Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) EBB424E Dr. Sabar D. Hutagalung School of Materials & Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia| Transistors Two main categories of transistors: a_ bipolar junction transistors (BUTs) and a field effect transistors (FETs). Transistors have 3 terminals where the application of current (BUT) or voltage (FET) to the input terminal increases the amount of charge in the active region. The physics of "transistor action" is quite different for the BUT and FET. In analog circuits, transistors are used in amplifiers and linear regulated power supplies. In digital circuits they function as electrical switches, including logic gates, random access memory (RAM), and microprocessors.| The First Transistor: Point-contact transistor A point-contact transistor was the first type of solid state electronic transistor ever constructed. It was made by researchers John Bardeen & Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Laboratories in December 1947. Fist commercially available point-contact transistor The point-contact transistor was commercialized and sold by Western = Electric and others but was rather SF quickly superseded by the junction transistor.| The Junction Transistor = First BUT was invented early in 1948, only weeks after the point contact transistor. = Initially known simply as the junction transistor. = It did not become practical until the early 1950s. = The term “bipolar” was tagged onto the name to distinguish the fact that both carrier types play important roles in the operation. = Field Effect Transistors (FETs) are “unipolar” transistors since their operation depends primarily on a single carrier type.| Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) = A bipolar transistor essentially consists of a pair of PN Junction diodes that are joined back-to-back. There are therefore two kinds of BJT, the NPN and PNP varieties. The three layers of the sandwich are conventionally called the Collector, Base, and Emitter.The First BJT Transistor Size (3/8”L X 5/32”W X 7/32”H) No Date Codes. No Packaging.Modern Transistors| BJT Fabrication = BJT can be made either as discrete devices or in planar integrated form. = In discrete, the substrate can be used for one connection, typically the collector. = In integrated version, all 3 contacts appear on the top surface. a The E-B diode is closer to the surface than the B-C junction because it is easier make the havier doping at the top.BJT Structure - Discrete B c ° c B C & Substrate p-n-p BUT = Early BUTs were fabricated using alloying - an complicated and unreliable process. = The structure contains two p-n diodes, one between the base and the emitter, and one between the base and the collector.BJT Structure - Planar p-base diffusion ttt n+ emitter diffusion ot | —_rsioq 4 The “Planar Structure” developed by Fairchild in the late 50s shaped the basic structure of the BUT, even up to the present day. = Inthe planar process, all steps are performed from the surface of the wafer= BJTs are usually constructed vertically a Controlling depth of the emitter’s n doping sets the base width| Advanced BJT Structures = The original BUT structure survived, practically unchanged, since the mid 60’s. As the advances in MOS development om sO applied some of the fabrication technology are a to the BUT. a oocod Low defect epitaxy lon implant Plasma etching (dry etch) LOCOS (local oxidation of Si) Polysilicon layers Improved lithography| Isolation Methods = The most significant advances in reducing overall device size and packing density have come from improved isolation methods. = The traditional junction isolation technique requires the p+ deep diffusion to be aligned to the n+ buried layer that is covered by a thick epitaxial layer. = The area (and hence junction capacitance) is determined by alignment tolerance, area for side diffusion, and allowance for the spread of the depletion region. = Modern isolation techniques: oxide isolation, and trench isolation.| Oxide & Trench Isolation = Oxide isolation processes were intorduced in the late 70's. They utilize wet anisotropic etch (KOH) of the <100> Si wafer with Si,N, as mask. = The KOH etch will erode the <111> plane. Oxide is either deposited or grown to fill the V-grooves. = The base and emitter are formed on the large mesa and the collector on the small mesa. = To further reduce the area between adjacent mesa, trench isolation can be used, making use of trench etching. = The trench is typically 2m wide and Sum deep. The trench walls are oxidized and the remaining volume is filled with polysilicon.