Rumple
and Kaniszewski, 1994). Other nutrients such as Ca and K in re-circulating type
hydroponics positively influence the nitrate accumulation in Chinese cabbage.

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 Meanwhile, the level of pesticide residues is basically a function of the application
rates. Lower level of pesticide residues that is found in organically produced vegetables is
obviously an effect of low application rates (Woese et al., 1997). In addition, weather, the
persistent nature of the chemical and time of harvesting (with respect to time of application)
also determine the residue levels. However, reliable information on the influence of other
environmental factors on the retention on pesticides is not available.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Many factors control the nutritional values of fresh leafy vegetables. Prioritising of
nutritional properties, based on the genotypic control, in crop improvement programs
would be primarily important in reaching the goal of nutritionally and functionally
valuable leafy vegetables.
Then it will be necessary to streamline crop management under distinct
environmental conditions and production intensities. In this regard, adjustment of
cropping calendar or greenhouse conditions can be done to suit with the low temperature
and high light levels at the harvesting stage of lettuce and spinach. This can be further
intensified by careful management of N, K and Ca nutrition at different growth stages.
Especially low N, low Ca and moderate K levels are suitable to accumulate high levels of
ascorbic acid and β carotene and low levels of nitrates and oxalates of many leafy
vegetables. For the management of plant nutrients, split application of fertilisers, use of
organic manure or advanced fertigation methods can be selected, depending on the intensity
of cropping system (production technologies). Furthermore, other cultural practices such as
mulching, irrigation and integrated pest management are also very useful in gaining leafy
vegetables with an overall nutritional value. Finally selection of proper maturity and plant
part for harvesting is vital for the composition of most vitamins, minerals and toxic
compounds.
Apart from all the effort on upgrading leafy vegetables for high nutritional and
functional properties, the importance of devising market-orientated production together
with nutritional value based quality assurance scheme should be emphasised at this point
for the long-term viability of this new generation of horticultural produce.
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