| Double Poly Transistors = A further extension of the self-aligned BUT structure is to use double polysilicon (n+ for emitter, p+ for base) to reduce the area required for contacts. ptpoly p-baze implant tii n+ poly,Example of BJT Specification Sheet MMBT3904 PZT39 ALO NPN General nee Amplifier| How the BJT works Emiter | Base | Collector NPN Bipolar Transistor Figure shows the energy levels in an NPN transistor under no externally applying voltages. In each of the N-type layers conduction can take place by the free movement 01 electrons in the conduction band. In the P-type (filling) layer conduction can take place by the movement of the free holes in the valence band. However, in the absence of any externally applied electric field, we find that depletion zones form at both PN- Junctions, so no charge wants to move from one layer to another.| How the BJT works Emitter | Base N P Collector N Apply a Collector-Base voltage What happens when we apply a moderate voltage between the collector and base parts. The polarity of the applied voltage is chosen to increase the force pullin: the N-type electrons and P- type holes apart. This widens the depletion zone between the collector and base and so no current will flow. In effect we have reverse- biassed the Base-Collector diode junction.| Charge Flow Apply an Emitter-Base voltage What happens when we apply a relatively small Emitter-Base voltage whose polarity is designed to forward- bias the Emitter-Base junction. This ‘pushes' electrons from the Emitter into the Base region and sets up a current flow across the Emitter- Base boundary. Once the electrons have managed to get into the Base region they can respond to the attractive force from the positively-biassed Collector region. As a result the electrons which get into the Base move swiftly towards the Collector and cross into the Collector region. Hence a Emitter-Collector current magnitude is set by the chosen Emitter-Base voltage applied. Hence an external current flowing in the circuit.| Charge Flow Some electron fall into a hole Some of free electrons crossing the Base encounter a hole and ‘drop into it’. As aresult, the Base region loses one of its positive charges (holes). The Base potential would become more negative (because of the removal of the holes) until it was negative enough to repel any more electrons from crossing the Emitter-Base junction. The current flow would then stop.| Charge Flow Some electron fall into a hole To prevent this happening we use the applied E-B voltage to remove the captured electrons from the base and maintain the number of holes. The effect, some of the electrons which enter the transistor via the Emitter emerging again from the Base rather than the Collector. For most practical BUT only about 1% of the free electrons which try to cross Base region get caught in this way. Hence a Base current, /p, which is typically around one hundred times smaller than the Emitter current, /¢.| Terminals & Operations - rs = Three terminals: E a Base (B): very thin and lightly doped central region (little recombination). a Emitter (E) and collector (C) are two outer regions sandwiching B. = Normal operation (linear or active region): a B-E junction forward biased; B-C junction reverse biased. a The emitter emits (injects) majority charge into base region and because the base very thin, most will ultimately reach the collector. a The emitter is highly doped while the collector is lightly doped. a The collector is usually at higher voltage than the emitter.| Terminals & Operations Em : { a I< + Emitter “emits” holes pnp Base Collector n P Colle npn emi Narrow Base controls number of holes emitted ctor “collects” holes itted by the emitter Base P Collector n Feec Emitter “emits” electron is + a5 Collector “collects” electrons Narrow Base controls number of electrons emitted emitted by the emitterOperation Mode Operation Biasing polarity Biasing polarity mode B-E junction B-C junction Saturation Forward 7 Forward Cutoff ___ Reverse __ _ Reverse _ * Note: There is also a mode of operation called inverted (active), which is rarely used. Active: Most widely encountered operation, e.g., as amplifiers. Large signal gain, small signal distortion (i-v: flat region) Saturation: Equivalent to an on state when BuT is used as a Switch High current flow, Low voltage (in digital circuit “zero” logic level) Cutoff: Equivalent to an off state when BUT is used as a Switch Low current flow, High voltage (in digital circuit “one” logic level)Emitter Base region region | Operation Mode | |r Base (6) = Active: a Most importance mode, e.g. for amplifier operation. a The region where current curves are practically flat. = Saturation: a Barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other out causing a virtual short. a Ideal transistor behaves like a closed switch. = Cutoff: a Current reduced to zero a Ideal transistor behaves like an open switch.Operation Mode Vep (pnp) Vie (npn) Four BJT operation modes vs. input and output voltage combinations (i.e. Operational modes can be defined based on Base-Emitter voltage and Base-Collector voltage) Regions of the BJT CE output characteristics associate with the four operation modes. When Base current flows, a Collector current can flow. The device is then a current When there is no Base current, almost no Collector current flows.BJT in Active Mode Forward-biased Reverse-hiased +L recombined = Operation = ie “tat a Forward bias of EBJ injects electrons from emitter into base (small number of holes injected from base into emitter) a Most electrons shoot through the base into the collector across the reverse bias junction (think about band diagram) a Some electrons recombine with majority carrier in (P-type) base regionCircuit Symbols pnp npn Two of the currents and two of the voltages are independent. If two of the currents or voltages are known, third terminal current or voltage is determined. Current flowing into a device = current flowing out of device (Wer = - Vac)Circuit Configuration Common-Base (CB) Common-Emitter (CE) Common-Collector (CC) input = Vi, & I, input = V,, &/, input = Voy & I, output = Veg & Ic output = Voy & Ie output = Vo, & I, VeeBand Diagrams (In equilibrium) = No current flow = Back-to-back PN diodes Emitter Base Collector _f N—:Band Diagrams (Active Mode) = EBJ forward biased a Barrier reduced and so electrons diffuse into the base a Electrons get swept across the base into the collector = CBJ reverse biased a Electrons roll down the hill (high E-field) Emitter Base Collector e9000 20006 29989 © ee008 e\,Minority Carrier Concentration Profiles Emitter EB Base CB! Collector (a) depletion o depletion «n) Be region 1 | F Electron I concentration I ny (ideal) Hole In, 0) 1 1 i 1 i 1 i i 1 p 1 I I i 1 I vw thy = Current dominated by electrons from emitter to base (by design) b/c of the forward bias and minority carrier concentration gradient (diffusion) through the base » some recombination causes bowing of electron concentration (in the base) + base is designed to be fairly short (minimize recombination) » emitter is heavily (sometimes degenerately) doped and base is lightly doped = Drift currents are usually small and neglectedDiffusion Current Through the Base 4 iver BY Bae cB} Callcoe (e)depetion o epeion We) : ‘eon ‘exon E a \ a thy tron | : I I i ' | 4 Hole I) ! 5} conenation 1"” I q | | I 4 4 = Diffusion of electrons through the base is set by concentration profile at the EBU ip(0) = npoeree/Ye « Diffusion current of electrons through the base is (assuming an ideal straight line case); In = ApoD, 2) = Apap, (2 da W = Due to recombination in the base, the current at the EBJ and current at the CBJ are not equal and differ by a base current| Collector Current = Electrons that diffuse across the base to the CBJ junction are swept across the CBJ depletion region to the collector b/c of the higher potential applied to the collector. ic = I,e’®*/"? where the saturation current is Is = gAgDanpo/W and we can rewrite the saturation current a: = Note that i, is independent of vc; (potential bias across CBJ) ideally = Saturation current is a inversely proportional to Wand directly proportional to Ae = Want short base and large emitter area for high currents a dependent on temperature due to n?termCollector Current seni gon = Electrons that diffuse across the base the CBJ depletion region to the collect to the collector. ic = I,e"®®/T where the sature and we can rewrite the saturation cur Sma 20mA 1SmA 10mA c Active region 250 uA. 200 A. 150 yA 100 pA 1,=50 nA, = Note that i, is independent of vc; (potential bias across CBJ) ideally = Saturation current is a inversely proportional to Wand directly proportional to Ae = Want short base and large emitter area for high currents a dependent on temperature due to n?term VaxCollector Current ( oe 250 WA = Electrons that diffuse across the base **™* the CBJ depletion region to the collect 20ma 200 pA to the collector. 15mA 150 uA 10mA 100 yA ic = I,e"8®/YT where the satur: 1,=50 uA, e and we can rewrite the saturation cur Vs Vm (Ve ke Saturation region = Note that i, is independent ¢ jon. [ Hen tO nA: = Saturation current is inversely proportional to ae = Want short base and a dependent on temperatur Ve Vn VeBase Current = Base current i, composed of two components: a holes injected from the base region into the emitter region im = gArDyn? NpLp a holes supplied due to recombination in the base with diffusing electrons and depends on minority carrier lifetime 1, in the base evaelVr And the Q in the base is So, current is dAnDyn? = Total base current is ig= ( Nat NoLp| Beta = Can relate j; and ic by the following equation to Is vgn /Vr ig= BB andi Bis P~ DeNaW ye Dn Np Lp | 2 Dpto a Beta is constant for a particular transistor a On the order of 100-200 in modern devices (but can be higher) a Called the common-emitter current gain = For high current gain, want small W, low Ny, high NpEmitter Current = Emitter current is the sum of jg and ig ip=ict+ig ign thy E B C ic = aig where a = —— Cee B+1 a is called the common-base current gain| I-V Characteristics Var/Vr Io = Ise ‘ I fe [> Vers * Voe [—————_ Vee Voea = Voce Pe Veer = Collector current vs. Vgg shows the BuT looks like a current source (ideally) a Plot only shows values where BCJ is reverse biased and so BUT in active region = However, real BUTs have non-ideal effectsI-V Characteristics 25 20 | 15, a } 200 Veg Base-emitter junction looks Collector-emitter is a family of like a forward biased diode curves which are a function of base current.| I-V Characteristics i, =i, +i, ¢ i, boy a=s Bes Veg I, Vee | oy te E Since qis less than unity then 2 will be greater than unity and there is current gain from base to collector.‘Example 100 p14 Calculate the values of 8 and a from the transistor shown in the previous graphs. B=i,/ i, = 50/Sm = 100 a= 8 /(+1) = 100/101 = 99| Early Effect Saturation region ¢— Active region — Vees Ic = Ise¥82/V ( + In oe = Early Effect a a a a a Current in active region depends (slightly) on vce V, is a parameter for the BUT (50 to 100) and called the Early voltage Due to a decrease in effective base width W as reverse bias increases Account for Early effect with additional term in collector current equation Nonzero slope means the output resistance is NOT infinite, but... = [gis collector current at the boundary of active region| Early Effect = What causes the Early Effect? a Increasing Vog causes depletion region of CBJ to grow and so the effective base width decreases (base-width modulation) a Shorter effective base width > higher dn/dx EBJ CBJCommon-emitter Collector Emitter It is called the common-emitter configuration because (ignoring the power supply battery) both the signal source and the load share the emitter lead as a common connection point.| Common-collector Emitter Base —+ VBE Cc Collector Itis called the common-collector configuration because both the signal source and the load share the collector lead as a common connection point. Also called an emitter follower since its output is taken from the emitter resistor, is useful as an impedance matching device since its input impedance is much higher than its output impedance.| Common-base This configuration is more complex than the other two, and is less common due to its strange operating characteristics. Used for high frequency applications because the base separates the input and output, minimizing oscillations at high frequency. It has a high voltage gain, relatively low input impedance and high output impedance compared to the common collector.Collector Resistance, r- » rc decrease the ; slope of the curve in Ic ideal the saturation region. » In active mode, the current is dependent on le » rc can limit the current-handling capability and f,,.. real model VoeEmitter Resistance, 7, In Ie, » The main effect of re is a In le reduction of the Vee by a factor of Jere. » reis equivalent to a base resistance of (1 + Br)re Therefore it affects the collector current as well. » re also complicates the determination of re, and Ic if Tc is low.| Base Resistance, ry = Mainly effects small-signal and transient responses. = Difficult to measure since it depends on bias condition and is influenced by rz. = In the Ebers-Moll model (SPICE’s default model for BUTs), rg is assumed to be constant.| Breakdown Voltages = The basic limitation of the max. voltage in a transistor is the same as that in a pn junction diode. = However, the voltage breakdown depends not only on the nature of the junction involved but also on the external circuit arrangement. = In Common Base configuration, the maximum voltage between the collector and base with the emitter open, BV go is determined by the avalanche breakdown voltage of the CBJ. = In Common Emitter configuration, the maximum voltage between the collect and emitter with the base open, BV ceo can be much smaller than BV ogo.Breakdown Voltages In general, BVceo is related to BVceo by the following expression, BV ce = BVepo1—@ © BV eno / YE The typical value ofnis jf, between 2 to 4 in silicon In general, the actual breakdown voltage is between BVceo and BV ceo, depending on the external resistance seen by the base, Rs. BV ceo BV cs0Breakdown Voltages For a planar abrupt p*n junction, the avalanche breakdown voltage is given by é58E, nt 2qgNp BV = where Ecrt is the critical electric field, and No is the doping concentration for the low doping region.Breakdown Voltages E n rp B Punch-through breakdown AS Veg (Or Voce) increases, the depletion region will continue to spread into the base region. If the base become completely depleted, the depletion region from the collector and emitter touch each other, resulting in a short between the n+ and n regions.| BJT Analysis a | = Here is a rei common emitter BUT ed we vm amplifier: wa 4 { = What are the a steps? a Vee| Input & Output Ro Sk | t+ Ra + ++ Ny = Vor tov == Veo i ee in (A) a Y ee 1.6V - eile t = We would want to know the collector current (ic), eo lecior-emitier voltage (Vo), and the voltage across = To get this we need to fine the base current (ig) and the base-emitter voltage (Vg¢).Input Equation Re = 2k le , Re + tt 4 We Voe tov = Veo 50k fe + Vin (A) T 1.6V i Ale Vee = To start, let’s write Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) around the base circuit. Vi) + Veg =i,(ORs + V5.0| Output Equation Likewise, we can write KVL around the collector circuit. . . . Vec=i(ORe + Ved)| Use Superposition: DC & AC soutces = Note that both equations are written so as to calculate the transistor parameters (i.e., base current, base-emitter voltage, collector current, and the collector-emitter voltage) for both the DC signal and the AC signal sources. = Use superposition, calculate the parameters for each separately, and add up the results: a First, the DC analysis to calculate the DC Q-point = Short Circuit any AC voltage sources = Open Circuit any AC current sources a Next, the AC analysis to calculate gains of the amplifier. = Depends on how we perform AC analysis a Graphical Method a Equivalent circuit method for small AC signals| BJT - DC Analysis = Using KVL for the input and output circuits and the transistor characteristics, the following steps apply: 1. Draw the load lines on the transistor characteristics 2. For the input characteristics determine the Q point for the input circuit from the intersection of the load line and the characteristic curve (Note that some transistor do not need an input characteristic curve.) 3. From the output characteristics, find the intersection of the load line and characteristic curve determined from the Q point found in step 2, determine the Q point for the output circuit.Base-Emitter Circuit Q point is amps Vz ip B =1.6 0k = 32pA 9. © -0 0 010203040506070809 1 111213161518 1712 224 V gg volts First let’s set V7,() =0 to get the Q-point for the BJT. We start with the base circuit. Veg ipRs + Var And the intercepts occur at ig = 0; Vge = Vgg = 1.6 V and at Vgg = 03 ig = Vpg/ Rp = 1.6 /SOk = 32uA The Load Line intersects the Base-emitter characteristics at Veco = 0.6 VCollector-Emitter Circuit Q point Now that we have the Q-point for the base circuit, let's proceed to the collector circuit. Voie t+ Vee = 5.90. Veeg eo 2 4 $ sn veg volts VCC =10v The intercepts occur at i. = 0; Veg = Vee = 10 V3 and at Vp = 03 i= Vee! Re =10/2k =5mA The Load Line intersects the Collector-emitter characteristic, j,= 20 A at Voeq = 9.9 Vand Ig = 2.5mA, then B = 2.5m/20 p = 125| BJT DC Analysis - Summary Calculating the Q-point for BUT is the first step in analyzing the circuit To summarize: a We ignored the AC (variable) source = Short circuit the voltage sources = Open Circuit the current sources a We applied KVL to the base-emitter circuit and using load line analysis on the base-emitter characteristics, we obtained the base current Q-point a We then applied KVL to the collector-emitter circuit and using load line analysis on the collector-emitter characteristics, we obtained the collector current and voltage Q-point This process is also called DC Analysis We now proceed to perform AC Analysis| BJT - AC Analysis = How do we handle the variable source V/,(t) ? = When the variations of V,,(t) are large we will use the base-emitter and collector-emitter characteristics using a similar graphical technique as we did for obtaining the Q-point. = When the variations of V,,(t) are small we will shortly use a linear approach using the BUT small signal equivalent circuit.| BJT - AC Analysis = Let's assume that V,,(f) = 0.2 sin(w?). = Then the voltage sources at the base vary froma maximum of 1.6 + 0.2 = 1.8 V to a minimum of 1.6 - 0.2=14V = We can then draw two “load lines” corresponding the maximum and minimum values of the input sources = The current intercepts then become for the: a Maximum value: 1.8 / 50k = 36 pA a Minimum value: 1.4 / 50k = 28 pAAC Analysis Base-Emitter Circuit ts amps V gg Volts From this graph, we find: At Maximum Input Voltage: Vee = 0.63 V, ig = 24 UA At Minimum Input Voltage: Vag = 0.59 V, ig = 15 UA Recall: At Q-point: Vag = 0.6 V, ig = 20 pA “load line” for maxin input voltage “load line” for minimum input voltage 0-0. 0 010203040506070209 1 1112131415 16 17 18 Note the asymmetry around the Q- point of the Max and Min Values for the base current and voltage which is due to the non-linearity of the base-emitter characteristics Alamax = 24-20 = 4 pA; Ajgmin = 20-15 = 5 WAAC Analysis Base-Emitter Circuit 0-0 32 “load line” for minimum input voltage “load line” for maximum input voltage © 0 010203040506 070209 1 11121314 151617 18 1 V pe volts 18 16 14 12 1 oa 08 4 02 0 Ve voltsAC Characteristics-Collector Circuit 1203 ic amps sess seo seo 2£03 =2 Teg = 2.5 ma rw 1603 veg volts Using these max and min values for the base current on the collect circuit load line, we find: At Max Input Voltage: Voge = 5 V, ig = 2.7MA At Min Input Voltage: Voge = 7 V, ig = 1.9MA Recall: At Q-point: Voz = 5.9 V, ig = 2.5maAC Characteristics-Collector Circuit 0.026 002 oor oor 0.005 oo = 2.5 ma ~s} 7203 ic amps eco se00 seo 2603 2603 1e03 oe-00 i 20 0.00008 0.000035 1.00003 0.000025 ‘00002 0.000015 0.00001 0.000008 ° 30BJT AC Analysis - Amplifier Gains From the values calculated from the base and collector circuits we can calculate the amplifier gains: - B=125 — Current gain = Ai, / Ai, = (2.7 — 1.9)m/ (24 -15) ws = .8/9*103 = 88.9 — Voltage gain = V,/V,;= AVog/ AV pg = (5—7)/ (.63 - .59) = -2/0.04 =- 50 — Voltage gain = V,/V,= AV cg / AV, =(5-7)/.4=-2/ 4=-5| BJT AC Analysis - Summary = Once we complete DC analysis, we analyze the circuit from an AC point of view. = AC analysis can be performed via a graphical processes a Find the maximum and minimum values of the input parameters (e.g., base current for a BUT) a Use the transistor characteristics to calculate the output parameters (e.g., collector current for a BUT). = Calculate the gains for the amplifier| The pnp Transistor = Basically, the pnp transistor is similar to the npn except the parameters have the opposite sign. a The collector and base currents flows out of the transistor; while the emitter current flows into the transistor a The base-emitter and collector-emitter voltages are negative = Otherwise the analysis is identical to the npn transistor.The PNP Transistor . Forward-biased Reverse-biased Yew Vac Current flow in a pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode.The pnp Transistor Cottector = Two junctions a Collector-Base and Emitter-Base bie = Biasing . retype a Vge Forward Biased Base 2 Vog Reverse Biased pore Emitter(a) (b) -—> Input £ circuit € Output circuit (c) | y, vy, cB, Cc Y We Wace Map 1 (a) Aschematic illustration of pnp BUT with 3 differently doped regions. (b) The pnp bipolar operated under normal and active conditions. (c) The CB configuration with input and output circuits identified. (d) The illustration of various current component under normal and active conditions.[ Forward-biased Reverse-biased i eo emote {t Ven Voc Current flow in an pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode.Two large-signal models for the pnp transistor operating in the active mode.